A novel population of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive neurones in the basal forebrain of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

Gene Profiling of Nucleus Basalis Tau Containing Neurons in Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy: A Chronic Effects of Neurotrauma Consortium Study

Military personnel and athletes exposed to traumatic brain injury may develop chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Brain pathology in CTE includes intracellular accumulation of abnormally phosphorylated tau proteins (p-tau), the main constituent of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Recently, we found that cholinergic basal forebrain (CBF) neurons within the nucleus basalis of Meynert (nbM), which provide the major cholinergic innervation to the cortex, display an increased number of NFTs across the pathological stages of CTE. However, molecular mechanisms underlying nbM neurodegeneration in the context of CTE pathology remain unknown. Here, we assessed the genetic signature of nbM neurons containing the p-tau pretangle maker pS422 from CTE subjects who came to autopsy and received a neuropathological CTE staging assessment (Stages II, III, and IV) using laser capture microdissection and custom-designed microarray analysis. Quantitative analysis revealed dysregulation of key genes in several gene ontology groups between CTE stages. Specifically, downregulation of the nicotinic cholinergic receptor subunit β-2 gene (CHRNB2), monoaminergic enzymes catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and dopa decarboxylase (DDC), chloride channels CLCN4 and CLCN5, scaffolding protein caveolin 1 (CAV1), cortical development/cytoskeleton element lissencephaly 1 (LIS1), and intracellular signaling cascade member adenylate cyclase 3 (ADCY3) was observed in pS422-immunreactive nbM neurons in CTE patients. By contrast, upregulation of calpain 2 (CAPN2) and microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) transcript levels was found in Stage IV CTE patients. These single-population data in vulnerable neurons indicate alterations in gene expression associated with neurotransmission, signal transduction, the cytoskeleton, cell survival/death signaling, and microtubule dynamics, suggesting novel molecular pathways to target for drug discovery in CTE.

Dopamine neuron systems in the brain: an update

The basic organization of the catecholamine-containing neuronal systems and their axonal projections in the brain was initially worked out using classical histofluorescence techniques during the 1960s and 1970s. The introduction of more versatile immunohistochemical methods, along with a range of highly sensitive tract-tracing techniques, has provided a progressively more detailed picture, making the dopamine system one of the best known, and most completely mapped, neurotransmitter systems in the brain. The purpose of the present review is to summarize our current knowledge of the diversity and neurochemical features of the nine dopamine-containing neuronal cell groups in the mammalian brain, their distinctive cellular properties, and their ability to regulate their dopaminergic transmitter machinery in response to altered functional demands and aging.

Tyrosine hydroxylase positive neurons and their contacts with vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-containing fibers in the hypothalamus of the diurnal murid rodent, Arvicanthis niloticus

Diurnal and nocturnal animals differ with respect to the timing of a host of behavioral and physiological events including those associated with neuroendocrine functions, but the neural bases of these differences are poorly understood. In nocturnal species, rhythms in tyrosine hydroxylase-containing (TH+) neurons in the hypothalamus appear to be responsible for rhythms in prolactin secretion. Here we investigated TH+ cells in a diurnal rodent (Arvicanthis niloticus, the unstriped Nile grass rat), and comparing them with those of a nocturnal rodent (Rattus norvegicus, Sprague-Dawley rat). We also examined relationships between TH+ cells and fibers containing vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) that are thought to originate from cells in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the site of the primary circadian clock in mammals. The distribution of TH+ neurons was very similar in the two species except for a population of cells in the basal forebrain that was only present in grass rats. Fibers containing VIP appeared to contact neuroendocrine TH+ cells in both species. These data suggest that, though there may be subtle species differences, temporal information is likely to be carried along the same direct pathways from the SCN to the TH+ neurons in day- and night-active species.

Lentivector-mediated delivery of GDNF protects complex motor functions relevant to human Parkinsonism in a rat lesion model

Although viral vector-mediated delivery of glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) to the brain has considerable potential as a neuroprotective strategy in Parkinson's disease (PD), its ability to protect complex motor functions relevant to the human condition has yet to be established. In this study, we used an operant task that assesses the selection, initiation and execution of lateralized nose-pokes in Lister Hooded rats to assess the efficacy with which complex behaviours are protected against neurotoxic lesions by prior injection of a lentiviral vector expressing GDNF. Unilateral injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) caused rats to attempt fewer trials and to make more procedural errors. Lesioned rats also developed a pronounced ipsilateral bias, with a corresponding drop in contralateral accuracy. They were also slower to react to contralateral stimuli and to execute movements bilaterally. Rats that were pre-treated 4 weeks prior to lesion surgery with an equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV) vector carrying GDNF [EIAV-GDNF, injected into the striatum and above the substantia nigra (SN)] performed significantly better on all of these parameters than control rats. In addition to the operant task, EIAV-GDNF successfully rescued contralateral impairments in the corridor, staircase, stepping and cylinder tasks, and prevented drug-induced rotational asymmetry. This study confirms that GDNF can protect against 6-OHDA-induced impairments in complex as well as simple behaviours, and reinforces the use of EIAV-based vectors for the treatment of PD.

The Corridor Task: A simple test of lateralised response selection sensitive to unilateral dopamine deafferentation and graft-derived dopamine replacement in the striatum

In this experiment, we report a novel drug-free behavioural test of lateralised neglect which is sensitive to unilateral dopamine-denervating lesions and subsequent graft-derived striatal dopamine replacement. For the task, white plastic lids containing sugar pellets were placed along the left and right sides of the floor of a long narrow corridor at regular intervals. Hungry female Sprague-Dawley rats were placed individually into the corridor where they were allowed to make up to 20 pellet retrievals. The number of retrievals each rat made from its left and right sides was counted. Complete mesencephalic or partial nigrostriatal lesions were induced by injection of 6-hydroxydopamine into the medial forebrain bundle or striatum, respectively. Both lesions induced a pronounced ipsilateral retrieval bias in the task. Five weeks after lesion surgery, half of the rats from each lesion group were given E14 ventral mesencephalic cell suspension transplants into the denervated striatum, and were then re-tested in the Corridor Task 5 and 10 weeks later. There was no amelioration of the side bias in rats with medial forebrain bundle lesions. In contrast, in nigrostriatal-lesioned rats, the graft significantly reduced the lesion-induced ipsilateral bias. We conclude that the Corridor Task is a sensitive test of lateralised sensorimotor response selection, and is suitable for assessing deficits and recovery associated with lesions and grafts within the nigrostriatal system.

Comparison of 6-hydroxydopamine-induced medial forebrain bundle and nigrostriatal terminal lesions in a lateralised nose-poking task in rats

The nigrostriatal degeneration underlying Parkinson's disease (PD) is commonly modeled in experimental animals by injection of the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Although a wide variety of simple behavioural screens exist to assess the impact of such dopamine lesions, more complex tasks that assess multiple parameters of an animal's performance may provide a more sensitive measure of the resulting functional impairment. This study assessed the performance of two unilateral lesion models of PD in a lateralised nose-poking task in the nine-hole box test apparatus. This task assesses the accuracy and speed of movements to either side of a rats' head, as well as a number of errors of performance. Rats with complete unilateral dopamine depletion (induced by injection of 6-OHDA into the medial forebrain bundle (MFB)) attempted fewer trials and committed more procedural errors than controls. They developed a marked ipsilateral responding bias, with a reduced accuracy for contralateral stimuli. They were also slower to react to contralateral stimuli and to complete movements bilaterally. Rats with unilateral nigrostriatal terminal lesions (induced by multiple injections of 6-OHDA in the striatum) developed a similar pattern of deficits, but they were significantly less impaired and spontaneously recovered to pre-operative levels by 4 months post-lesion. This experiment confirms that the lateralised nose-poking task may be a powerful tool for assessment of the nature of deficit and recovery in rats with complete but not partial unilateral dopamine lesions.

Deficits in a lateralized associative learning task in dopamine-depleted rats with functional recovery by dopamine-rich transplants

Experimental therapies for Parkinson's disease (PD) are commonly validated in unilateral animal models using simple tests of motor asymmetry such as rotation, stepping and cylinder tests. However, the human disorder is considerably more complex than this, and alternative tests that permit a more complete evaluation of the efficacy and mechanism of action of novel treatments are needed. In this study, an operant task that assesses the selection, initiation and execution of lateralized movements was used to investigate the effects of embryonic dopamine cell transplants in the unilateral medial forebrain bundle (MFB) lesion model of PD. Lesioned Lister Hooded rats had a pronounced contralateral selection and initiation deficit, as well as an impairment in execution of movements bilaterally. They also attempted fewer trials and made more procedural errors than unlesioned rats. Transplantation of fetal dopaminergic neurons to the striatum led to a marked improvement in specific parameters and a more modest improvement in others. The graft improved the contralateral selection deficit and the execution of movements bilaterally, but had no effect on the initiation of contralateral movements. Transplanted rats also attempted more trials and made fewer errors. In contrast, the more commonly used stepping and cylinder tests revealed no functional effect of the graft. This data suggests that this operant task may be a powerful tool for validating and elucidating the mechanism of action of experimental brain repair therapies prior to entering the clinic.

Cortical and striatal expression of tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA in neonatal and adult mice

1. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying regulation of the dopamine (DA) phenotype during development and in adult animals was a major focus of many of the students and postdoctoral fellows in the Laboratory of Dr Donald Reis. In one series of studies, expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the first enzyme in the DA biosynthetic pathway, was induced in primary cultures prepared from the cortical anlage of embryonic day 13 (E13)-E17 rat embryos. On the basis of these data, the current studies investigated whether under appropriate conditions TH expression might occur in forebrain regions that do not normally contain DA neurons. 2. A transgenic mouse strain harboring a 9-kb TH promoter/EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein) reporter construct was analyzed as adults for coexpression of the fluorescent reporter and the endogenous gene, the latter using a sensitive nonradioactive in situ hybridization procedure. The latter procedure was also used to determine the development of neonatal cortical endogenous TH expression. 3. Cortical and striatal cells containing TH mRNA were observed at postnatal day 5 (P5), but not P2, increased in number at P7 and were found in adults. Many cells in the cortex and striatum coexpressed TH mRNA and EGFP, but TH protein was not detected in these brain regions indicating independent transcriptional and translational regulation of TH expression. Overlapping expression of the two transcriptional indicators and TH protein in olfactory bulb occurred only in those DA neurons that receive afferent stimulation from receptor cells. 4. These findings suggest that partial DAergic differentiation may occur in some cortical and striatal cells, but that full expression of the phenotype requires synaptic activation or activity-dependent release of an as-yet unidentified factor(s).

Neural cells from primary human striatal xenografts migrate extensively in the adult rat CNS

Primary neural cells do not appear to migrate significantly following transplantation into the adult rodent CNS, which is in contrast to expanded neural precursor cells where migration is well-documented. However, most transplant studies of primary neural tissue have been performed in an allograft situation in which it is difficult to identify graft-derived cells. We have, therefore, used a xenograft paradigm to investigate the potential for cells derived from grafts of primary human fetal striatal tissue (gestational age of 66-72 days) to migrate following intrastriatal transplantation in an athymic adult rat model of Huntington's disease. The use of an antibody specific to human nuclear antigen enabled clear identification of graft-derived cells within the host brain, and specific neural phenotypes were determined using human-specific tau for neurons, glial fibrillary acidic protein for mature astrocytes and Ki67 for proliferative cells. At 6 weeks, the graft mass was very dense with a high proliferative index, few cells had migrated away from the graft, and the cells that had differentiated both within and away from the graft were mainly neurons. In contrast, at 6 months, the graft core was dispersed significantly more and a large number of graft-derived cells had migrated throughout the brain as far rostral as the olfactory bulb and as caudal as the substantia nigra. Cells had differentiated into both neurons and astrocytes and the level of proliferation was significantly lower within the graft. These results demonstrate that primary neural xenografts contain proliferative cells that possess the ability to migrate and differentiate into both neurons and astrocytes, and suggest that these cells could contribute to normal graft function. This property may be a consequence of the xenograft situation and could potentially be exploited to provide the opportunity to target regions of distant pathology in neurodegenerative diseases using xenotransplantation of embryonic neural tissue.

Dopaminergic innervation of human basal ganglia

This paper summarises the results of some of our recent tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunohistochemical studies of the dopaminergic innervation of the human basal ganglia. It also reports new findings on the presence of TH-immunoreactive (ir) neurons in the striatum. Our data show the existence of nigrostriatal TH-ir axons that provide collaterals arborizing in the globus pallidus and subthalamic nucleus. These thin and varicose collaterals emerge from thick and smooth axons that course along the main output pathways of the basal ganglia, including the ansa lenticularis, the lenticular fasciculus and Wilson's pencils. We postulate that this extrastriatal innervation, which allows nigral dopaminergic neurons to directly affect the pallidum and subthalamic nucleus, plays a critical role in the functional organisation of human basal ganglia. The TH-ir fibres that reach the striatum arborize according to a highly heterogeneous pattern. At rostral striatal levels, numerous small TH-poor zones embedded in a TH-rich matrix correspond to calbindin-poor striosomes and calbindin-rich extrastriosomal matrix, respectively. At caudal striatal levels, in contrast, striosomes display a TH immunostaining that is more intense than that of the matrix. A significant number of small, oval, aspiny TH-ir neurons scattered throughout the rostrocaudal extent of the caudate nucleus and putamen, together with a few larger, multipolar, spiny TH-ir neurons lying principally within the ventral portion of the putamen, were disclosed in human. This potential source of intrinsic striatal dopamine might play an important role in the functional organisation of the human striatum, particularly in case of Parkinson's disease.

Multiple output pathways of the basal forebrain: organization, chemical heterogeneity, and roles in vigilance

Studies over the last decade have shown that the basal forebrain (BF) consists of more than its cholinergic neurons. The BF also contains non-cholinergic neurons, including gamma-aminobutyric acid-ergic neurons which co-distribute and co-project with the cholinergic neurons. Both types of neuron project, in variable proportions, to the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, amygdala, and olfactory bulb, whereas descending projections to the posterior hypothalamus and brainstem nuclei are predominantly non-cholinergic. Some of the cholinergic and non-cholinergic projection neurons contain neuropeptides such as galanin, nitric oxide synthase, and possibly glutamate. To understand better the function of the BF, the organization of the multiple ascending and descending projections of BF neurons is reviewed along with their neurochemical heterogeneity, and possible functions of individual pathways are discussed. It is proposed that BF neurons belong to multiple systems with distinct cognitive, motivational, emotional, motor, and regulatory functions, and that through these pathways, the BF plays a role in controlling both cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of vigilance.

Cyto- and chemoarchitecture of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

The cyto- and chemoarchitecture of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCN) was investigated in the lower primate, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). A large population of magnocellular, hyperchromic, and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-positive neurons was detected in the marmoset basal forebrain. The distribution of these neurons was similar to those in higher primates. Thus, ChAT-positive neurons were observed in the medial septum (Ch2), the vertical (Ch2) and horizontal (Ch3) limbs of the diagonal band of Broca, and the nucleus basalis of Meynert (Ch4). The Ch4 complex was relatively well differentiated and displayed distinct sectors. We detected anterior (Ch4a, with a medial and a lateral subdivision), intermediate (Ch4i, with a dorsal and a ventral subdivision), and posterior (Ch4p) sectors in the marmoset Ch4. The Ch4i was relatively small while the Ch4p was large. Similar to the rodent, the marmoset Ch1 extended quite a distance posteriorly, and the Ch4p displayed a major interstitial component distributed within the globus pallidus, its medullary laminae, and the internal capsule. Virtually all of the marmoset BFCN displayed acetylcholinesterase activity, and low affinity (p75(NTR)) and high affinity (Trk) neurotrophin receptor immunoreactivity. A majority contained immunoreactivity for calbindin-D(28K) and calretinin. Many of the Ch4 neurons also displayed tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity. The BFCN lacked galanin immunoreactivity, but were innervated by galanin-positive fibers. None of the marmoset BFCN were NADPH-d-positive. Thus, the BFCN display major anatomical and biochemical differences in the marmoset when compared with higher primates. The marmoset BFCN also display many characteristics common to other primates. This fact, combined with the relatively short life span of the marmoset, indicates that this species may be ideal for studies of age-related changes in the BFCN.

Effects of dopamine depletion of the dorsal striatum and further interaction with subthalamic nucleus lesions in an attentional task in the rat

The present study investigated the effects of 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the dorsal striatum on a five choice serial reaction time task which assesses visual sustained and divided attention. Striatal dopamine loss by itself produced no deficits in accuracy on the standard form of the task, but lengthened response latencies and increased omissions and perseverative behaviour. Reducing the temporal predictability of the visual event led to impaired accuracy, contrasting with previously published effects of ventral striatal dopamine depletion. To further investigate the interactions between dopaminergic and glutamatergic systems within the basal ganglia, we have tested the effects of 6-hydroxydopamine lesions in animals bearing subthalamic nucleus lesions. Previous evidence [C. Baunez and T. W. Robbins, (1997) Eur. J. Neurosci. 9, 2086-2099] has revealed multiple deficits after bilateral lesions of the subthalamic nucleus. The present study replicated these effects. In combination with subthalamic nucleus lesions, striatal dopamine loss antagonised the increase in premature responding but did not counteract any of the other impairments. These results show the involvement of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway in motor attention and arousal. Furthermore, they underline the independence of subthalamic nucleus lesion-induced effects from dopaminergic systems.

Tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive elements in the human globus pallidus and subthalamic nucleus

In contrast to the well-established dopaminergic innervation of the neostriatum, the existence of dopaminergic innervation of the subthalamic nucleus and globus pallidus is controversial. In the present study, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-immunoreactive elements were observed by light microscopy after antigen retrieval in the subthalamic nucleus and in the internal and external segments of the globus pallidus in postmortem human brain. Small islands of apparent neostriatal tissue with abundant arborization of fine, TH-immunoreactive axons in the vicinity of calbindin-positive small neurons resembling neostriatal medium spiny neurons were present in the external segment of the globus pallidus. Large numbers of medium-large, TH-immunoreactive axons were observed passing above and through the subthalamic nucleus and through both pallidal segments; these are presumed to be axons of passage on their way to the neostriatum. In addition, fine, TH-immunoreactive axons with meandering courses, occasional branches, and irregular outlines, morphologically suggestive of terminal axon arborizations with varicosities, were seen in both pallidal segments, including the ventral pallidum, and the subthalamic nucleus, consistent with a catecholaminergic (probably dopaminergic) innervation of these nuclei. This finding suggests that, in Parkinson's disease and in animal models of this disorder, loss of dopaminergic innervation might contribute to abnormal neuronal activation in these three nuclei.

A glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor-secreting clone of the Schwann cell line SCTM41 enhances survival and fiber outgrowth from embryonic nigral neurons grafted to the striatum and to the lesioned substantia nigra

We have developed a novel Schwann cell line, SCTM41, derived from postnatal sciatic nerve cultures and have stably transfected a clone with a rat glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) construct. Coculture with this GDNF-secreting clone enhances in vitro survival and fiber growth of embryonic dopaminergic neurons. In the rat unilateral 6-OHDA lesion model of Parkinson's disease, we have therefore made cografts of these cells with embryonic day 14 ventral mesencephalic grafts and assayed for effects on dopaminergic cell survival and process outgrowth. We show that cografts of GDNF-secreting Schwann cell lines improve the survival of intrastriatal embryonic dopaminergic neuronal grafts and improve neurite outgrowth into the host neuropil but have no additional effect on amphetamine-induced rotation. We next looked to see whether bridge grafts of GDNF-secreting SCTM41 cells would promote the growth of axons to their striatal targets from dopaminergic neurons implanted orthotopically into the 6-OHDA-lesioned substantia nigra. We show that such bridge grafts increase the survival of implanted embryonic dopaminergic neurons and promote the growth of axons through the grafts to the striatum.

Behavioral assessment of the ability of intracerebral embryonic neural tissue grafts to ameliorate the effects of brain damage in marmosets

The transplantation of neuronal tissue into the brains of patients with Parkinson's disease is already being assessed as an experimental treatment for the symptoms of this disease, and the possibility of using similar graft tissue to ameliorate the symptoms of other neurodegenerative diseases is being considered. In this context, a small number of transplant experiments have been carried out in monkeys with lesions of the central dopamine and cholinergic systems. These experiments make it possible to determine the optimum methods of transplantation in an animal whose brain is structurally more closely related to the human than that of the rat and to assess the behavioral consequences of transplantation on symptoms that either resemble very closely the symptoms seen in patients, or are of a complex cognitive nature and are therefore more difficult to measure in the rat. It is intended that these experiments will contribute to the development of better treatments for the neurodegenerative diseases, either by the use of transplantation as a clinical treatment, or by contributing to a better understanding of the mechanisms that normally maintain neuronal function and that fail in these diseases.

Tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA-containing neurons in the medial amygdaloid nucleus and the reticular nucleus of the thalamus in the Syrian hamster

To confirm previous immunocytochemical findings in colchicine-treated Syrian hamsters, in situ hybridization was used to investigate the distribution of TH mRNA-containing cells in the medial amygdaloid nucleus (Me) and the thalamic reticular nucleus (Rt) of untreated hamsters. TH mRNA-producing neurons were observed in anterior and posterior Me and throughout Rt, similar to the distribution of TH-immunostained cells in these areas of animals receiving colchicine. These data confirm that TH is normally produced in amygdaloid and thalamic cell groups which lie outside the classical catecholamine systems.