State-of-the-art on use of insects as animal feed

Performance of lambari-do-rabo-amarelo Astyanax bimaculatus (Linnaeus, 1758) fed diets based on adult black soldier fly meal: analysis of its effectiveness as a substitute for fish meal

This study evaluated the performance of the lambari-do-rabo-amarelo Astyanax bimaculatus fed diets containing BSF adult fly meal, replacing fishmeal. Two hundred juveniles were distributed in 20 tanks, with five levels of substitution (0%, 12.5%, 25%, 37.5%, and 50%) for 45 days. The diets were isoproteic and isoenergetic, provided to the animals three times a day. The results showed that the increased substitution impaired the fish's performance, with the highest weight gain in the treatment without substitution (0%). Feed conversion, protein efficiency, and energy efficiency decreased due to the high chitin content of the adult fly. It is concluded that BSF fly meal is not advantageous for the lambari-do-rabo-amarelo.

Hermetia illucens-Derived Chitosan: A Promising Immunomodulatory Agent for Applications in Biomedical Fields

Chitosan, renowned for its important biological properties, is a valuable pharmaceutical excipient for different therapeutic approaches. Currently, the demand for the biopolymer on the market is growing, and, for this reason, it is important to biologically characterize the biopolymer produced from an alternative source to crustaceans, specifically the bioconverter insect Hermetia illucens. In this work, insect chitosan, yielded via heterogeneous and homogeneous deacetylation from larvae, pupal exuviae, and adults, was studied as an immunomodulatory agent. The inflammatory response of immortalized human keratinocyte cells was induced by Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium lipopolysaccharide. After that, the ability of the biopolymer to reduce the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, IL-1α, and TNF-α was tested after 6 and 24 h of treatment. Insect chitosan samples effectively downregulated cytokine expression, with improved activity obtained from heterogeneous chitosan treatments.

The Role of Black Soldier Fly Larvae in Optimizing Performance and Amino Acid Composition in Thai Native Chicken

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) inclusion on the performance, economic return, carcass traits, meat quality, amino acid profile, and purine content in the breast meat of Thai native chickens (TNCs) (Pradu Hang Dam Mor Kor 55: PD) from 10 to 70 days of age. A total of 216 ten-day-old PD chickens (108 males and 108 females) were randomly assigned to three dietary treatments with four replicates per treatment (18 birds per replicate, with a 1:1 male-to-female ratio). The treatments included (T1) control diet with soybean meal as the main protein source, (T2) 10% BSFL meal replacing soybean meal, and (T3) 12% BSFL meal replacing soybean meal. The results showed that BSFL inclusion had no significant effect on overall growth performance (p > 0.05), but it reduced abdominal fat and feed cost per gain while improving economic returns (p < 0.05). Additionally, BSFL increased some breast meat amino acid profiles, such as serine, glutamic acid, threonine, arginine, and lysine (p < 0.05), and increased total purine content (p < 0.05), although the values were still within the safe limit for human consumption. These results suggest that BSFL can be used as a sustainable alternative protein source in Thai native chicken diets without compromising product performance or quality.

Evaluation of various diets for improved growth, reproductive and nutritional value of the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor L

Breeders are under growing pressure to enhance the production of farmed insects and shorten their life cycles due to the rising demand for edible insects. Feed for yellow mealworm was developed using five feed sources viz., faba bean flour, chickpea flour, wheat bran, wheat germ and Yeast, alone and in combination and resulting in 19 diet treatments. An investigation was carried out to determine the effects of diet combinations on the development, weight, and growth of Tenebrio molitor larvae, pupae, and adults. Results indicate that the larvae fed on diet 18 gained the most length and weight, measuring18.45 mm and 184.62 mg, respectively. The maximum length and weight, measuring 23.30 mm and 146.00 mg on diets 19 and 15 in pupae and 14.45 mm and 119.27 mg on diets 11 and 17 in adults, respectively. The shortest developmental durations were 61.00 and 6.36 days for larvae and pupae on diet 3. The shortest adult longevity was 7.00 days on diet 16. The highest fecundity rate was significance different (43.82 eggs/female) fed on diet 8 compared to the other diets. The highest percentage of adult emergence was 76.71% on diet 9. The shortest total developmental period was 88.01 days in diet 4. The maximum growth index was 2.61 in diets 6. The highest percent of protein, carbohydrate and fat contents of T. molitor were 49.46, 74.83 and 39.91% in larvae fed on diets 5, 10 and 3. The findings showed that wheat germ is an appropriate diet to enhance yellow mealworm production either on its own or in combination with other diets.

Chitin Analysis in Insect-Based Feed Ingredients and Mixed Feed: Development of a Cost-Effective and Practical Method

Insects are used as an alternative sustainable, protein-rich ingredient in fish, pet, pig and poultry diets. The significant difference between insect meals and common protein sources is the content of chitin. The nitrogen contained in chitin, which makes up 6.89% of the chitin mass, is detected as crude protein in the analysis and, therefore, deludes the crude protein content in a higher range. In this work, we developed a chitin analysis method that does not require expensive and specialized equipment within insect production and processing industries. The method is based on classical chemical methods such as crude fibre and nitrogen content, making it easily implementable within existing feed analysis. In the process of method validation, a recovery rate of over 95% for chitin in the presence of protein and a standard deviation of < 5% at concentrations as low as 2% was determined. Furthermore, determining chitin at a higher standard deviation of > 10% at concentrations as low as 2% is possible. The method was used to determine the chitin content in various products derived from insect breeding and processing. The chitin content was determined in four insect species (Hermetia Illucens; Tenebrio molitor; Acheta domesticus; Bombyx mori) and different developmental stages of the yellow mealworm (T. molitor), including larvae, pupae and beetles, as well as in commercial pet food. These results also allow for an estimation of the insect protein content, provided that the raw material is known.

Effects of inclusion of black soldier fly larvae on growth performance, relative organ weight, and meat quality of broiler chickens

The objective of this experiment was to investigates effects of inclusion of black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) on growth performance, relative organ weight, and meat quality of broiler chickens. A total of 180 1-d-old broiler chickens were randomly allotted to 1 of 3 dietary treatments with 5 replicates. Each replicate consisted of 12 birds. Experimental diets were formulated to contain full-fat BSFL at inclusion levels of 0 %, 1 %, and 2 %. These diets were provided on an ad libitum basis for 5 wk. Results indicated that birds fed diet containing 1 % BSFL had greater (P < 0.05) feed efficiency than those fed diets containing 2 % BSFL. However, BW gain and feed intake of broiler chickens were not affected by increasing inclusion levels of BSFL in diets. Increasing inclusion levels of BSFL in diets showed a quadratic relationship (P < 0.05) with relative thymus weight. For meat color, values for redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) were decreased (linear, P < 0.05) as BSFL inclusion level of diets increased. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substance decreased (quadratic, P < 0.05) with increasing inclusion levels of BSFL in diets. Melanin concentrations in breast meat and liver characteristics were not affected by increasing inclusion levels of BSFL in diets. Increasing concentrations of BSFL in diets increased myristic acid concentrations (linear, P < 0.01) and eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations (linear, P < 0.05) in breast meat. These results suggest that dietary supplementation of BSFL has positive effects on immune organ weight, breast meat quality, and fatty acid compositions in breast meat. Therefore, BSFL can be used as a feed ingredient for broiler chickens. Also, we suggest that dietary supplementation of 1 % BSFL improves the performance and health of broiler chickens.

Impact of mediterranean fruit fly rearing residues and biological supplementation on performance of gimmizah chicks

For a transformation of the global food system towards sustainability, circular approaches and nutrient-rich side-stream valorization are mandatory. Moreover, affordable and sustainable alternatives to corn, soy, and fish meal are needed in poultry production. Recently, insects and their derived products have gained research interest as alternative sources of conventional feed ingredients in poultry nutrition. The Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly; Ceratitis capitata) production industry using sterile insect technology amasses thousands tonnes of rearing residues annually. This study is the first to shed light on the potential use of medfly rearing residues (MFRR), as a partial replacement for corn and soybean in Gimmizah chicks' diets, with or without biological supplementation (BS). It evaluates their effects on growth, carcass characteristics, blood indices, serum biochemical and histological changes in internal organs. A 7-week trial was conducted using 240, 15-day-old Gimmizah chicks, which were randomly divided into four groups (6 replicates, 10 birds each): the first group (T1) was fed a corn-soybean control diet, the 2nd group (T2) fed the control diet enriched with 1 ml BS/kg diet. The 3rdgroup (T3) received the control diet after replacing 10 % of corn and soybean with MFRR meal, while the 4th group (T4) fed the 10 % replacement by MFRR combined with 1 ml of BS. All groups received isoenergetic and isoprotienic diets with free access to feed and water for 49 days trial period. Compared to the control, both BS and MFRR inclusion with or without BS (T4 and T3, respectively) positively improved body weight, feed consumption, feed conversion, performance index and carcass yield. Blood analysis showed increased red blood cells, hemoglobin, packed cell volume, total protein, albumin, globulins, triglycerides, cholesterol, thyroxine hormone, uric acid and creatinine, with no adverse histological alteration in the bursa or intestine. In conclusion, the study suggests that MFRR can effectively replace 10 % of traditional feed ingredients, with or without BS, enhancing chicks' performance and health. Further future studies are recommended for broader application of MFRR in poultry nutrition.

Analysis, Properties, and Applications of Insect-Derived Chitosan: A Sustainable Path to Functional Polysaccharide Materials

Chitin and its deacetylated derivative, chitosan, are biopolymers of significant interest due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and wide-ranging applications in biomedical, environmental, and industrial fields. The exploitation of crustaceans as the traditional source of chitosan raises concerns about overfishing and ecological sustainability. Modern insect farming, in contrast, offers advantages such as a circular insect-based economy leading to a reduced carbon footprint. This review explores the potential of insect-derived chitosan as an alternative, emphasizing its environmental benefits during production, functional properties, and potential applications. Several aspects of key analytical techniques for chitin and chitosan characterization, including photometric, chromatographic, and spectroscopic methods, are also discussed. The review underscores the versatility of insect-derived chitosan in biomedical applications, including wound healing and drug delivery, as well as its potential in agriculture, packaging, and wastewater treatment.

Pupal Development and Adult Acclimation Temperatures Influence the Cold and Heat Tolerance in Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

Temperature plays a crucial role in shaping the biology of insects. Developmental temperature and acclimation temperatures influence their ability to cope with extreme thermal conditions. This study investigates the effects of developmental temperatures during the pupal stage and adult acclimation temperatures on the thermal tolerance of Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus, 1758. We investigated cold tolerance based on chill-coma recovery time and heat tolerance based on heat knockdown time. Beetles were reared at five developmental temperatures (16, 21, 25, 30 and 35 °C) and later exposed to corresponding adult acclimation temperatures. From developmental temperatures of 21 and 30 °C, the group of beetles was subjected to different temperatures to induce adult acclimation at a different temperature than the developmental temperature. In cold-tolerance tests, beetles reared at lower temperatures showed better recovery from chill coma, while beetles reared at higher temperatures showed greater resistance to heat shock. Adult beetles acclimated to lower temperatures showed better cold tolerance, while those acclimated to higher temperatures performed better in the heat tolerance test. Interestingly, the developmental temperatures during the pupal stage also contributed to resistance, particularly in the heat-tolerance test. However, pupal stage temperatures had no effect on cold-shock resistance, as indicated by chill-coma recovery time. The results could provide insights into the rearing of T. molitor.

Partial Replacement of Soyabean Meal with Defatted Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens L.) Larvae Meal Influences Blood Biochemistry and Modulate Oxidative Stress, but Not Growth Performance of Pigs

The production of soybean meal (SBM) can be linked to various issues related to the environment (e.g., deforestation, water waste, and transportation costs), and reducing its inclusion in pig diets by using alternative protein sources, such as insect meal, is an important challenge for nutritionists. This study aimed to compare the productive performance, dietary digestible energy (DE), nutrient digestibility, and some blood indices of growing Danube White pigs fed graded levels of Black Soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae meal (BSFLM) at 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 g/kg of diets, in replacement of SBM for 38 days, from 119 to 157 d old. Each diet was fed to eight pigs in individual boxes following randomization. Pigs grew according to breeders' recommendations and did not have any clinical health problems. Replacing SBM did not change (p > 0.05) the pigs' growth performance and DE, as only dietary fat digestibility increased in a linear fashion (p < 0.001), possibly due to the high BSFLM, i.e., the high-fat inclusion rate. There was a simultaneous rise in some oxidative damage indicators and an increase in antioxidant status, thus suggesting that further research involving longer feeding periods is needed to identify a potential time sequence of events. Overall, BSFLM is a promising ingredient in pig nutrition.

Defatted black soldier fly larvae meal as a substitute of soybean meal in dairy cow diets

The replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with insect meal, e.g. black soldier fly larvae meal (BSFLM), as an alternative protein source in livestock feed is gaining traction globally. To date, no in vivo studies have been conducted to test the impact of BSFLM on the milk production of dairy cows. This study quantified the effects of replacing SBM with defatted black soldier fly larvae meal (DBSFLM) in diets of lactating dairy cows on feed intake, milk production and composition, apparent total-tract digestibility, feed- and nitrogen use efficiency. Twelve lactating Holstein-Friesian cows were used in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design (18 d per period) with 3 protein treatments: a diet containing SBM as the main protein source (control, SBM); a diet with a 50: 50 mixture of SBM and DBSFLM (SBM: DBSFLM, 50: 50); and a diet with DBSFLM (DBSFLM). Animals were blocked per Latin square based on milk yield (MY), and the amount of concentrate in the diets was adjusted for MY. Diets were provided as a total mixed ration and offered ad libitum. Our results showed no treatment effects (P > 0.05) on milk yield and composition. DM and organic matter (OM) intake were significantly higher (P ≤ 0.003) for cows fed SBM (17.6 and 16.2 kg/d, respectively) compared with DBSFLM (16.6 and 15.1 kg/d, respectively), while DM and OM intake of SBM: DBSFLM (17.5 and 16.0 kg/d, respectively) did not differ from SBM but were higher compared with DBSFLM. CP intake was significantly higher (P = 0.003) for cows fed SBM (2.68 kg/d) compared with both DBSFLM (2.50 kg/d) and SBM: DBSFLM (2.54 kg/d), while CP intake for SBM: DBSFLM did not differ from DBSFLM. Apparent total-tract digestibility of NDF and ADF were significantly lower (P ≤ 0.024) for cows fed SBM (46.7 and 45.6%, respectively) compared with DBSFLM (54.0 and 52.0%, respectively), with SBM: DBSFLM (51.0 and 49.7%, respectively) not differing from either diet. No treatment effects were observed for DM, OM, CP and ether extract digestibility, and feed and nitrogen use efficiency. Incorporating DBSFLM into dairy cow diets did not significantly compromise the milk yield and composition, suggesting its potential to reduce the reliance on SBM and contribute to circular food systems.

Upcycling nutrients from poultry slaughterhouse solid waste into value-added bioproducts using black soldier fly larvae cultivation

The objective of this work was to test the hypothesis that black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) can be grown successfully on dissolved air flotation solids from poultry slaughterhouses by blending it with food waste. Dissolved air floatation (DAF) solids generated from poultry slaughterhouse wastewaters have high water content (>70%) and the solids are rich in fats (50-60%) and proteins (20-30%) on a dry weight basis. BSFL bioconversion of fat-rich wastes has been a challenge in the past and, in the current work, we have tested the effects of blending DAF solids with post-consumer food waste at different substrate ratios (1:0, 1:0.33, 1:1, 1:3, 0:1). The results indicate that BSFL conversion of DAF solids alone results in low bioconversion efficiency (BCE) (2.6%), substrate reduction (SR) (47.0%), biomass yield (BY) (10.4%), biomass gain (BG) (7.9 g) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) (9.8). However, BSFL reared on food waste and DAF solids at a ratio of 1:1 resulted in high BCE of 28.1%, SR of 82.7%, BY of 36.7%, BG of 58.8 g and a FCR of 2.7 which was better than BSFL growth on food waste alone. This suggests that DAF solids, despite their high fat content, may provide critical nutrients to BSFL. For example, BSFL accumulated higher levels of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids when DAF solids were incorporated into their diet. The results of this study enable a new valorization pathway for poultry DAF solids which are currently land-applied and are a nuisance to surrounding population centers.

Edible insects as functional foods: bioactive compounds, health benefits, safety concerns, allergenicity, and regulatory considerations

The growing demand for sustainable and nutrient-rich food sources has positioned edible insects as a viable alternative to traditional animal-based proteins. This review explores the bioactive properties and food safety considerations of edible insects, emphasizing their potential health benefits and the challenges associated with their widespread consumption. Research has identified bioactive compounds in insects with antioxidant, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, cardioprotective, and digestive health-promoting properties, highlighting their potential as functional foods for preventing or managing chronic diseases such as cardiovascular conditions and inflammatory disorders. Additionally, this review examines findings related to contaminants in edible insects, including heavy metals, microbial pathogens, and allergens, which could pose health risks. Certain insect species have shown accumulation of heavy metals, such as cadmium and lead, depending on their diet and environment. Moreover, microbial contamination, including bacteria, fungi, and parasites, can occur if farming and processing conditions are not properly controlled. Furthermore, insect proteins exhibit cross-reactivity with allergens found in crustaceans and dust mites, raising concerns for individuals with food allergies. For edible insects to be successfully integrated into global food systems, further technological advancements, regulatory oversight, and consumer acceptance strategies must be implemented. Addressing these challenges will enable edible insects to become a key component of sustainable food systems, contributing to global nutrition, environmental sustainability, and human health.

Review: Insects as a novel feed ingredient: processing technologies, quality and safety considerations

The current food system is placing significant strain on limited available resources. Novel protein sources have been suggested as a potential solution for ensuring further growth without compromising the natural balance of the planet. In this direction, edible insects appear to be crucial players. Consumers may not always prefer the direct use of insects as human food, indicating that the indirect use of insects as animal feed might be more suitable. Insects are characterised by high nutritional value and similar digestibility compared to more traditional feed such as soybean meal and fishmeal. However, effective introduction of edible insects in animal diets requires one or more processing operations. Processing is paramount for ensuring high microbiological safety while improving the quality, digestibility and palatability of the insect. Additionally, feed processing could allow a combination of insect-based ingredients with other traditional feed ingredients, obtaining a uniform and stable mixture, which can easily and conveniently be provided to the farmed animals. In this review, an overview of the most common processing methods (blanching, grinding, drying, mixing, extrusion) applied to edible insects with the aim of delivering high-quality insect-based feed is presented. Each processing step is carefully evaluated, the pros and cons of each operation are considered and important recommendations are provided. Barriers and opportunities for advancing the use of insects within the feed sector are finally illustrated. A strong emphasis is placed on the need of evaluating the effect of any processing step on the quality and safety of insect-derived products, particularly considering the possibility of replacing traditional feed ingredients with insect-derived materials.

The Addition of Hermetia illucens to Feed: Influence on Nutritional Composition, Protein Digestion Characteristics, and Antioxidant Activity of Acheta domesticus

As sales have increased in recent years, enhancing production processes and quality has emerged as a significant challenge for the cricket industry. In this study, we investigated the impact of supplementing feed with black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) on the yield, nutritional characteristics, and protein digestibility of Acheta domesticus. In addition, the bioactivity of house cricket proteins was compared. The results demonstrated that incorporating BSFL into feed improved the yield and nutritional characteristics of house cricket, such as crude protein levels and total phenolic content. Alterations in amino acid and fatty acid profiles also enhanced their nutritional value. In addition, 5% BSFL and 10% BSFL were more readily digested, and the protein hydrolysate of the groups fed BSFL demonstrated stronger antioxidant activity. The findings of this study can offer valuable insights into house cricket farming, protein processing, and the development of new food products.

Use of an In Vitro Digestibility Approach to Assess Bombyx mori and Camelina sativa as Alternative Feed Ingredients for Poultry Species

The present study investigated the in vitro digestibility of diets for broiler chickens (Ross308) and broiler and laying Japanese quails (Coturnix japonica). The diets contained unconventional feedstuffs such as silkworm (Bombyx mori) meal (SWM) and meals obtained from different Camelina sativa lines (Pearl and Alan, characterized by reduced linoleic acid and glucosinolates content, respectively). An in vitro technique was tested in order to assess its potential for replacing in vivo studies. To test this, the digestive tracts of fifty broiler chickens and four hundred Japanese quails were sampled to extract digestive enzymes to be used for in vitro digestibility assessments, including dry matter digestibility (DMd), organic matter digestibility (OMd), and crude protein digestibility (CPd). Diets including SWM exhibited comparable digestibility values to those of Control diet for broiler chickens, highlighting its potential as a valuable protein source in poultry nutrition. The study also found strong correlations between DMd and OMd (p < 0.01), indicating a logical relationship in nutrient breakdown. A 5% or 10% inclusion of the two camelina lines in the diet for broiler quails did not significantly alter the digestibility parameters (p ≥ 0.05), whereas in laying quails, diets with a 15% inclusion level of camelina resulted in a significant difference in digestibility (p < 0.05). Specifically, oil diets provided the best outcomes, while the diet Pearl Spring 15 showed the lowest DMd, CPd, and OMd (p < 0.05). Overall, results from the present study indicate that the tested alternative feedstuffs (SWM and camelina) have a good potential for poultry feed formulations. In addition, the tested in vitro technique was shown to be more suitable to predict the digestibility of single feedstuffs (i.e., SWM) rather than complete diets, which is consistent with the existing literature. For this reason, this in vitro technique is not adequate to replace in vivo digestibility experiments.

Insects as Sustainable Feed: Enhancing Animal Nutrition and Reducing Livestock Environmental Impression

Insects are emerging as a promising alternative source in animal nutrition, offering high protein content and a low environmental impression compared to traditional feed sources. This abstract explores the potential role of insects in reducing the environmental impact of livestock production. Insects such as black soldier fly larvae, mealworms, and crickets are rich in essential nutrients, including proteins, amino acids, fatty acids and so on. They can be efficiently farmed on organic waste streams, contributing to resource efficiency and waste lessening. Additionally, insect farming needs a small quantity of water, less land, and emits fewer greenhouse gases than conventional animal feed production. Despite these benefits, several challenges must be addressed to realize their potential, including regulatory approval, consumer acceptance, production scalability, and ensuring consistent nutritional quality. By overcoming these challenges through research, innovation, and policy support, insects can be integrated into mainstream animal feed systems, significantly reducing the environmental impact of livestock farming and contributing to a more sustainable agricultural future.

Affordability of healthy and water-saving dietary patterns in The Gambia

Dietary modification has the potential to improve nutritional status and reduce environmental impacts of the food system. However, for many countries, the optimal composition of locally contextualized healthy and sustainable diets is unknown. The Gambia is vulnerable to climate-change-induced future water scarcity which may affect crop yields and the ability to supply healthy diets. This study identifies potential shifts in Gambian diets that could make diets healthier and reduce the associated agricultural water footprint (WF), and assesses the cost and affordability implications of such dietary changes. Gambian Integrated Household Survey (IHS) food consumption data was combined with market prices, food expenditure and agricultural WF data. Current dietary patterns were compared with World Health Organization (WHO) dietary guidelines and optimized using linear programming to identify least-cost diets that met nutrition recommendations and reduced agricultural water use. Optimization scenarios explored the maximum reduction in green water use that could be achieved with 'culturally-acceptable' dietary shifts, and the magnitude of shifts required to maintain green water use at current levels. On average, current diets provide adequate energy and have appropriate macronutrient composition. However, only 14% of households consume enough fruit and vegetables (F&Vs), and consumption of added sugars exceeds recommendations. With 'culturally-acceptable' changes in consumption, agricultural water use could decrease by 10%-13% or increase by 9%, depending on the baseline dietary pattern. Extreme dietary shifts will be required to maintain water use at 2015 levels with projected population growth. To meet WHO recommendations, dietary costs would increase by 43% compared to the current baseline. Healthy and green water-saving diets would require 48%-63% of average household expenditure to purchase, which is unaffordable for almost half of the population. F&Vs alone account for 31%-40% of the cost of optimized diets compared to 12% of current diets. Dietary modification has the potential to improve the nutritional quality of Gambian diets while reducing agricultural water use, but the required changes are likely to be unaffordable for a large proportion of the population. Improving availability and affordability of nutritious foods-particularly F&Vs-will be crucial for the accessibility of healthy and sustainable diets in the Gambian population.

Expanding black soldier fly (BSF; Hermetia illucens; Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in the developing world: Use of BSF larvae as a biological tool to recycle various organic biowastes for alternative protein production in Nepal

The growing global demand for food, particularly animal protein, is intensifying challenges related to food security and environmental sustainability. The increase in organic waste generation, coupled with inefficient waste management, is further deteriorating living conditions by negatively impacting the environment and public health, especially in developing nations. This study investigated the potential of black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) to recycle major daily organic waste fractions in Nepal. BSFL were exposed to seven different biowaste-based substrates locally sourced from fruit and vegetable markets, farms, and food industries. Additionally, the study evaluated rapeseed cake as a supplement to enhance BSFL growth and nutritional content. BSFL survival rates exceeded 80 % on food industry waste but dropped to 63 % on high-moisture substrates like vegetable waste. Mixed vegetable waste (14.7 mg/day) and bakery waste (11.5 mg/day) supported higher average daily weight gain, likely due to their better nutrient values (soluble carbohydrates and proteins). Although rapeseed cake alone hindered larval growth, its supplementation to biowastes improved growth, survival, and bioconversion rates, increased larval protein content up to 32 %, and reduced fat by 36 %. These findings indicate BSFL can effectively recycle diverse, locally available organic wastes in developing countries like Nepal, providing a sustainable source of domestic protein and contributing to feed security. As this is the first BSFL study in Nepal, further research is needed to elucidate the chemical and microbial safety of BSFL reared on biowastes and to develop technical solutions for commercial BSFL production in countries with a low-income economy.

Impact of partially defatted black soldier fly larvae meal on coccidia-infected chickens: effects on growth performance, intestinal health, and cecal short-chain fatty acid concentrations

BACKGROUND

Black soldier fly larvae meal (BSFLM) stands out as a promising nutritional resource due to its rich bioactive substances and favorable protein profile. Nonetheless, its potential to mitigate coccidia infection in broilers remains uncertain. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of partially defatted BSFLM (pBSFLM) on growth performance, nutrient utilization, and intestinal health, focusing on morphology, immunology, and cecal fermentation in coccidia-infected broilers.

METHODS

Over the initial 13 d, 480 newly-hatched Cobb 500 male birds were allocated to three diets with increasing pBSFLM concentrations (0, 60, or 120 g/kg). At d 13 post hatching, chicks within each dietary group were further allotted to non-challenge or challenge subsets, generating six treatments in a 3 × 2 factorial arrangement. Challenged birds were orally administered oocysts of E. maxima, E. acervulina, and E. tenella (25,000:125,000:25,000).

RESULTS

During the infection phase (d 13 to 19), linear interactions between Eimeria and pBSFLM were observed in gain to feed ratio (G:F) (P < 0.05) and cecal interferon-γ (IFN-γ, P < 0.05), with a tendency in cecal acetate concentration (P = 0.06). A quadratic interaction was observed in crypt depth (CD, P < 0.05). Incremental pBSFLM inclusion negatively affected G:F, CD, IFN-γ, and acetate productions in the ceca under coccidia challenge. Conversely in non-challenged birds, the impact of pBSFLM varied from neutral (e.g. G:F) to potentially advantageous (e.g. acetate). Challenged birds exhibited decreased (P < 0.01) BW, BW gain, feed intake (FI), and the apparent ileal digestibility and total tract nutrient utilization of DM, gross energy, and nitrogen (N). Eimeria challenge reduced (P < 0.01) serum carotenoid concentrations, decreased the villus height to crypt depth ratio (VH:CD, P < 0.01), and increased concentrations of branched-chain fatty acids, specifically isobutyrate (P = 0.059) and isovalerate (P < 0.05) in the cecum. Dietary pBSFLM addition linearly reduced (P < 0.05) BW, FI, and N utilization. Tendencies (P < 0.06) were observed where pBSFLM linearly decreased VH:CD and reduced goblet cell density.

CONCLUSIONS

Increasing pBSFLM supplementation, particularly at 12%, adversely affected growth, ileal morphology, cecal acetate production, and downregulated key cytokine expression in response to coccidia infection.

Climate-smart livestock nutrition in semi-arid Southern African agricultural systems

Climate change is disrupting the semi-arid agricultural systems in Southern Africa, where livestock is crucial to food security and livelihoods. This review evaluates the bioenergetic and agroecological scope for climate-adaptive livestock nutrition in the region. An analysis of the literature on climate change implications on livestock nutrition and thermal welfare in the regional agroecological context was conducted. The information gathered was systematically synthesized into tabular summaries of the fundamentals of climate-smart bioenergetics, thermoregulation, livestock heat stress defence mechanisms, the thermo-bioactive feed components, and potentially climate-smart feed resources in the region. The analysis supports the adoption of climate-smart livestock nutrition when conceptualized as precision feeding combined with dietary strategies that enhance thermal resilience in livestock, and the adaptation of production systems to the decline in availability of conventional feedstuffs by incorporating climate-smart alternatives. The keystone potential climate-smart alternative feedstuffs are identified to be the small cereal grains, such as sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) as dietary energy sources, the native legumes, such as the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and the marama bean (Tylosema esculentum) as protein sources, wild browse Fabaceae trees such as Vachellia spp. and Colophospermum mopane, which provide dry season and drought supplementary protein, minerals, and antioxidants, the non-fabaceous tree species such as the marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea), from which animals consume the energy and electrolyte-rich fresh fruit or processed pulp. Feedstuffs for potential circular feeding systems include the oilseed cakes from the macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia) nut, the castor (Ricinus communis), and Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) beans, which are rich in protein and energy, insect feed protein and energy, primarily the black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens), and microbial protein from phototrophic algae (Spirulina, Chlorella), and yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Additives for thermo-functionally enhanced diets include synthetic and natural anti-oxidants, phytogenics, biotic agents (prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, postbiotics), and electrolytes. The review presents a conceptual framework for climate-smart feeding strategies that enhance system resilience across the livestock-energy-water-food nexus, to inform broader, in-depth research, promote climate-smart farm practices and support governmental policies which are tailored to the agroecology of the region.

Retrospect of fishmeal substitution in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides): a review

With the growth of the population, the demand for aquatic products is increasing. Additionally, the development of the aquaculture industry has led to a heightened demand for fishmeal (FM). FM is a high-protein feed raw material made from one or more types of fish, which has been deoiled, dehydrated, and crushed. The world's major FM-producing countries include Peru, Chile, Japan, Denmark, etc., among which exports from Peru and Chile account for about 70% of the total trade volume. However, in recent years, global warming, environmental pollution, and overfishing have gradually declined marine fishery resources. The shortage of high-quality FM and its rising prices have become a significant constraint to the development of fisheries. Consequently, aquaculture nutritionists are actively seeking solutions to reduce the reliance on FM by either enhancing the utilization rate of existing FM or developing new protein sources as substitutes. The challenge of FM replacement has thus emerged as a significant global issue. Largemouth bass (LMB) is one of the more cultured freshwater fishes in the world and is popular among consumers for its delicious and delicate flesh and rich and diverse nutrition. The protein content in feed is an essential factor affecting LMB growth and feed cost. LMB protein requirement is about 40-50%, and the amount of FM added accounts for about 50% of the protein feed. This article reviews the current research status of alternative protein sources, including plant proteins, livestock and poultry by-product proteins, insect proteins, and single-cell proteins. This research is significant for exploring feed formulation and cost reduction for LMB.

Towards circularity for agro-waste: Minimal soil hazards of olive pomace bioconverted frass by insect larvae as an organic fertilizer

As global populations escalate and the demand for food and feed intensifies, the generation of agri-food waste is becoming an increasingly critical issue. Addressing this challenge is crucial for optimizing food production and advancing sustainable waste management practices. In this context, insects, including the Black Soldier Fly (BSF, Hermetia illucens), present opportunities for circularity through the bioconversion of organic waste. Olive pomace (OP), a by-product of the olive oil industry, is known for its phytotoxic properties due to its high phenolic content and acidic pH. Using BSF for OP bioconversion could mitigate the environmental disposal of this by-product while producing valuable resources such as protein, fats, and insect frass. Insect frass is the excrement of insects that can be used as an entomofertilizer. Building from BSF feeding on OP, this study aimed to evaluate the safety of applying the resultant frass in soil amendment applications for the first time. Here are explored the effects of olive pomace-derived frass (OP-BSFfrass) on soil health and plant growth by evaluating the soil model invertebrate Enchytraeus crypticus and phytotoxicity bioassays using the forage crop ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and the agricultural species broccoli (Brassica oleracea). Our methodologies included direct soil applications and aqueous extract tests, with a range of OP-BSFfrass concentrations (from 0 to 9.8% w/w) and observation periods (2 and 32d). Despite initial concerns over the phytotoxic nature of OP, our findings revealed that OP-BSFfrass did not adversely affect the survival of E. crypticus and even enhanced its reproductive success. Furthermore, while higher frass concentrations elicited some adverse effects on plant germination and growth, these were limited to levels unlikely to be used in practical applications. The outcomes of this study suggest that OP-BSFfrass could be safely integrated into the soil as a fertilizer, promoting a circular bio-economy by converting waste into economically and environmentally friendly products. This study underscores the potential of insects in transforming waste management paradigms and enhancing food security, particularly in regions like the Mediterranean, thus contributing to a more sustainable and resilient agricultural sector.

Insect Meal (Tenebrio molitor) Has High Nutrient Digestibility for Newly Weaned Piglets

This study aimed to evaluate the inclusion of insect larvae meal (Tenebrio molitor) on the apparent total digestibility of dry matter (DM), gross energy (GE), ether extract (EE), crude protein (CP), neutral and acid detergent fiber (NDF and FDA), and the apparent and standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids (Exp.1) and to evaluate the inclusion of insect meal with iron and manganese supplementation on growth performance and serum hemoglobin concentration by collecting blood (day zero), on the 14th and 32nd days of the experiment (Exp.2). The standardized ileal digestibility values for amino acids and crude protein of insect meal were similar to those found for soybean meal, with high metabolizable energy values (Exp.1), and there was no difference in performance for any of the variables analyzed (p ≥ 0.05) in any of the periods (Exp.2). For serum hemoglobin values, there was no interaction (p ≥ 0.05) between the treatments used and the collection days; however, hemoglobin values increased (p < 0.05) at each collection time. It can therefore be concluded that insect meal for pigs can be considered an alternative ingredient to soybean meal as a source of protein in piglet nutrition due to high digestibility of amino acids without deleterious effect on productive performance.

Modulating the fatty acid composition of black soldier fly larvae via substrate fermentation

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL, Hermetia illucens) contain high amounts of proteins and essential amino acids and are therefore an appropriate feed source. However, they lack essential fatty acids (FAs), specifically ω-3 and ω-6, making them a less desirable feed choice for aquaculture. The aim of this study was to increase the ω-3 and ω-6 FA concentrations in BSFL by manipulating the FA composition in their rearing substrate. Specifically, the potential of substrate fermentation using the ω-3 and ω-6 FA-producing fungus Mortierella alpina was assessed. Fermentation of two agricultural side streams (wheat bran (WB) and WB with distiller's dried grains with solubles (DDGS)) increased substrate total crude fat concentration by 2.1 - 4.6%, as well as the concentration of several essential FAs, including the ω-6 FAs arachidonic acid (from less than 0.2 mg/g fat to a maximum of 44.2 mg/g fat) and gamma-linolenic acid (from less than 1.2 mg/g fat to a maximum of 45.8 mg/g fat and the ω-3 FA eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (from less than 0.7 mg/g fat to a maximum of 49.9 mg/g fat). Rearing BSFL on feeds from such fermented substrates resulted in similar changes in larval FA composition, specifically a higher concentration of EPA (from less than 0.2 mg/g fat to a maximum of 26.6 mg/g fat in the larvae fed on fermented diets), however, larval growth was reduced. Feeds made from fermented substrates were prone to stickiness and dehydration, possibly limiting larval movement and feeding, thereby affecting larval growth. Furthermore, proximate analysis of the substrates revealed sugar depletion after fermentation, which could be detrimental for larval growth and illustrate important attention points going forward. This study shows that fermentation of agricultural side streams WB and a mixture of WB with DDGS with Mortierella alpina alters their FA profile, increasing their ω-3 and ω-6 FA concentrations and that of BSFL fed with those substrates. Therefore, these results suggest that BSFL with tailor-made FA profiles for a specific application could be successfully produced.

Evaluating Different Supplements on the Growth Performance and Bioconversion Efficiency of Kitchen Waste by Black Soldier Fly Larvae

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) convert kitchen waste into high-quality insect feed. However, the optimal amount of auxiliary materials needed to improve the physical and chemical properties of kitchen waste and enhance BSFL bioconversion efficiency remains unresolved. In this study, maize stover and BSFL frass were added to kitchen waste (in groups G2 and G3, respectively) to explore their effects on the growth performance and bioconversion efficiency of BSFL. The group with only kitchen waste, without the addition of maize stover or BSF frass, was used as the control group and labeled as G1. On the 5th day, the body length of the BSFL in the G2 group was significantly greater than that in G1 and G3 (p < 0.05). The dry matter weight loss rate in the G3 group was significantly lower compared to that of G1 and G2 (p < 0.05), and the feed conversion rate (FCR) of G1 was significantly lower than that of G2 and G3 (p < 0.01). In summary, adding maize stover and BSFL frass increased BSFL feed intake and improved body weight gain. However, these additives did not significantly enhance BSFL bioconversion efficiency. The organic matter in maize stover and BSFL frass was utilized by the BSFL, and the heavy metal levels in each group of BSFL did not exceed standard limits.

Bioconversion of Poultry Litter into Insect Meal and Organic Frasstilizer Using Black Soldier Fly Larvae as a Circular Economy Model for the Poultry Industry: A Review

Poultry litter waste management poses a significant global challenge, attributed to its characteristics (odorous, organic, pathogenic, attracting flies). Conventional approaches to managing poultry litter involve composting, biogas generation, or direct field application. Recently, there has been a surge of interest in a novel technology that involves the bioconversion of organic waste utilizing insects (known as entomoremediation), particularly focusing on black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), and has demonstrated successful transformation of various organic waste materials into insect meal and frass (referred to as organic frasstilizer). Black soldier flies have the capacity to consume any organic waste material (ranging from livestock litter, food scraps, fruit and vegetable residues, sewage, sludge, municipal solid waste, carcasses, and defatted seed meal) and convert it into valuable BSFL insect meal (suitable for animal feed) and frass (serving as an organic fertilizer). The bioconversion of poultry litter by black soldier flies offers numerous advantages over traditional methods, notably in terms of reduced land and water requirements, lower emissions, cost-effectiveness, swift processing, and the production of both animal feeds and organic fertilizers. This review focuses on the existing knowledge of BSFL, their potential in bioconverting poultry litter into BSFL meal and frass, and the utilization of BSFL in poultry nutrition, emphasizing the necessity for further innovation to enhance this sustainable circular economy approach.

Rearing fly larvae on various substrates: nutrient composition of larvae and frass

Management solutions for waste in southern Thailand, such as fly larvae, are tested in a laboratory using different substrates and wastes from the Thai agricultural sector. The nutritional content of the immature stages of Musca domestica Linnaeus (Diptera: Muscidae) and Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae, especially their protein and fat contents, makes them a potential animal feed. Laboratory strains of M. domestica and H. illucens were reared on selected substrates to examine how diet influenced their performance and nutritional composition. Waste from aquaculture, vegetables, and fruits in southern Thailand was examined for larval diet and showed promise as a rearing substrate for these insects. Musca domestica larvae reared on fishery waste achieved the highest larval weight and fat content, whereas H. illucens larvae reared on an aquaculture waste diet had the highest protein content. These findings imply aquaculture waste could be the best choice for large-scale fly larvae production, particularly as a protein feed additive.

Impacts of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larval Meal on Intestinal Histopathology and Microbiome Responses in Hybrid Grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus ♀ × E. lanceolatus ♂): A Comprehensive Analysis

This study examined the diversity and responses of intestinal microbiota in hybrid grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus ♀ × E. lanceolatus ♂) fed diets with varying levels of fishmeal replaced by black soldier fly larvae (BSFL). The 10% BSFL substitution (BSFL10) group showed the highest levels of trypsin and amylase. Substituting fishmeal with 30% and 50% BSFL weakened the intestinal wall, resulting in vacuoles, sparse striatal boundaries, and fewer villi. Microbiota diversity, measured through Shannon's index, was higher in the BSFL10 and BSFL50 groups than in the control. 16S rRNA amplicon data revealed the dominance of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Spirochaetota, and Verrucomicrobia phyla. The BSFL-replacement groups showed an increase in Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Spirochaetota compared to the control, but fewer Firmicutes. PICRUSt analysis indicated significant alterations in microbial function, particularly enhanced protein, carbohydrate, lipid, and energy metabolisms in the BSFL-fed group. Substituting 10% fishmeal with BSFL enhanced nutrient metabolism and gut microbiota in juvenile hybrid grouper. Further research is needed to explore factors affecting the efficacy of insect feed as a sustainable aquaculture diet.

Drones and Workers of Honeybee Apis mellifera L. Dried Powder: Chemical Composition, Antioxidant, and Anticancer Assessment

This study explores honeybee as a food source through chemical analysis of pupa and adult stages of honeybee drones and workers (Apis mellifera L.). The findings reveal that drones exhibited higher protein and fat content, while workers have the highest carbohydrate levels. Additionally, seventeen amino acids and nine minerals were identified, with drones in the adult stage having elevated levels of fifteen amino acids, notably glutamic acid at 7.97 g/100 g. Moreover, 24 fatty acids were discovered, with oleic acid being most abundant in drones (55.96% in adult, 44.14% in pupa). Furthermore, potassium and sodium were the dominant minerals in both drone and worker samples; however, adult drone had higher concentrations of potassium, iron, copper, and phosphorus than the other samples. Also, nine phenolic compounds were identified, which exhibited the highest concentration in the adult drone sample (20095.72 μg/100 g). Importantly, the adult drone sample demonstrated significant cytotoxic effects on breast and colorectal cancer cells (MCF7 and HCT116), inhibiting them at rates of 98.1% and 81.5%, respectively. These results emphasize the nutritional potential of honeybees (especially adult drones) as a functional food, rich in amino acids, fatty acids and possessing antioxidant and anticancer properties.

Sustainable poultry farming practices: a critical review of current strategies and future prospects

As global demand for poultry products, environmental sustainability, and health consciousness rises with time, the poultry industry faces both substantial challenges and new opportunities. Therefore, this review paper provides a comprehensive overview of sustainable poultry farming, focusing on integrating genetic improvements, alternative feed, precision technologies, waste management, and biotechnological innovations. Together, these strategies aim to minimize ecological footprints, uphold ethical standards, improve economic feasibility, and enhance industry resilience. In addition, this review paper explores various sustainable strategies, including eco-conscious organic farming practices and innovative feed sources like insect-based proteins, single-cell proteins, algal supplements, and food waste utilization. It also addresses barriers to adoption, such as technical challenges, financial constraints, knowledge gaps, and policy frameworks, which are crucial for advancing the poultry industry. This paper examined organic poultry farming in detail, noting several benefits like reduced pesticide use and improved animal welfare. Additionally, it discusses optimizing feed efficiency, an alternate energy source (solar photovoltaic/thermal), effective waste management, and the importance of poultry welfare. Transformative strategies, such as holistic farming systems and integrated approaches, are proposed to improve resource use and nutrient cycling and promote climate-smart agricultural practices. The review underscores the need for a structured roadmap, education, and extension services through digital platforms and participatory learning to promote sustainable poultry farming for future generations. It emphasizes the need for collaboration and knowledge exchange among stakeholders and the crucial role of researchers, policymakers, and industry professionals in shaping a future where sustainable poultry practices lead the industry, committed to ethical and resilient poultry production.

Insights into the nutritional value of honeybee drone larvae (Apis mellifera) through proteomic profiling

There is a growing interest and demand for insect-based foods. Edible insects are rich in protein and other nutrients, making them valuable in the daily diet. However, their composition is not yet fully characterised. Therefore, this study aimed to analyse for the first time the qualitative proteome of honeybee (Apis mellifera) drone larvae using sophisticated sample preparation techniques and mass spectrometry. A total of 109 proteins were identified in the larvae. Of these, the largest plurality (38%) were enzymes. In addition, we identified proteins considered to be allergens - the cause of potentially dangerous effects after insect consumption. The results of the analyses may suggest that honeybee larvae are a protein-rich product, with over 100 unique proteins identified based on 1080 peptides. Enzymes indicate intensive development of the larvae. However, as well as nutritious compounds, honeybee larvae contain dangerous allergens. The composition of bee larvae needs to be further tested to make them safe for consumption.

Effects of adding mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) as a replacement for fish meal to broiler chicken diet on performance, carcass parameters, meat quality and nutrient digestibility

The objective of the study was to investigate how substituting fish meal (FM) with mealworm larval (Tenebrio molitor L.) meal (TM) in the diet affects the growth performance, meat quality, nutrient digestibility, and carcass of broiler chicks. A total of one hundred chicks were divided into five groups, each containing twenty birds. The fish meal was replaced with mealworm meal at different levels of 25% (TM25), 50% (TM50), 75% (TM75), and 100% (TM100) in the diets. At the end of the study, replacing different levels the fish meal with mealworms linearly suppressed nutrient digestion, growth, carcass parameters, and water holding capacity and cooking loss. However, the best energy efficiency ratios were obtained in the TM100 group. Consequently, it was concluded that replacement of FM with mealworm up to 25% had no adverse effect on growth performance, carcass parameters, meat quality and nutrient utilization efficiency of broiler chickens.

Partial replacement of soybean with local alternative sources: effects on behavior, cecal microbiota, and intestinal histomorphometry of local chickens

Interest in partially replacing soybean meal in poultry diets with alternative protein sources such as agri-industrial by-products and black soldier fly (BSF, Hermetia illucens) has gained significant attention due to sustainability concerns. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of broiler diets in which soybean meal was partially substituted with agri-industrial by-products with or without BSF larvae meal, on the behavior, intestinal histomorphometry, and microbiome profile of a local broiler chicken strain. There were three dietary treatments. (1) A corn-soybean-based diet (Control), (2) a diet in which soybean was partly replaced (SPR) with local agri-industrial by-products, namely sunflower meal, brewers' dried grain, and wheat middlings, and (3) a diet in which BSF (5%) meal was added to SPR (SPR+BSF). Behavior was recorded on days 14, 35, and 49 at the pen level. On day 55, intestinal segments and cecal contents were collected from eight chickens per pen for histomorphometry and microbiome analysis. Dietary manipulations did not affect the behavior of broiler chickens (P > 0.05) suggesting that the experimental diets had no influence on behavior. A significant interaction between the intestinal segment and diets revealed that the SPR and SPR+BSF diets decreased duodenal villus height (VH) compared to the control diet (P < 0.05). However, this effect was not consistent across all of intestinal segments. Diet did not affect villus height to crypt depth ratio (VH/CD; P > 0.05), indicating no significant impact on the absorptive capacity of the digestive system. Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes were the dominant phyla in the cecal samples. Colidextribacter and Oscillibacter spp. were more abundant in chickens fed the SPR diet compared to those fed the control diet. The SPR+BSF diet resulted in higher abundance of Rikenella and Colidextribacter spp. compared to the control diet, while Desulfovibrio, Ruminococcus torques group, and Lachnoclostridium were more abundant in the ceca of birds fed the SPR diet than those fed SPR+BSF. In conclusion, replacement of soybean with agri-industrial by-products and BSF larvae meal could regulate the cecal microbiota composition without negatively affecting the behavior and intestinal histomorphometry of the local chickens.

The current state of research and potential applications of insects for resource recovery and aquaculture feed

Concerns about fishmeal use and its ecological footprints must be addressed for the aquaculture industry to move on as a sustainable food production sector. Through recent research outcomes, the insect-based meals in fish diets have promise and harnessed promises for commercial applications. In this midst, the efficiency of the selected insects in valorizing biological waste, as well as the nutritional profile of the harvested insects for use in fish diets, will be the driving forces behind such an approach. More extensive research has been published on the suitability of the waste substrate, the nutritional profiling of the meals, the level of substitution, the effects on growth, the immune physiology, and the flesh quality of the animals. Previously, there are only a few reviews available in insect protein applications in aqua feed that focused particularly on the nutritional quality and substitution levels. Considering the dearth of available work, the goal of this review is to provide a more comprehensive account of the resource recovery potential of insects and its derivatives, with a special emphasis on quality as determined by substrate used and processing techniques. Suggestions and policy implications for a sustainable approach to achieving a circular bio-economy of insect farming and its application in aquaculture are discussed for progression and advancement of the existing state of the art.

J. A, Sethupathy A. M, S. S, Alrashdi YBA, Ibrahim AE, El Deeb S. Current Status and Global Research Trend Patterns of Insect Meal in Aquaculture From Scientometric Perspective: (2013-2022)

In the past decade, insect meal has gained popularity in the animal feed industry, particularly in aquafeed, due to rising costs and decreased availability of fish meal (FM) and fish oil. Initially met with skepticism, insect meal is now seen as a promising ingredient because of its high nutrient profile. Research worldwide is exploring its potential as a FM replacement. Insects are abundant, nutritious, and environmentally friendly, as they can be reared on organic waste, minimizing the need for land, water, and energy. This research aims at obtaining a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the current status and research trend patterns in this research field. To achieve this goal, this study conducts a mini systematic review and scientometric analysis of the global research published from 2013 to 2022 on the usage of insect meal in aquaculture. In the scientometric analysis, a total of 354 papers published by 1800 authors in 124 different journals from the Web of Science (WoS) core collection were analyzed, evaluating the number of publications, most relevant authors, organizations, top cited countries, most globally cited publications, and trending research themes in this field. The result showed that the University of Turin was the leading organization in insect meal research, whereas aquaculture was the leading journal, and author Laura Gasco was the prominent researcher in this field in the studied time frame (2013-2022). Italy was the leading country in Europe, while China dominated Asia in terms of the number of publications. The annual growth rate in insect meal research was found to be positive (23.11%), with 36.95 average citations per document. This study helps practitioners and scholars understand the current state of insect meal in aquaculture and identifies research requirements that can benefit both academia and industry.

Seaweed Fly Larvae Cultivated on Macroalgae Side Streams: A Novel Marine Protein and Omega-3 Source for Rainbow Trout

A nutritional bottleneck in salmonid aquaculture is the procurement of marine-derived compounds, such as essential amino and fatty acids, including omega-3 fatty acids, lysine, and methionine. Therefore, insects containing these compounds are highly promising as feed ingredients. The present study evaluates larvae of a "marine" insect (Coelopa frigida, the bristly-legged seaweed fly larvae, SWFL) reared on brown algae side streams as a feed ingredient for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). SWFL contained, on a dry matter basis, 60% crude protein (CP), 3.5% lysine, and 1.5% methionine, as well as 17% lipids, including 4% eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Four isoenergetic (ca. 23 MJ kg-1 gross energy) and isoproteic (ca. 45% CP) feeds were evaluated in a 10-week feeding trial. The diets included a control containing 25% fish meal, a commercial reference, and two diets substituting 40% fish meal with either SWFL or partially defatted black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) meal (Hermetia illucens). SWFL-fed fish displayed higher specific growth rates (SGR) compared to BSFL-fed fish and similar SGR compared to control and reference diet-fed fish. Feed intake in SWFL-fed fish was higher than for the control and BSFL diets and similar to the reference diet. The feed conversion ratio of fish fed the BSFL and SWFL diets was higher compared to the control, suggesting lower bioavailability of both insect meals compared to fish meals. No difference in intestinal health parameters was noted between the insect diets and the control diet, indicating good intestinal health across all treatments. However, changes in electrogenic intestinal transport were observed between the SWFL and BSFL diets, illustrating the heterogeneous effect of different insect products. Overall, SWFL meal is a promising alternative marine feed ingredient, compatible with circular production systems, as it can be efficiently cultivated using marine side streams.

Comparison of Growth and Composition of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens L.) Larvae Reared on Sugarcane By-Products and Other Substrates

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) can convert organic waste into high-quality biomass. In this study, we tested the potential of sugarcane by-products as a food source for BSFL and compared larval development and nutritional value with some other organic substrates. Seven different substrates were used, including carrot pomace (C), carrot pomace and leftover bread (CB) (50/50), bagasse and vinasse (BV), bagasse and molasses (BM), bagasse, vinasse, and molasses (BVM), a mixture of all the above treatments (MX), and university canteen leftovers (UCLs). The larval weight and length were measured for two weeks from day 5 to 19. Then, the BSFL were harvested and analyzed for dry matter, crude protein, oil, ash, mineral, and fatty acid composition. Larval weight and length varied depending on the feeding substrate provided. University canteen leftovers resulted in the BSFL having at least 18% greater length (17.00 mm) and 56% greater weight (3.15 g) compared to other treatments. The highest amounts of protein (38.9%) and oil (39.06%) were observed in the UCL treatment, while the BV treatment larvae had the highest quantities of ash (28.9%) and dry matter (28.0%). The fatty acid profile of the BSFL revealed three-times-higher levels of saturated fatty acids than unsaturated fatty acids in the UCL treatment and was at least twice as high in other treatments. Overall, the BSFL had the best growth on the UCL substrate, and the combination of bagasse and vinasse (BV) was the most appropriate substrate for BSFL development among the sugarcane by-products.

The Potential of Defatted Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) Meal as an Alternative Protein Source for Juvenile Chinese Mitten Crab (Eriocheir sinensis)

This study was aimed to investigate the effects of replacing dietary fish meal (FM) with defatted yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) meal (DYM) on growth performance, intestinal health, serum immune, and antioxidant indexes of juvenile Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis). Four hundred juvenile Chinese mitten crabs (4.94 ± 0.08 g) were randomly distributed into five groups in quadruplicate (20 crabs per tank), and each group was fed with diets that replaced FM with DYM at 0% (CON, containing 200 g/kg FM), 25% (DYM25), 50% (DYM50), 75% (DYM75), and 100% (DYM100) for 8 weeks, respectively. The results showed that the growth, serum immune and antioxidant indexes, digestive enzyme activities, intestinal histology, and microbiota composition of DYM25, DYM50, and DYM75 groups all reached the similar level as the CON group. While when 100% fishmeal was replaced, significantly decreased the final body weight (FBW), weight gain (WG), serum alkaline phosphatase (AKP), acid phosphatase (ACP), lysozyme (LZM), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) activities, hepatopancreas protease activity, mid-intestine folds height and number (P < 0.05), significantly increased the feed conversion ratio (FCR), serum malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and the abundance of intestinal harmful bacteria Shewanella (P < 0.05). Overall, these results suggest that 75% dietary FM (150 g/kg) can be effectively replaced by DYM without negative impact on the growth performance, intestinal health, serum immune, and antioxidant indexes of juvenile E. sinensis.

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-adipogenesis activities and proximate composition of Hermetia illucens larvae reared on food waste enriched with different wastes

The use of insects as a food source is not a new idea, but it has gained momentum in recent years due to the need for sustainable protein source in livestock feedstuffs and for more environmentally friendly organic waste treatment. In the case of black soldier fly larvae, Hermetia illucens, research has focused on their ability to convert organic waste into usable nutrients and their potential as a protein source for animal and human consumption. In this study, black soldier fly larvae were reared on raw food waste (FW) mixed with garlic peel waste (G) and hydronic growth media waste (H) and the proximate composition and bioactive potential of black soldier fly larvae extract (SFL) were compared. Analysis showed that protein content of SFL fed with G was 4.21% higher and lipid content was 9.93% lower than FW. Similar results were obtained for SFL fed with H. Antioxidant activity of SFL-G was higher than that of SFL-FW and SFL-H. SFL-G treatment exhibited enhanced anti-inflammatory and anti-adipogenesis activities as well compared to SFL-FW. Current results suggested that feeding black soldier fly larvae with food waste added with garlic peel and hydroponic growth media waste resulted in increased nutritional value, polyphenol content and bioactivity for SFLs. In this context, garlic peel waste-added food waste was suggested a promising substrate for black soldier fly larvae to obtain high-quality protein source with enhanced antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-adipogenic potential.

Dietary Tenebrio molitor larvae meal effects on cellular stress responses, antioxidant status and intermediate metabolism of Oncorhynchus mykiss

In the context of evaluating the impact of environmentally friendly and sustainably produced alternative protein sources in fish feed, the present study's aim was to examine the overall physiological stress response in one of the main fish species of European freshwater aquaculture, Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout), following the partial substitution of fish meal (FM) with a Tenebrio molitor (TM) (yellow mealworm) full-fat meal. In total, 222 rainbow trout individuals (115.2 ± 14.2 g) were allocated randomly into six tanks, three per dietary treatment, and were fed a formulated diet containing 60% yellow mealworm (TM60) compared to a control diet without insect meal (TM0). Both diets contained equal amounts of crude protein, dry matter and, lipid content, while the FM in TM60 was 100 g kg-1 corresponding to the one seventh of the TM0. Heat shock response (HSR), MAPK signalling, cell death pathways (apoptosis and autophagy), antioxidant defence mechanisms, and intermediate metabolism were evaluated. In general, HSR and MAPK signalling were activated in response to the inclusion of T. molitor. Moreover, triggering of apoptotic and autophagic processes and the onset of antioxidant defence mechanisms underlined the existence of physiological stress. Despite the apparent dietary-induced stress, rainbow trout in the present study exhibited no mortality and no significant effects regarding growth performance parameters. Specifically, TM60 dietary inclusion resulted in no changes in final body weight, weight gain, and specific growth rate. However, feed intake depicted a statistically significant decrease in TM60 fish compared to TM0 individuals. Nevertheless, nutrient stress should be considered a limiting factor regarding the utilization of T. molitor in O. mykiss diet due to the associated risks for health and welfare.

The Growth Performance and Nutrient Composition of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae Fed Slaughtered Bovine Blood

The disposal of slaughterhouse blood poses significant environmental challenges due to its biological instability and high nutrient content. We used a gradient of 10% blood increments (0-100%) to feed BSFL, and the correlation between the proportion of bovine blood and the BSFL weight gain, mortality rate, fatty acid content, and amino acid content was researched. Results indicate a positive correlation between the bovine blood content and BSFL mortality, with survival rates above 95% for blood proportions below 60%. Larval weight exhibited a negative correlation as the bovine blood content increased. Nutritional analysis revealed that the crude protein content in BSFL increased proportionally with bovine blood (14.75-25.45 g/100 g), while the crude fat content decreased correspondingly (10.70-4.66 g/100 g). The sugar content remained relatively constant across groups. Fatty acid analysis showed increased levels of C16:0, C14:0, and C16:1 and decreased levels of C18:1, C18:2, and C18:3 with higher bovine blood contents. The amino acid content generally increased with higher blood proportions. This study highlights the bioconversion potential of BSFL for bovine blood and underscores the impact of protein, lipid, and sugar concentrations in feed on BSFL growth. These findings provide valuable insights for utilizing slaughterhouse waste in BSFL rearing, contributing to the development of more sustainable waste management and animal feed production methods.

Use of Periplaneta americana as a Soybean Meal Substitute: A Step towards Sustainable Transformative Poultry Feeds

Insects are becoming increasingly popular as a sustainable and nutritious alternative protein source in poultry feeds, due to their high protein content, low environmental impact, and efficient feed conversion rates. Using insect-based feeds can reduce the need for traditional protein sources like soybean meal (SBM), which often contribute to environmental issues such as deforestation and high water consumption. The current experiments were devised to assess the impacts of the partial replacement of SBM with the American cockroach Periplaneta americana and black soldier fly Hermetia illucens on the performances, hematology, gut morphometry, and meat quality of male broilers (Ross 308). A total of 350, 1-day-old chicks weighing 40.05 ± 0.27 g were divided into 7 dietary treatments (5 pens/treatment and 10 birds/pen) at random, i.e., a 4, 8, or 12% SMB replacement with P. americana and H. illucens. Soybean meal was used as a basal diet and taken as a control. The results indicated that broilers fed on 12% P. americana or H. illucens showed significant improvements (p < 0.05) in feed conversion ratio, live weight, and daily weight gain. Hematological traits significantly improved (p < 0.05). A gut histology showed increased villus height, villus width, crypt depth, and villus height/crypt depth ratios, indicating improved nutrient absorption. Broiler meat fed on 12% P. americana meal had significantly higher redness and yellowness (p < 0.05). Substituting soybean meal with up to 12% P. americana or H. illucens meal in poultry feed can enhance the broilers' growth performance, hematology, gut morphometry, and meat quality. Hence, these findings imply that P. americana or H. illucens meal are viable and constructive alternative protein sources in poultry nutrition, offering a sustainable approach to meet the increasing demand for animal protein across the world.

Nutritional Value of the Larvae of the Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) and the House Fly (Musca domestica) as a Food Alternative for Farm Animals-A Systematic Review

Dietary alternatives using insect-based products as an alternative for farm animal nutrition have been the object of study due to the high nutritional value of these feeds and the costs related to both their production and consequently their commercialization. Thus, the use of flies, especially larvae, has a high content of proteins and lipids (fat), as well as minerals and essential nutrients for development and growth, directly impacting the production of these animals, whether meat or milk. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compile data from the literature on the nutritional value of adults and larvae of Black soldier (Hermetia illucens) and housefly (Musca domestica) as a dietary alternative for animal feed. The Prisma checklist was used. After reviewing the data found in the literature, following the systematic review, it was noted that studies emerge that larvae of black soldier flies and domestic flies of the order Diptera obtain essential sources in the nutrition of ruminants, in addition to obtaining rapid digestibility, thus adhering to reproduction with high nutritional content, due to incident levels of protein, lipids, and minerals in M. domestica and Lucilia sericata, making it a target for inclusion in the diet of farm animals. In addition, it is concluded that both species are studied for their sustainable potential as well as for offering greater economic and nutritional viability when compared to ingredients present in production animal feed.

Mosquitoes harvested from rice fields as alternative protein ingredient in broiler feed: insights from the first pilot study

Global population continuous growth and increasing consumers' demands for protein-rich diets have posed sustainability challenges for traditional livestock feed sources. Consequently, exploring alternative and sustainable protein sources has become imperative to address the environmental burden and resource limitations associated with conventional ingredients. With respect to food security assurance, insects have emerged as a promising solution due to their exceptional nutritional profile, rapid reproduction rates, and low environmental impact. In the present pilot study, 10% of a soybean meal-based diet was replaced by adult mosquitoes harvested from rice fields. The objective was to assess the effect of this partial substitution on meat quality aspects and consumer acceptance. A total of 40 Cobb hybrid broiler chickens were randomly placed in a control and a mosquito-fed group. The study was conducted for 42 days and carcass physicochemical, nutritional, and microbiological characteristics, as well as sensory attributes were evaluated. Overall, results regarding quality attributes were comparable between the control and the treatment group. The organoleptic evaluation showed that the thighs from the mosquito-fed group had the highest overall consumer acceptance. These outcomes indicate that mosquitoes could be successfully used as a protein source for broiler feed without compromising the quality and acceptability of the meat.

Assessing the feasibility, safety, and nutritional quality of using wild-caught pest flies in animal feed

Studies have investigated the potential of using farmed insects in animal feeds; however, little research has been done using wild-caught insects for this purpose. Concerns about inadequate quantities collected, environmental impacts, and the spread of pathogens contribute to the preferred utilization of farmed insects. Nevertheless, by harvesting certain pest species from intensified agricultural operations, producers could provide their animals with affordable and sustainable protein sources while also reducing pest populations. This study explores the possibility of collecting large quantities of pest flies from livestock operations and analyzes the flies' nutritional content, potential pathogen load, and various disinfection methods. Using a newly designed mass collection-trapping device, we collected 5 kg of biomass over 13 wk, primarily house flies, from a poultry facility. While a substantial number of pests were removed from the environment, there was no reduction in the fly population. Short-read sequencing was used to compare the bacterial communities carried by flies from differing source populations, and the bacterial species present in the fly samples varied based on farm type and collection time. Drying and milling the wild-caught flies as well as applying an additional heat treatment significantly reduced the number of culturable bacteria present in or on the flies, though their pathogenicity remains unknown. Importantly, these disinfection methods did not affect the nutritional value of the processed flies. Further research is necessary to fully assess the safety and viability of integrating wild-caught insects into livestock feed; however, these data show promising results in favor of such a system.

Investigation of the suitability of 3 insect meals as protein sources for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

An in vivo trial was conducted to determine the apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) of insect meals for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Rainbow trout (approximately 370 g ± 23 g, mean ± SD initial weight) were stocked 25 per tank into 400-liter tanks. Fish were fed a reference diet, or 1 of 5 test diets created by blending the reference diet in a 70:30 ratio (dry-weight basis) with menhaden fish meal (MFM), 2 house cricket (Acheta domesticus) meals (cricket A and cricket B), Galleria mellonella meal, and yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) meal. Diets were assigned to 3 replicate tanks of fish and fed twice daily for 14 days prior to fecal collection. Ingredients, diets, and fecal matter were analyzed in duplicate for proximate, mineral, and amino acid composition. House cricket meals were 67.3% and 69.0% protein (CP) and 16.6% and 17.1% lipid (CL), for house cricket A and B, respectively. Yellow mealworm meal contained 56.5% CP and 27.7% CL, and G. mellonella larvae meal contained 32.5% CP and 54.2% CL. Protein ADCs were 78.9 for G. mellonella larvae meal, 78.0 for yellow mealworm meal, and 76.5 for house cricket A and not different from the MFM protein ADC of 76.6, while house cricket B protein ADC was 65.8 and was significantly lower than the MFM protein ADC (F = 7.39; df = 4,14; P = 0.0049). Together, these nutritional values suggest house crickets, and yellow mealworms show promise as alternative protein sources in salmonid feeds, with the potential of G. mellonella as an alternative lipid source.

Rearing methods of four insect species intended as feed, food, and food ingredients: a review

Over the past 2 decades, the potential of insects as food and feed has been recognized globally. Insects as feed ingredients can improve sustainability because of their lower greenhouse gas emissions and their potential to transform organic wastes into high-quality feed rich in nutrients. However, currently, the practical use of insects as food or feed is limited by the high costs of insect production. A great deal of effort is required to improve the rearing technology necessary to establish the principles of insect farming. Several insect species have become industrialized using existing methods of production. The most common industrialized insect species intended as feed and food include the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae); the house cricket, Acheta domesticus L. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae); the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae); and the house fly, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae). This review focuses on describing the existing rearing methods for these 4 insect species, which may provide a basis for future research to enhance insect production capabilities.

Assessment of the USDA Biomass Harvest Trap (USDA-BHT) device as an insect harvest and mosquito surveillance tool

Insects are a promising source of high-quality protein, and the insect farming industry will lead to higher sustainability when it overcomes scaling up, cost effectiveness, and automation. In contrast to insect farming (raising and breeding insects as livestock), wild insect harvesting (collecting agricultural insect pests), may constitute a simple sustainable animal protein supplementation strategy. For wild harvest to be successful sufficient insect biomass needs to be collected while simultaneously avoiding the collection of nontarget insects. We assessed the performance of the USDA Biomass Harvest Trap (USDA-BHT) device to collect flying insect biomass and as a mosquito surveillance tool. The USDA-BHT device was compared to other suction traps commonly used for mosquito surveillance (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light traps, Encephalitis virus surveillance traps, and Biogents Sentinel traps). The insect biomass harvested in the USDA-BHT was statistically higher than the one harvested in the other traps, however the mosquito collections between traps were not statistically significantly different. The USDA-BHT collected some beneficial insects, although it was observed that their collection was minimized at night. These findings coupled with the fact that sorting time to separate the mosquitoes from the other collected insects was significantly longer for the USDA-BHT, indicate that the use of this device for insect biomass collection conflicts with its use as an efficient mosquito surveillance tool. Nevertheless, the device efficiently collected insect biomass, and thus can be used to generate an alternative protein source for animal feed.

Dehydrated and live black soldier fly larvae as environmental enrichment in indigenous slow-growing chickens: performance, gut health, and chitinolytic enzyme activity

The demand for sustainable and ethically farmed animal products is on the rise as consumers become more environmentally and animal welfare conscious. The need to diminish the consumption of soybean meal is urgent, and companies are looking for ways to respond to this necessity by looking for alternatives to soybean meal. This study assessed the impact of introducing whole dehydrated and live black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) into the diet of an indigenous chicken breed as environmental enrichment. A total of 144 39-day-old male Bianca di Saluzzo chickens were distributed among 18 pens and assigned to three different experimental groups. The control group received a diet where soybean meal was entirely replaced by alternative ingredients. The two experimental groups were given the same diet supplemented with 5% of the expected daily feed intake of whole dehydrated BSFL or whole live BSFL. Throughout the trial period (from the bird age of 39-174 days of age), live weight was recorded every 21 days, and the average daily gain, daily feed intake, and feed conversion ratio were calculated. The time required for the birds to consume the larvae was recorded three times a week. At age 147 and 174 days, 12 birds per treatment were selected based on mean live weight and slaughtered. Measurements included hot and chilled carcass weights, organ weights (spleen, liver, heart, stomach), breast and thigh muscle weights, and the corresponding yields were calculated. Acid protease activity was measured in proventriculus extract, and chitinase and chitosanase activity was calculated based on the release of reducing sugars from chitin or chitosan. The results showed little improvement in final live weights and daily feed intakes of the animals fed the insect larvae compared with control birds. Larva supplementation had no negative impact on the overall well-being of the animals assessed by blood analysis and histopathological assessment of the intestinal tract, spleen, and liver. No differences were found between the dehydrated vs live insect larvae consumption times, with all larvae being eaten up very rapidly (< 3 min). The birds fed BSFL showed an increase in chitinase activity. These findings support the potential use of whole BSFL as a form of environmental enrichment, particularly in their dehydrated form, being more convenient to use and store, which would also encourage the uptake of this practice by farmers.