Optimization for the production of exopolysaccharide from Fomes fomentarius in submerged culture and its antitumor effect in vitro

Anti-proliferative potential of extracellular beta-glucans isolated from Trametes hirsuta in carcinoma and leukemic cell lines

This study aims to extract, purify, and characterize water-soluble extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) from Trametes hirsuta and evaluate their antiproliferative effects. The anionic fraction (AF), a purified form extracellular polysaccharide consisting of glucose-based polymeric units, was isolated through chromatographic purification. The FTIR spectrum showed characteristic absorption peaks at 876.12 cm-1 and 826.89 cm-1 corresponding to β configuration and absorption peaks at 1019.63 cm-1, 1118.10 cm-1, and 1187.92 cm-1 corresponding to pyranose form of the glucosyl residue. 1H NMR signals at δ 4.90 ppm and δ 4.28 ppm were representative of anomeric protons, while 13C NMR spectrum signals around δ 97.85 ppm, δ 93.12 ppm, δ 77.79 ppm, δ 75.89 ppm, δ 71.51 ppm, and δ 62.28 ppm attributed to C-1, C-3, C-5, C-2, C-4, and C-6 carbon atom of EPS. The aforementioned results showed that the purified EPS was made of β-D (1 → 3) glucan moiety. The anti-proliferative activity of EPS was screened against four carcinoma cell lines, HepG2, HEp-2, HT-29 and PC3, and one leukemic cell line, MOLT-4, was used. Purified EPS demonstrated significantly greater cytotoxicity against HT-29, followed by MOLT-4, HepG2, and HEp2, compared to crude EPS. However, it was ineffective against PC-3, a prostate cancer cell line.

Evaluation of in vitro pharmacological activities of medicinal mushrooms in the context of dry eye disease

Introduction

Ethnic groups worldwide use mushrooms, particularly polypores (a group of fungi with woody fruiting bodies), to manage inflammatory conditions. In this study, the in vitro anti-inflammatory potential and mycochemical composition of six polypore extracts derived from the fruit bodies of Fomes fomentarius (L.) Fr. (FF), Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) P. Karst. (GL), Ganoderma tsugae Murrill (GT), Gloeophyllum odoratum (Wulfen) Imazeki (GO), Laricifomes officinalis (Vill.) Kotl. and Pouzar (LO), and the sclerotium of Inonotus obliquus (Fr.) Pilát (IO) were analyzed for their relevance to treat dry eye disease (DED).

Methods

Ethanolic extracts of the fungal materials were prepared and chemically characterized by UHPLC-ELSD/MS and TLC analyses before investigating the extracts' cytotoxic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-stimulating properties. Radical scavenging and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) assays were carried out in UVB-exposed human corneal epithelial (HCE-T) and immortalized human meibomian gland epithelial (IHMGEC) cells to evaluate antioxidant capacities. To examine the influence of the extracts of the inflammatory processes, associated with DED, a secretion assay for pro-inflammatory cytokines was conducted in UVB-exposed HCE-T and LPS-stimulated monocytic THP-1 cells. The lipid droplets secreted by IHMGECs were analyzed to determine the extracts' lipid-stimulating properties.

Results

Extracts of GT, GL, GO, and IO found to have high radical scavenging abilities. They significantly reduced intracellular ROS in UVB-exposed HCE-T and iHMGEC cells. GO and GL extracts inhibited cytokine secretion in HCE-T cells even at low concentrations. All tested extracts significantly inhibited the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IP10, IL-6, IL-8, and α) in LPS-stimulated monocytic THP-1 cells.

Conclusion

Several extracts of the investigated fungal materials exhibit multifaceted pharmacological in vitro activities. Due to low cytotoxic activity on HCE-T, iHMGEC, and THP-1 cells, extracts from GL and GO are particularly pertinent to the treatment of DED, even at low concentrations.

Microbial exopolysaccharides: Classification, biosynthetic pathway, industrial extraction and commercial production to unveil its bioprospection: A comprehensive review

Polysaccharides, found universally in all living-species, exhibit diverse biochemical structures and play crucial roles in microorganisms, animals, and plants to defend against pathogens, environmental stress and climate-changing. Microbial exopolysaccharides are essential for cell adhesion and stress resilience and using them has notable advantages over synthetic polysaccharides. Exopolysaccharides have versatile structures and physicochemical properties, used in food systems, therapeutics, cosmetics, agriculture, and polymer industries. Immense economic and infrastructural constraints hinder its widespread commercial use, necessitating a deeper understanding of metabolic-pathways amidst changing environmental climate that influences the biomass composition of EPS-producing wild-microbes. Green and sustainable extraction of EPS from microbes followed by commercial product development has still not been exploited comprehensively. Yield of EPS production vary from 0.1 to 3 g/g of cell weight, influenced by fermentation conditions. Economic barriers, including substrate and processing costs, limit commercial viability. Key biosynthetic pathways involve glycosyltransferases enzymes, whose regulatory network gaps and substrate specificity remain areas for optimization. Addressing these could enhance yields and lower production costs. Review illustrates various microbial-exopolysaccharides, influencing factors of production, and offer valuable insights on the bioplastic, biofuel, agri-bioproduct, and biomedicine. But their bioprospecting potential is yet to be exhaustively explored, along with their pros and cons nor documented comprehensively in scientific literature.

Comparative evaluation of free radical scavenging activity and total metabolite profiles among 30 macrofungi species

The high antioxidant content of mushrooms such as polyphenols, polysaccharides, carotenoids, ergothioneine, glutathione, vitamins, and other compounds, has sparked interest in their potential use in preventive and therapeutic medicine. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant potential of various macrofungi by measuring 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and quantifying two classes of compounds: phenolics (TPC) and polysaccharides, both endo- (IPS) and exopolysaccharides (EPS). Species-specific abilities to produce mycelium, polysaccharides, and polyphenols were observed under submerged cultivation without agitation over 14 days. Mycelium productivity (PM) ranged significantly from 292 ± 11 to 1110 ± 37 mg·L⁻1·day⁻1, with the highest values observed in Ophiocordyceps sinensis (1110 ± 37 mg·L⁻1 ·day⁻1), Pleurotus djamor (1090 ± 14 mg·L⁻1·day⁻1), and Cordyceps militaris (1080 ± 90 mg· L⁻1·day⁻1). The DPPH inhibition values of the extracts varied from 4.30 ± 0.20 to 87.9 ± 0.80%, while TPC ranged from 0.35 ± 0.10 to 34.6 ± 0.80 mg GAE/g d.w. Lentinula edodes was the best source of produced IPS (10.3 ± 0.35 g·L-1), while Hypsizygus marmoreus exhibited the highest EPS content (2.24 ± 0.30 g·L-1). Overall, IPS levels across species were higher, ranging from 1.56 to 10.3 g·L-1. In half of the fungal species, the mycelium exhibited superior antioxidant activity compared to culture broth. However, in the majority (66.7%), TPC was higher in the culture broth than in the fungal mycelium. Distinct scavenging abilities and metabolite profiles were observed among different isolates. Notably, the mycelium of Fomitopsis pinicola and L. edodes showed the highest DPPH inhibition and TPC. The antioxidant activity and TPC varied depending on the culture medium, and solvents used. The highest DPPH inhibition (90%) and TPC (38.5 ± 0.40 mg GAE/g d.w.) were observed in the methanol (MeOH) extract of F. pinicola mycelium grown in Sabouraud dextrose medium. Similarly, MeOH and ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extracts demonstrated strong DPPH inhibition (over 87%), while the maximum TPC (40.0 ± 0.60 mg GAE/g d.w.) was detected in the water (H2O) extract of L. edodes mycelium cultivated in glucose-peptone-yeast medium. A positive correlation was found between TPC and antioxidant activity, with Pearson's coefficient of 0.6615 for fungal mycelium, 0.1192 for culture broth, and 0.8924 and 0.7143 for F. pinicola and L. edodes, respectively. Both fungal mycelium and culture broth exhibit significant potential as natural antioxidants. These can be applied in nutraceuticals, food products, and nutritional supplements, offering diverse health benefits. Additionally, this study is a pioneering exploration of Auriporia aurea, Hohenbuehelia myxotricha, Lepista luscina, Oxyporus obducens, and Pseudospongipellis litschaueri, highlighting their largely unexplored potential for antioxidant applications.

Bacillus sonorinses derived exopolysaccharide enhances cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, necrosis, autophagy and COX-2 down regulation in liver cancer cells

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most serious types of cancer that accounts for numerous cancer deaths worldwide. HCC is poorly prognosed and is a highly chemotherapy-resistant tumor. Therefore, new treatments are urgently needed. Exopolysaccharides (EPS-1) produced from the novel Bacillus sonorensis strain was found to exhibit chemopreventive effects against cancer.

Objective

Evaluating the anti-cancer cytotoxic effect of exopolysaccharides (EPS-1) produced by the newly studied Bacillus sonorensis strain SAmt2.

Methods

The cytotoxic activity was investigated through cell cycle, apoptosis, and autophagy analyses using flow cytometry technique. Also, the effect of EPS-1 on Huh7 release of COX-2 was examined using ELISA.

Results

Our results revealed that EPS-1exhibit an anti-proliferative effect on Huh7 cells through decreasing the percentage of cells at the S-phase and G2 phase, while increasing the cell population at the sub-G1 and G1 phases. Apoptosis analysis showed that EPS-1 increased necrotic and apoptotic cell fractions in EPS-1 treated Huh7. In addition, it induced significant autophagic cell death in the Huh7.Finally, antiproliferative and apoptosis induction results were supportedby ELISA assay results where the protein level of COX-2 was declined.

Conclusion

: In conclusion, EPS-1 derived from B. sonorensis SAmt2, is a promising proliferation inhibitor of Huh7 cells with potential anticancer effects.

Antibacterial Efficacy and Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized via Methanolic Extract of Fomes fomentarius L. Fr

Green synthesis employs environmentally friendly, biodegradable substances for the production of nanomaterials. This study aims to develop an innovative method for synthesizing silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using a methanolic extract of Fomes fomentarius L. Fr. as the reducing agent and to assess the potential antibacterial properties of the resulting nanoparticles. The successful synthesis of AgNPs was confirmed through characterization techniques such as UV-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometry, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD). The UV-Vis analysis revealed an absorption peak at 423 nm, while FT-IR identified key phytochemical compounds involved in the reduction process. PXRD analysis indicated a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure with prominent peaks observed at 2θ = 38°, 44.6°, 64.6°, and 78°, confirming the crystalline nature of the AgNPs, with a crystallite diameter of approximately 24 nm, consistent with TEM analysis. The synthesized AgNPs demonstrated significant antibacterial activity, particularly against S. aureus, with higher efficacy against gram-positive bacteria.

Efficacy of exopolysaccharide in dye-laden wastewater treatment: A comprehensive review

The discharge of dye-laden wastewater into the water streams causes severe water and soil pollution, which poses a global threat to aquatic ecosystems and humans. A diverse array of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae produce exopolysaccharides (EPS) of different compositions and exhibit great bioflocculation potency to sustainably eradicate dyes from water bodies. Nanomodified chemical composites of EPS enable their recyclability during dye-laden wastewater treatment. Nevertheless, the selection of potent EPS-producing strains and physiological parameters of microbial growth and the remediation process could influence the removal efficiency of EPS. This review will intrinsically discuss the fundamental importance of EPS from diverse microbial origins and their nanomodified chemical composites, the mechanisms in EPS-mediated bioremediation of dyes, and the parametric influences on EPS-mediated dye removal through sorption/bioflocculation. This review will pave the way for designing and adopting futuristic green and sustainable EPS-based bioremediation strategies for dye-laden wastewater in situ and ex situ.

Extracts from Four Species of Xylotrophic Basidiomycetes Growing in the Middle Urals (Russia) Revealed Cytotoxic Effects on Model Object Drosophila melanogaster

In our study, four species of wood-decaying fungi with perennial fruiting bodies were used as the source of biologically active compounds (BACs) - Inonotus obliquus (chaga), Fomitopsis pinicola, Fomes fomentarius, and Ganoderma applanatum. Fungi have a wide range of secondary metabolites but are used much less frequently than plants in both folk and official medicine. Fungotherapy could be considered a promising trend in the development of modern natural therapy. Therefore, qualitative and quantitative analyses of the extracts were carried out. The cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of aqueous-alcoholic extracts, obtained from fungal fruiting bodies were assessed after application on Drosophila melanogaster. The frequency of the larvae lethally, SMART mosaicism, the GstD1 gene expression and the DNA damage were studied. The addition of 0.5% of fungal extracts to the food substrate did not cause a significant change in the lethality level in D. melanogaster. All extracts caused an increase in the degree of DNA damage. The greatest effect was caused by extract from I. obliquus and G. applanatum. Chaga extract caused a significant increase in the expression level of the GstD1 gene. F. fomentarius extract exhibited the lowest level of DNA damage and reduced GstD1 gene expression. The F. fomentarius extract showed a pronounced antiproliferative effect. So, Drosophila melanogaster could be used as the preliminary test object for early studies of biological activities from natural raw materials as it is much cheaper compared with cell lines and vertebrate models.

Recent developments on natural polysaccharides as potential anti-gastric cancer substance: Structural feature and bioactivity

Gastric cancer (GC) is being a serious threat to human health. Seeking safer and more effective ingredients for anti-GC is of significance. Increasing natural polysaccharides (NPs) have been demonstrated to possess anti-GC activity. However, the information on anti-GC NPs is scattered. For well-understanding the potential of NPs as anti-GC substances, the recent developments on structure, bioactivity and mechanism of anti-GC NPs were comprehensively reviewed in this article. Meanwhile, the structure-activity relationship was discussed. Recent studies indicated that anti-GC NPs could be mainly divided into glucan and heteropolysaccharide, whose structures affected by sources and protocols of extraction and purification. NPs exhibited anti-GC activities in cell and animal experiments as well as clinical trials, and the mechanisms might be anti-proliferation, inducing apoptosis, anti-metastasis and anti-invasion, inducing autophagy, boosting immunity, anti-angiogenesis, reducing drug resistance, anti-angiogenesis, improving antioxidant level and changing metabolites. Moreover, structural features included molecular weight, functional groups, uronic acid and monosaccharide composition, glycosidic linkage type, and degree of branching and conformation might influence the activities. Otherwise, modifications could enhance the anti-GC activity of NPs, and anti-GC NPs could be combinedly used with chemotherapeutic drugs. This review supports the applications of NPs in anti-GC and provides theoretical basis for future study.

Advances in Pilot-Scale Stirred Bioreactors in Solid-State and Submerged Cultivations of Medicinal Mushrooms

Great interest for large-scale production of medicinal mushroom biomass and various pharmaceutically active compounds production dictates the development of comprehensive technologies. Solid state and submerged cultivations in bioreactors represent the most promising technologies for fast and large amount production of medicinal fungi biomass and pharmaceutically active products for human and veterinary need. There are many stages from shaking culture studies to large-scale industrial production. Pilot-scale studies represent the bridge and the balance between the gap of laboratory and industrial scale. Therefore it is not a surprise that most of pilot-scale results and experiences remain uncovered industrial secrets. This chapter is an overview of available engineering achievements in submerged and solid-state cultivation experiences in pilot-scale bioreactors.

Submerged cultivation, characterization and in vitro antitumor activity of polysaccharides from Schizophyllum radiatum

Production of polysaccharides by white-rot-fungi in submerged cultivation has several advantages due to process control. This work deals with the submerged cultivation, extraction and antitumor activity of polysaccharides from a wild strain of Schizophyllum radiatum isolated from a tropical forest of Colombia. The mushroom was cultivated in laboratory conditions, and classified by classical and molecular taxonomy. Submerged cultivation was performed in a bioreactor of 5 L using a ligninolytic residue as substrate. The fermentation conditions were 30 ± 1 °C, pH 4.5, 300 rpm and 1.5 vvm of air for 4 days. The yields were 16.8 g/L (w/v) of biomass, and after extraction, 0.6 g/L of water-soluble exopolysaccharide (SEPS) and 2.01 % (w/w) of water-soluble intrapolysaccharide (SIPS) were obtained. In each extract total carbohydrate, glucans and protein contents were determined. Also, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry (XRD), high performance liquid chromatography with refraction index detection (HPLC-RI), high performance gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) analysis were performed. Results indicated that SEPS and SIPS are heteropolysaccharides with amorphous structure and high molecular weights. Antitumor and immunostimulant activity was evaluated in different cancer cell lines. The results suggest these polysaccharides have direct and indirect antitumor activity activating immune cells such as macrophages. These findings enhance our knowledge about new sources of fungal metabolites that serve as adjuvant, cheaper and less harmful alternatives to cancer treatment.

Production of β-glucan exopolysaccharide lasiodiplodan by Lasiodiplodia theobromae CCT 3966 from corn bran acid hydrolysate

The potential utilization of corn bran acid hydrolysate (CBAH) was evaluated as an inexpensive feedstock for the production of a rich carbohydrate and protein medium for lasiodiplodan (LAS) production using the filamentous fungus Lasiodiplodia theobromae CCT 3966. Experiments were performed according to a 2² CCRD experimental design aiming to evaluate the influence of agitation speed (rpm) and temperature (°C) over the production of total cell biomass (TCB) and LAS concentration released to the medium (LAS-M), adhered to biomass (LAS-C), and total (LAS-T). Under the selected conditions (temperature of 28°C and agitation of 200 rpm), 8.73 g·L^-1 of LAS-T and 4.47 g·L^-1 of TCB were obtained. Recovery of LAS-C with hot water was shown as an alternative to increase the production concentration, although it might require further purification steps. CBAH potential for substitution of synthetic media was demonstrated, indicating that it is an adequate raw material containing all necessary nutrients for LAS production.Key points• Corn bran acid hydrolysate is presented as a suitable substrate for β-glucan production.• Lasiodiplodia theobromae CCT 3966 have the potential for the industrial β-glucan production.• Simple recovering of biomass-adhered lasiodiplodan by hot water extraction.

Production of bacterial cellulose using Gluconacetobacter kombuchae immobilized on Luffa aegyptiaca support

The present work report for the first time on the production of bacterial cellulose (BC) using natural loofa sponge (Luffa aegyptiaca) as a scaffold for the immobilization of Gluconacetobacter kombuchae. Bacterial cellulose (BC) are recently gained more attention in several fields including biological and biomedical applications due to their outstanding physico-chemical characteristics including high thermal stability, easy biodegradability, good water holding capacity, high tensile strength, and high degree of polymerization. The increase in requirement of alternative method for the enhancement of BC production under economical aspect develops a positive impact in large scale industries. In this study, Luffa aegyptiaca (LA) was introduced in a separate fermentation medium so as to enhance the concentration of BC production by Gluconacetobacter kombuchae. Different process/medium parameters such as initial pH, static/shaking condition, inoculum size, nitrogen source, C/N ratio, supplements (ethanol and acetic acid) were analysed for the production of bacterial cellulose using LA support. The maximum yield of BC was obtained using following condition: culturing condition -shaking; initial pH - 5.5; nitrogen source- yeast extract, C/N ratio - 40 and supplement-ethanol. The characterization of the BC was examined using Fourier Transform Infra-Red spectroscopy and thermo gravimetric analysis. The biofilm formation on the surface of LA was examined by SEM photographs. Thus, implementation of LA as a support in shaking fermentation under suitable medium/process variables enhanced the BC production.

Application of microbial extracellular carbohydrate polymeric substances in food and allied industries

Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) are biopolymers, composed of polysaccharides, nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, which possess unique functional properties. Despite significant strides made in chemical production processes for polymers, the niche occupied by exopolysaccharides produced by bacteria, yeast or algae is steadily growing in its importance. With the availability of modern tools, a lot of information has been generated on the physico-chemical and biological properties using spectrometric tools, while advanced microscopic techniques have provided valuable insights into the structural-functional aspects. The size of EPS generally ranges between 10 and 10,000 kDa. The wide spectra of applications of EPS as adhesives, stabilizer, gelling, suspending, thickening agent, and surfactants in food and pharmaceutical industries are observed. The health benefits of these EPS enable the improvement of dual function, added value, and green products. This review summarizes previous work on the structural composition, rheological and thermal behaviour, and biosynthetic pathways of EPS and bioprocesses developed for their production. This review also considers each of the above factors and presents the current knowledge on the importance and refinement of available downstream protocols and genetic engineering towards specific food applications, which can help to diversify their prospects in different food and allied industries.

Selenium-enriched Coriolus versicolor mushroom biomass: potential novel food supplement with improved selenium bioavailability

BACKGROUND

The ability of Coriolus versicolor medicinal mushroom to accumulate and transform selenium from selenourea and sodium selenite into an organic form - l-selenomethionine - during growth in liquid medium is examined in this paper. Additionally, the impact of supplementation on biological activity of the selenated mushroom methanol extracts, as well as their chemical composition, is studied.

RESULTS

Selenium accumulation was more efficient with sodium selenite application, but biomass yield was significantly lower (1.89 g DW L^-1 ) compared to samples enriched with selenourea (4.48 g DW L^-1 ). Mushroom sample obtained after growing in liquid medium with selenourea had significantly higher l-selenomethionine content compared to the sample grown in medium with sodium selenite. Selenium-enriched methanol extracts of C. versicolor mushroom showed improved antimicrobial and antioxidant activities compared to non-enriched extract.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that C. versicolor mushroom cultivated in liquid culture enriched with selenourea can be used for the production of novel food supplements with improved selenium bioavailability. More than 30% of total accumulated selenium from selenourea is transformed into l-selenomethionine. Differences in biological activity of methanol extracts can be explained not only by different selenium content but also by the differences in chemical composition of extracts. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

The effect of fermentation conditions on the structure and anti-tumor activity of polysaccharides from Cordyceps gunnii

This study investigates the effect of fermentation conditions on the structure and anti-tumor activity of intracellular polysaccharides (IPS) of Cordyceps gunnii (C. gunnii) in submerged fermentation. The environmental and nutritional conditions are determined in a shaker flask by a single factor test. The inhibition of IPS on S180 cells was as an optimization index. The results show that the optimal fermentation conditions of C. gunnii are an initial pH value of 6, a temperature of 25 °C, a rotation speed of 150 rpm, 4% glucose, and 1.0% peptone. Under these conditions, the macro molecular weight (M w) polysaccharide content and anti-tumor activity of IPS are significantly higher than that in the basal culture medium. GC, HPGPC, periodate oxidation-Smith degradation, NMR, and FT-IR determine the structural characteristics of CPS-JC and CPS-YH (pure IPS cultured in basal culture medium and optimal culture medium, respectively). The results indicate that CPS-JC is mainly composed of α-d-glucans, whereas CPS-YH primarily contain α-d-glucans with a trace amount of β-d-glucans.

Bioactive exopolysaccharide from Neopestalotiopsis sp. strain SKE15: Production, characterization and optimization

Fungal exopolysaccharides are powerful resources of medicinal applications. Neopestalotiopsis sp. SKE15 was isolated and identified according to phenotypical and genotypical analyses (GenBank Accession No. MG649986). The exopolysaccharide (EPS) was produced by cultivation of mycelia in broth culture and extracted. The production was optimized to 2.02 g/l after selection of agitation, temperature, FeSO₄ and K₂HPO₄ concentrations as the most influencing factors using Placket-Burman design and then by applying response surface methodology. Analytical Tools showed that the EPS is composed of a polysaccharide (1.5-2.1 × 10⁶ Da) and its probable low molecular weight derivatives, in a wide range of chain lengths, among them an oligosaccharide of about 1970 Da was dominant. GC-MS (Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) analysis revealed the EPS was mainly constructed from d-glucose, sorbitol and D-galactose. The EPS showed antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853. DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl) and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity assays showed strong antioxidant activity of the EPS. A challenge with three different cancerous cell lines showed cytotoxic activity of the EPS at final concentration of 100 and 200 μg/ml. Further investigation on medicinal applications of the biopolymer is promising.

The microbiome profiling of fungivorous black tinder fungus beetle Bolitophagus reticulatus reveals the insight into bacterial communities associated with larvae and adults

Saproxylic beetles play a crucial role in key processes occurring in forest ecosystems, and together with fungi contribute to the decomposition and mineralization of wood. Among this group are mycetophilic beetles which associate with wood-decaying fungi and use the fruiting body for nourishment and development. Therefore, their feeding strategy (especially in the case of fungivorous species) requires special digestive capabilities to take advantage of the nutritional value of fungal tissue. Although polypore-beetle associations have been investigated in numerous studies, detailed studies focusing on the microbiome associated with species feeding on fruiting bodies of polypores remain limited. Here we investigated the bacterial communities associated with larvae and adults of Bolitophagus reticulatus collected from Fomes fomentarius growing on two different host tree: beech (Fagus sp.) and birch (Betula sp.), respectively. Among 24 identified bacterial phyla, three were the most relatively abundant (Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes). Moreover, we tried to find unique patterns of bacteria abundances which could be correlated with the long-term field observation showing that the fruiting bodies of F. fomentarius, growing on birch are more inhabited by beetles than fruiting bodies of the same fungus species growing on beech. Biochemical analyses showed that the level of protease inhibitors and secondary metabolites in F. fomentarius is higher in healthy fruiting bodies than in the inhabited ones. However, tested microbiome samples primarily clustered by developmental stage of B. reticulatus and host tree did not appear to impact the taxonomic distribution of the communities. This observation was supported by statistical analyses.

Fomes fomentarius Ethanol Extract Exerts Inhibition of Cell Growth and Motility Induction of Apoptosis via Targeting AKT in Human Breast Cancer MDA-MB-231 Cells

Fomes fomentarius, an edible mushroom, is known to have anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetes effects. However, the underlying anti-cancer mechanism of F. fomentarius is unknown. To determine the molecular mechanism of the anti-cancer effects of F. fomentarius, various methods were used including fluorescence-activated cell sorting, Western blotting, migration, and crystal violet assays. F. fomentarius ethanol extract (FFE) decreased cell viability in six cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, A549, H460, DU145, and PC-3). FFE decreased the migration of MDA-MB-231 cells without causing cell toxicity. Furthermore, FFE attenuated the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and phosphorylation of Akt as well as increased E-cadherin in MDA-MB-231 cells. FFE arrested the S and G2/M populations by inhibiting the expression of cell cycle regulatory proteins such as cyclin-dependent kinase 2, cyclin A/E, and S-phase kinase-associated protein 2. FFE increased the sub-G1 population and expression of cleaved caspase-9, -3, and cleaved poly adenosine diphosphate (ADP-ribose) polymerase at 72 h and suppressed B-cell lymphoma 2. Interestingly, FFE and AKT inhibitors showed similar effects in MDA-MB-231 cells. Additionally, FFE contained betulin which inhibited p-AKT in MDA-MB-231 cells. Our findings demonstrate that FFE inhibits cell motility and growth and induces apoptosis by inhibiting the phsphoinositide 3- kinase /AKT pathway and caspase activation.

Current status of biotechnological production and applications of microbial exopolysaccharides

Microbial exopolysaccharides (EPS) are an abundant and important group of compounds that can be secreted by bacteria, fungi and algae. The biotechnological production of these substances represents a faster alternative when compared to chemical and plant-derived production with the possibility of using industrial wastes as substrates, a feasible strategy after a comprehensive study of factors that may affect the synthesis by the chosen microorganism and desirable final product. Another possible difficulty could be the extraction and purification methods, a crucial part of the production of microbial polysaccharides, since different methods should be adopted. In this sense, this review aims to present the biotechnological production of microbial exopolysaccharides, exploring the production steps, optimization processes and current applications of these relevant bioproducts.

First insight into microbiome profile of fungivorous thrips Hoplothrips carpathicus (Insecta: Thysanoptera) at different developmental stages: molecular evidence of Wolbachia endosymbiosis

Insects' exoskeleton, gut, hemocoel, and cells are colonized by various microorganisms that often play important roles in their host life. Moreover, insects are frequently infected by vertically transmitted symbionts that can manipulate their reproduction. The aims of this study were the characterization of bacterial communities of four developmental stages of the fungivorous species Hoplothrips carpathicus (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae), verification of the presence of Wolbachia, in silico prediction of metabolic potentials of the microorganisms, and sequencing its mitochondrial COI barcode. Taxonomy-based analysis indicated that the bacterial community of H. carpathicus contained 21 bacterial phyla. The most abundant phyla were Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacterioidetes and Firmicutes, and the most abundant classes were Alphaproteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria and Betaproteobacteria, with different proportions in the total share. For pupa and imago (adult) the most abundant genus was Wolbachia, which comprised 69.95% and 56.11% of total bacterial population respectively. Moreover, similarity analysis of bacterial communities showed that changes in microbiome composition are congruent with the successive stages of H. carpathicus development. PICRUSt analysis predicted that each bacterial community should be rich in genes involved in membrane transport, amino acid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, replication and repair processes.

Anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects of exopolysaccharides isolated from Pleurotus geesteranus on alcohol-induced liver injury

The present work investigated the hepatoprotective role of exopolysaccharides (EPS) isolated from the mushroom Pleurotus geesteranus with respect to alcohol-induced liver injury in mice. Based on a physico-chemical analysis, the EPS produced by Pleurotus geesteranus was identified as a heteropolysaccharide with α-glycosidic bond. The results revealed that prophylactic application of the EPS reduces detrimental alcoholic effects on the liver. This observation was followed by decreased levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, CYP2E1 and pro-inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, COX-2, NO and iNOS) in the liver homogenates, suggesting that the EPS exhibits anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects. Moreover, the increased activity of hepatic enzymes (superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase) and reduced lipid peroxidation status indicated that the antioxidative effect of the EPS contributes to alleviation of liver injury. Therefore, this study reports that the EPS produced by Pleurotus geesteranus could be considered a potential natural drug or functional food supplement for the prevention of liver damage.

Production and Bioactivity-Guided Isolation of Antioxidants with α-Glucosidase Inhibitory and Anti-NO Properties from Marine Chitinous Materials

Natural and bioactive products have been of great interest due to their benefit as health foods and drugs to prevent various diseases. The aim of this study is to efficiently reuse marine chitinous materials (CMs), abundant and low-cost fishery by-products, for the bio-synthesis, isolation, and identification of antioxidant compounds possessing some other beneficial bioactivities. Paenibacillus sp. was used to convert CMs to antioxidants. Among various tested CMs, squid pen powder (SPP) gave the best results when used as the sole carbon/nitrogen source. Fermented SPP (FSPP) had comparable antioxidant activity (IC50 = 124 µg/mL) to that of α-tocopherol (IC50 = 30 µg/mL). The antioxidant productivity increased 1.83-fold after culture optimization. The use of multiple techniques, including Diaion, silica, and preparative HPLC columns coupled with a bioassay resulted in the isolation of two major antioxidants characterized as exopolysaccharides and homogentisic acid. These isolated compounds showed great maximum activity and low IC50 values (96%, 30 µg/mL and 99%, 5.4 µg/mL, respectively) which were comparable to that of α-tocopherol (95%, 24 µg/mL). The crude sample, fractions, and isolated compounds also demonstrated α-glucosidase inhibition and anti⁻inflammatory activity. Notably, homogentisic acid was found as a non-sugar-based moiety α-glucosidase inhibitor which show much higher inhibition (IC50 = 215 µg/mL) than that of acarbose (IC50 = 1324 µg/mL) and also possessed acceptable anti⁻inflammatory activity (IC50 = 9.8 µg/mL). The results highlighted the value of using seafood processing by-products, like squid pens, for the production of several compounds possessing multi-benefit bioactivities and no cytotoxicity.

The characterization, renoprotection and antioxidation of enzymatic and acidic exopolysaccharides from Hypsizigus marmoreus

The present work was designed to investigate the characterization, as well as the antioxidation and renoprotection in streptozocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice, of exopolysaccharides (EPS) and the enzymatic-EPS (EEPS) and acidic-EPS (AEPS) hydrolysates, which were separated from the fermentation liquor of Hypsizigus marmoreus. Animal results demonstrated that EPS, EEPS and AEPS had potential antioxidant and renoprotective effects, especially EEPS. Additionally, they were the most effective, reflecting increases in superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), catalase (CAT), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), and albumin (ALB) of 168.33%, 124.8%, 268.17% 179.49%, and 68.71%, respectively, and decreases in the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA), lipid peroxide (LPO) and levels of serum urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine (CRE) by 70.58%, 58.43%, 23.97% and 29.60%, respectively, at a dose of 800 mg/kg compared to those of model mice. Three polysaccharides ameliorated the histopathological alterations which were observed in the kidney of diabetic mice. Furthermore, the characterization of polysaccharides had been expressed. These findings indicated that the EEPS from H. marmoreus possesses more effective renoprotection and antioxidation effects and provided insight into its potential clinical values on preventing diabetes.

A water-soluble polysaccharide from Grifola frondosa induced macrophages activation via TLR4-MyD88-IKKβ-NF-κB p65 pathways

Here, the immunomodulatory effects of water-soluble polysaccharide from Grifola frondosa on RAW264.7 macrophages and its molecular mechanisms were investigated. G. frondosa polysaccharide could obviously enhance immunostimulatory activity such as the release of nitric oxide and cytokine production. Western blotting results showed that G. frondosa polysaccharide elevated the TLR4, which might act as an upstream regulator of MyD88 induced G. frondosa polysaccharide. MyD88 promoted IKKβ in endochylema and translocate NF-κB p65 subunit into the nucleus which increased the NO production and cytokine/chemokines level. The results suggested that G. frondosa polysaccharide activated macrophages through TLR4-MyD88-IKKβ-NF-κBp65 signaling pathways.

Preparation and Bioactivity of Exopolysaccharide from an Endophytic Fungus Chaetomium sp. of the Medicinal Plant Gynostemma Pentaphylla

Background:

Many exopolysaccharides from the endophytes in medicinal plants possess various potential bioactivities.

Materials and Methods:

The endophytic fungus JY25 was isolated from the leave of the Chinese medicinal plant Gynostemma pentaphylla and identified as Chaetomium sp. by its phylogenetic and physiological analysis. One exopolysaccharide (EPS) fraction was isolated from the fermentation broth by ethanol precipitation and purified by gel filtration chromatography on Sepharose CL-6B. The molecular characteristics were examined by GC-MS, FT-IR, and multiangle laser light scattering (MALLS).

Results:

The monosaccharide composition analysis indicated that the purified EPS was mainly composed of glucose, mannose, arabinose, and galactose with the molecular ratio of 78.29: 8.99: 8.64: 4.08. FT-IR spectral analysis of the purified EPS revealed prominent characteristic groups, such as carbonyl bond, pyranose ring, and so on. The weight-average molar mass and the polydispersity ratio of the EPS were revealed to be 1.961×10⁴ g/mol and 1.838, respectively. Furthermore, thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated that the degradation temperature of the purified EPS was 305^° C. The purified EPS from the endophytic fungus Chaetomium sp. displayed antioxidant and antiproliferative activities.

Conclusion:

The results demonstrated that the EPS could be used as a healthful food and material source in pharmaceutical industries.

SUMMARY

An exopolysaccharides (EPS) with antioxidant and antiproliferative activities from an endophytic fungus Chaetomium sp. was reported.

Abbreviations used: ANOVA: Analysis of variance; DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; EPS: Exopolysaccharide; FT-IR: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; GC-MS: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry; Mw: Mass weight; MALLS: Multiangle laser light scattering; SEC: Size Exclusion Chomatography; SPSS: Statistical Package of the Social Science; TGA: Thermo gravimetric analysis; TFA: Trifluoroacetic acid.

Hepatoprotective and in vitro antioxidant effects of native depolymerised-exopolysaccharides derived from Termitomyces albuminosus

In this study, native depolymerised-exopolysaccharides (DEPS) were successfully derived from the exopolysaccharides (EPS) of Termitomyces albuminosus, and its hepatoprotective effects against a high-fat emulsion and in vitro antioxidant activities were investigated. Based on the results of in vitro assays, DEPS showed superior antioxidant activities compared with EPS dose-dependently. According to the in vivo assays both EPS and DEPS significantly decreased the lipid levels, improved the enzymatic activities, and reduced lipid peroxidation in both serum and hepatic homogenates. Furthermore, EPS and DEPS attenuated the high-fat emulsion-induced histopathological injury to the liver. Both EPS and DEPS might be used as natural drugs to treat and protect against hyperlipidaemia and liver injury induced by a high-fat emulsion. In addition, based on the results of GC and HPLC analyses, rhamnose and low molecular weight compounds may play an important role in contributing to the antioxidant activities of EPS and DEPS.

Beta-glucan contamination of pharmaceutical products: How much should we accept?

Beta-glucans are large polysaccharides produced by a range of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. They have potential immunostimulatory properties and have been used with therapeutic intent as anti-microbial and anti-tumour agents. A range of other potentially beneficial effects have been described, and oral forms of beta-glucans are widely available over-the-counter and online. Parenteral formulations are popular in parts of Asia and are the subject of ongoing trials, worldwide. Beta-glucans are also potential contaminants of pharmaceutical products, and high levels have been described in some blood products. However, little is known about the clinical effects of such contamination, considerable uncertainty exists over the level at which immunostimulation may occur, and there are no guidelines available on acceptable levels. We encountered beta-glucan contamination of one of our products, and we suspect that others may encounter similar issues since the origin of beta-glucan contamination includes commonly used filters and solutions applied in the manufacture of biotherapeutic agents. It is likely that regulators will increasingly enquire about beta-glucan levels in pharmaceutical products, especially those with an immunomodulatory mechanism of action. Here, we review the literature on beta-glucans in pharmaceutical products and propose an acceptable level for therapeutic agents for parenteral use.

Fruit Extract from Pyropolyporus fomentarius (L. ex Fr.) Teng Induces Mitochondria-Dependent Apoptosis in Leukemia Cells but Enhances Immunomodulatory Activities of Splenic Lymphocytes

Pyropolyporus fomentarius (L. ex Fr.) Teng is a unique woody mushroom due to its medicinal value with numerous pharmacological activities. This study presented the potential antitumor and immunomodulatory properties of ethanol extract of P. fomentarius. The results showed that P. fomentarius extract inhibited the viability of murine leukemia L1210 cells in a dose-dependent manner with IC50 value of 69.35 μg/ml. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated that the extract induced apoptosis in L1210 cells. Additionally, the decline of mitochondrial membrane potential was observed as well as the changes of caspase-3, caspase-9, Bcl-2, and Bax, suggesting that proapoptosis effect of the extract involved mitochondria-related pathway. Simultaneously, the P. fomentarius extract significantly enhanced the proliferation and activation of splenic lymphocytes in a dose-dependent manner. This P. fomentarius extract has potential applications as a natural antitumor agent with immunomodulatory activity.