Bisphenol A and its substitutes in the aquatic environment: Occurrence and toxicity assessment

Roles of naturally occurring biogenic iron-manganese oxides (BFMO) in PMS-based environmental remediation: A complete electron transfer pathway

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a pervasive endocrine disruptor that enters the environment through anthropogenic activities, posing significant risks to ecosystems and human health. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are promising methods for the removal of organic microcontaminants in the environment. Biogenic manganese oxides (BMO) are reported as catalysts due to their transition metal nature, and are also readily generated by manganese-oxidizing microorganisms in the natural environment, and therefore their roles and effects in AOPs-based environmental remediation should be investigated. However, biogenic iron-manganese oxides (BFMO) are actually generated rather than BMO due to the coexistence of ferrous ions which can be oxidized to iron oxides. Therefore, this study produced BFMO originating from a highly efficient manganese-oxidizing fungus Cladosporium sp. XM01 and chose peroxymonosulfate (PMS) as a typical oxidant for the degradation of bisphenol A (BPA), a model organic micropollutant. Characterization results indicate that the formed BFMO was amorphous with a low crystallinity. The BFMO/PMS system achieved a high degradation performance that 85 % BPA was rapidly degraded within 60 min, and therefore the contribution of BFMO cannot be ignored during PMS-based environmental remediation. Different from the findings of previous studies (mostly radicals and singlet oxygen), the degradation mechanism was first proven as a 100 % electron-transfer pathway mediated by high-valence Mn under acidic conditions provided by PMS. The findings of this study provide new insights into the degradation mechanisms of pollutants using biogenic metal oxides in PMS activation and the contribution of their coexistence in AOPs-based environmental remediation.

Visible-light photocatalytic oxygen activation by oxygen vacancies-rich BiOI for enhanced removal of bisphenol A in water

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a persistent endocrine disruptor that poses high ecological and healthy risks. Photocatalytic oxygen (O2) activation has emerged as a promising technology for water decontamination, but its efficiency is often hindered by sluggish interfacial electron transfer between photocatalysts and O2 molecules. In this study, a Zn/S co-doping defect engineering strategy was developed to introduce oxygen vacancies (OVs) into BiOI for enhancing visible-light photocatalytic O2 activation and BPA removal. The OVs-rich BiOI with sub-band near the conduction band provided electron and reactant trapping sites that facilitated spatial separation of photogenerated electrons (e-) and holes (h+). The localized electrons at OVs reduced O2 via single-electron transfer to generate superoxide radicals (•O2-), which were further oxidized to singlet oxygen (1O2) by h+. Synergistic oxidation of 1O2 and h+ significantly enhanced BPA degradation, achieving approximately 90 % removal within 120 min. The reaction rate constant (0.01829 min-1) was nearly double that of pure BiOI (0.00948 min-1). Furthermore, the OVs-rich BiOI catalyst demonstrated excellent stability and reusability, maintaining >90 % BPA removal efficiency after five cycles of test. This study offers a new strategy for developing visible-light photocatalyst to remove recalcitrant emerging organic contaminants in water.

The developmental toxicity of bisphenol F exposure on the zebrafish larvae

As a major substitute for the bisphenol A (BPA), the use of the bisphenol F (BPF) has increased dramatically in recent years. Growing evidence suggest that BPF shares numerous toxicological properties with BPA, raising the concerns about its potential impact on the health of organisms. However, the developmental toxicity of BPF remains poorly understood. In this study, we conducted a 5-day BPF exposure experiment on zebrafish (Danio rerio) from blastula stage at concentrations of 2, 20, 200, and 2000 µg/L. Our results demonstrated a significant increase in hatching rates across all treatment groups at 2 days post-fertilization (dpf). The esr1 was significantly upregulated at 2000 µg/L by 5 dpf, while no significant change was observed in ar. The frequency of operculum loss significantly increased at exposure concentrations of 20, 200, and 2000 µg/L, and a notable increase in notochord loss was observed at 2000 µg/L. To explore the underlying mechanisms, transcriptomic analysis was performed to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed that the toxic effects of BPF were closely associated with osteoclast differentiation, the FoxO signaling pathway, and the MAPK signaling pathway. These pathways influenced critical biological processes, including response to stimuli, animal organ morphogenesis, detoxification, and biomineralization. This study provides evidence that BPF exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations (2 µg/L) is harmful to hatching, concentrations above 20 µg/L exhibit estrogenic-disrupting activity and exert toxicological effects on the development of the head skeleton in zebrafish. These effects are particularly linked to disruptions in osteoclast differentiation.

Effects of acute bisphenol A exposure on feeding and reproduction in sea urchin (Heliocidaris crassispina)

Bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine-disrupting chemical that is used globally in the production of many plastics, is a pervasive environmental contaminant that poses a growing threat to various forms of life. However, data on its impact on invertebrates, particularly echinoderms, remain scarce, and there is no existing research on BPA's toxicity in adult sea urchins. This study investigates the impact of acute BPA exposure (100, 600, and 1500 μg/L for one week) in adult sea urchin Heliocidaris crassispina, focusing on feeding behaviors (including predation and anti-predation behaviors, digestive enzyme activity), reproductive physiology (including gonadal characteristics, sex hormone levels, and expression of reproduction-related genes), and transgenerational effects. Results show that BPA exposure significantly reduces feeding capacity, prolongs response times in behavioral assays, and decreases digestive enzyme activity, indicating impaired energy acquisition. Histological analysis reveals gonadal developmental delays. Biochemical analysis revealed significant alterations in sex hormone levels, with a severe imbalance in their ratios. Gene expression analysis indicates significant changes in reproductive-related genes (up-regulation of reproductive-related gene myp, down-regulation of sex hormone synthesis key gene cyp17), supporting endocrine disruption. Furthermore, BPA exposure leads to developmental delays in offspring, highlighting potential transgenerational risks. Notably, a non-monotonic dose response was observed across several physiological and molecular endpoints, consistent with those seen in other species. These findings provide new insights into BPA toxicity in marine invertebrates, emphasizing its threat to sea urchin populations and coastal ecosystem stability.

In situ bioelectrochemical remediation of contaminated soil and groundwater: A review

Contamination of the subsurface environment poses a serious hazard to the environment and human health. Recently, the bioelectrochemical system (BES) has drawn great attention in soil and groundwater remediation as it does not necessitate the addition of chemicals and exhibits minimal energy consumption to facilitate microbial degradation of pollutants. However, the complexity of the subsurface environment and the design parameters of the BES significantly affect the remediation performance and the current literature on BES primarily concentrates on its application in wastewater treatment, with a lack of summary of that in the subsurface environment. Therefore, the purpose of this review was to provide the current status, challenges, and outlooks of BES in situ treatment of pollutants from soil and groundwater. Firstly, the principles and efficacies of BES in treating the typical pollutants from the subsurface environment were discussed. Secondly, the factors that impact the BES treatment efficiencies, especially soil properties, the distinctive and pivotal factors for BES in situ application, were discussed specifically. Finally, the challenges and outlooks of BES for the in situ remediation of the contaminated soil and groundwater were addressed. BES is a green and sustainable in situ remediation technology and future advancements may necessitate the integration with complementary technologies and innovative system configurations to advance the practical implementation of BES.

Global occurrence of bisphenol compounds in breast milk and infant formula: A systematic review

Bisphenol compounds (BPs), particularly bisphenol A (BPA), are chemicals that are widely used in various industrial sections and come into contact with humans via different routes of exposure. Documented toxic effects of BPs include androgenicity, estrogenecity, cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity, etc. As a well-known member of bisphenols, BPA is an endocrine disruptor chemical (EDC) that has been the subject of safety regulations. Monitoring infants' exposure to BPs via consumption of breast milk and infant formula is essential as they are at critical stages of development and are potentially more vulnerable. Following a systematic search in databases PubMed and Scopus, out of 44 studies included in the present work, 27 and 13 analyzed breast milk and infant formula samples, respectively. In addition, 4 studies reported BPs levels in both matrices. BPA is the most frequently detected BP with concentrations in breast milk reaching up to 112.44 ng/g in samples from Taiwan and as high as 262 ng/g in formula samples from Canada. For breast milk and formula samples, Liquid Chromatography coupled with Tandem Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) were the most frequently employed methods of detection, respectively. Our review indicates scarcity of data on BPA analogs such as bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF), highlighting the necessity for assessment of the occurrence of all BPA analogs in these matrices.

Efficient enrichment and sensitive determination of endocrine disruptors in PPCPs by novel magnetic covalent organic framework extraction coupled with HPLC-MS/MS

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a growing class of pollutants commonly found in environmental matrices due to their extensive use in pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). In this study, a novel magnetic covalent organic framework (COF), Fe3O4-COOH@TFP-BHBD, was successfully synthesized and utilized as an adsorbent for magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) of EDCs from PPCPs. The core-shell structured adsorbent demonstrated a high specific surface area, strong magnetic responsiveness and excellent stability. A COF-MSPE-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (COF-MSPE-HPLC-MS/MS) method was developed for the quantitative analysis of EDCs in PPCPs. Under the optimized condition, the detection and quantification limits of this method reached as low as 0.001-0.007 ng/mL and 0.004-0.025 ng/mL, respectively. This method was validated and proven capable to analyze real PPCP samples, while the spiked recovery rates in ranged from 85.62 to 107.83 % with RSD of 2.28-8.58 %. Moreover, the adsorption mechanism was investigated using density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The DFT results revealed that the efficient enrichment capacity of Fe3O4-COOH@TFP-BHBD for EDCs can be attributed to π-π interactions and hydrogen bondings. This proposed method provides excellent adsorption ability and sensitivity for the extraction and precise detection of EDCs in PPCPs.

Adsorption of Bisphenol A onto β-Cyclodextrin-Based Nanosponges and Innovative Supercritical Green Regeneration of the Sustainable Adsorbent

Bisphenol A is a widely recognized endocrine disruptor that persists in ecosystems, harms aquatic organisms, and contributes to ecological degradation, raising global environmental concerns. Numerous studies have explored β-cyclodextrin-based adsorbents for Bisphenol A removal; however, their regeneration remains a major challenge, often relying on energy-intensive processes and excessive use of organic solvents. In this study, Bisphenol A was selected as a model pollutant, and its adsorption onto β-cyclodextrin nanosponges was investigated. After adsorption, Bisphenol A was efficiently recovered from the saturated β-cyclodextrin nanosponges using an innovative and sustainable supercritical CO2-based green process, which simultaneously regenerated the adsorbent. The adsorption process achieved an efficiency of 95.51 ± 0.82% under optimized conditions (C0 = 150 mg/L, mβ-CDNS = 0.15 g, T = 25 °C, and N = 200 rpm), with a maximum adsorption capacity of 47.75 ± 0.28 mg/g. The regeneration process achieved over 99% efficiency at 60 °C and 300 bar, with 10% (v/v) ethanol as a co-solvent, nearly fully restoring the adsorbent's performance. Unlike conventional regeneration techniques, this green approach eliminates the need for environmentally harmful organic solvents while preserving the adsorbent's structural integrity, making it a highly efficient and sustainable alternative. This study is the first to demonstrate the effective application of supercritical CO2-based regeneration for β-cyclodextrin nanosponges in Bisphenol A removal, providing a scalable and environmentally sustainable solution for wastewater treatment. Furthermore, characterization analyses confirmed that the adsorbent retained its chemical and morphological stability after adsorption and regeneration.

Mechanisms of bisphenol A and its analogs as endocrine disruptors via nuclear receptors and related signaling pathways

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely used chemical that is slowly being phased out due to its toxic properties. The industry is therefore looking for alternatives in the form of BPA analogs. However, studies have shown that BPA analogs can have comparable or even stronger endocrine and toxic effects than BPA. This review describes various mechanisms and interactions of BPA analogs with individual nuclear receptors. They interfere with downstream signaling pathways not only by binding to the nuclear receptors, but also by various alternative mechanisms, such as altering receptor expression, affecting co-receptors, altering signal transduction pathways, and even epigenetic changes. Further studies are needed to fully investigate the potential synergistic and additive effects that may result. In the search for a less harmful alternative to BPA, affinity to the nuclear receptor may not be the decisive factor. We therefore recommend a different study approach to assess their effects on the endocrine system before new BPA analogs are introduced to the market to protect public health and the environment.

Tailoring the synergistic effect of integrated polypyrrole hydrogel on the adsorption activity of rice husk-based activated carbon (polypyrrole/activated carbon composite) for bisphenol-A and 4-chlorophenol: experimental and theoretical analysis

Rice husk-derived activated carbon was hybridized with polypyrrole hydrogel (Pyh), producing advanced nanocomposite (Pyh/AC). The composite was applied as an enhanced adsorbent for two forms of toxic phenolic compounds, particularly bisphenol-A (BSP-A) and 4-chlorophenol (4-CL). The adsorption studies were evaluated considering the synthetic effect of Pyh based on the criteria of statistical physics equilibrium modeling. The reported saturation adsorption capacities for BSP-A and 4-CL using Pyh/AC are 321.4 mg/g and 365.8 mg/g, respectively. These values are significantly higher than the estimated values for the hydrogel in separated form. The analysis of the steric properties validated the saturation of the composite with about 169.7 mg/g and 119.5 mg/g as active site density during the uptake of BSP-A and 4-CL, respectively. These values are higher than the estimated densities using Pyh (110.5 mg/g (BSP-A) and 99.3 mg/g (4-CL)), demonstrating the positive impact of the hybridization process in terms of surface area, porosity, and incorporated chemical functional groups. Furthermore, the capacity of each site on the structure of Pyh/AC to accommodate up to 3 molecules of BSP-A and 6 molecules of 4-CL displays the operation of multi-molecular mechanisms and the ordering of these adsorbed molecules vertically and in non-parallel forms. The adsorption energies, either based on classic (<21 kJ/mol) or advanced (<20 kJ/mol) isotherm studies, reflect the physisorption of the phenolic compounds on the surface of Pyh/AC. The composite also shows thermodynamically stable properties and the uptake reactions that occurred with exothermic, favorable, and spontaneous properties.

Comprehensive assessment of the safety of bisphenol A and its analogs based on multi-toxicity tests in vitro

As substitutes for bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol analogs (BPs) have raised concerns due to their frequent environmental detection and unclear safety. Here, the cytotoxicity, endocrine disruption, neurotoxicity, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activity, and genotoxicity of nine BPs and BPA were evaluated in three types of cell lines. Over half of the tested BPs exhibited greater cytotoxicity than BPA, with IC50 values showing a linear correlation with LogKow (R²=0.69). All tested BPs exhibited at least one endocrine-disrupting effect, notably estrogenic, which was observable even at 0.01-0.1 μM. Importantly, BPAF and BPAP exposure had widespread endocrine-suppressing effects. Moreover, all BPs (except BPP) and BPA increased SH-SY5Y cells apoptosis at 1-10 μM. Only BPF and BPP significantly increased 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase levels, highlighting their notable effects on AhR activity. BPAF significantly induced DNA damage at 1.25 μM, whereas BPA, BPF, and BPP induced damage at 20, 25, and 25 μM, respectively. Finally, ToxPi, a weighted scoring system, was used to rank the comprehensive toxicity of BPs, with 7 of 9 BPs showing higher scores than BPA. Collectively, BPs generally exhibited stronger comprehensive toxicity compared with BPA, emphasizing the urgent need for further research to confirm their potential health implications.

Toxic Effects of Bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) Methane (BPF) on the Development and Reproduction of Chironomus tentans

Bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) methane (BPF), as a bisphenolic compound, has toxic effects on organisms such as endocrine disruption and immobilization of growth and development. This study evaluated the effect concentrations of BPF on Chironomus tentans and investigated the impact of BPF exposure at various sub-lethal concentrations on the growth, development, and reproductive capacity of different instars of C. tentans. The results demonstrated that exposure at concentrations of 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 4.0 mg·L-1 delayed pupation, inhibited the development of imaginal discs, and caused an initial rise followed by a decline in the expression levels of genes related to larval development (ecr, usp, e74). Additionally, exposure at concentrations of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mg·L-1 led to fluctuations in the expression levels of genes related to adult development and reproduction (ecr, kr-h1, foxo, inr, pdk, akt, and vg) in both female and male adults, with varying degrees of effect. Furthermore, BPF exposure inhibited male fertility, causing significant damage to the gonadal tissues, though it did not affect the final hatching of eggs. These findings indicate that BPF exhibits developmental and reproductive toxicity in C. tentans, with 2.0 mg·L-1 identified as the lowest effective concentration at which BPF affects pupation in midges.

The impact of bisphenol A on gill health: A focus on mitochondrial dysfunction induced disorders of energy metabolism and apoptosis in Meretrix petechialis

Bisphenol A (BPA), a well-known chemical compound used in various daily goods, has been associated with adverse effects on animal metabolic processes. However, the specific impacts of BPA exposure on clam gills remain largely unexplored. To investigate the effects of BPA on energy metabolism and apoptosis in Meretrix petechialis gills, clams were exposed to varying concentrations of BPA (1, 10, and 100 μg/L) for 21 days. Results showed that BPA exposure induced gill histopathological injuries and inhibited filtration rates. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis revealed mitochondrial injury and dysfunction as potential mechanisms of gill damage. Transcriptome analysis identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) primarily enriched in energy metabolism and apoptosis pathways. BPA-induced changes in ATP content, ATPase, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities suggested dysregulation of energy metabolism. TUNEL staining demonstrated enhanced apoptotic signals with increasing BPA concentrations. Activation of the caspase-3/9 pathway indicated a concentration-dependent, mitochondria-dependent apoptotic process. Additionally, the expression of genes associated with mitochondria (NNT, TOMM40, and SLC25A11), energy metabolism (PCK1 and pdhC), inducing mitochondria-dependent apoptosis (NFKB1, RAC1, and TRAF2), and oxidative stress (GSTT1) was affected by BPA exposure. Integrated biomarker response version 2 (IBRv2) values further confirmed a concentration-dependent gill toxicity of BPA via the mitochondrial pathway. These findings provide a deeper understanding of the toxicological mechanisms underlying BPA-induced toxicity in bivalves and contribute to assessing the risks posed by BPA in benthic ecosystems.

Contaminants of emerging concern in an endangered population of common eiders (Somateria mollissima) in the Baltic Sea

Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) are ubiquitous in aquatic environments and pose a range of biological effects including endocrine disruption. Yet, knowledge of their occurrence in wildlife including seabirds remains scarce. We investigated the occurrence of selected bisphenols, benzophenones, phthalate metabolites, benzotriazoles, benzothiazoles, parabens, triclosan, and triclocarban in plasma of 18 breeding female common eiders (Somateria mollissima) from an endangered population in the Baltic Sea as most of these CECs have never before been examined in eiders. We sampled blood at the start (T1) and end (T2) of incubation to investigate concentration changes during incubation. As early- and late-breeding eiders tend to differ in how they finance reproduction (local vs stored nutrient reserves), we compared early and late breeders to assess whether CEC concentrations differed by breeding phenology. Of the 58 targeted CECs, 21 were detected in at least one female, with bisphenol A (BPA) and benzophenone-3 (BzP-3) occurring most frequently (T1: 78% and 61%; T2: 61% and 67%, respectively), while mono(2-ethyl-1-hexyl) phthalate (mEHP), BPA, and monoethyl phthalate (mEP) were detected in the highest concentrations (median concentrations 27.1, 12.7, and 11.2 ng/g wet weight, respectively, at T1). No CEC concentrations differed between early and late incubation. Late breeders had significantly higher concentrations of BzP-3, monomethyl phthalate (mMP), and mEP during early incubation (4.55 vs 1.24 ng/g ww, 7.05 vs 3.52, and 11.2 vs < limit of detection (LOD), respectively) and significantly higher concentrations of mMP and mEP during late incubation (6.16 vs  Collapse

Key Words

• Avian
• Blood
• Duck
• Personal care product
• Plasticizer
• UV filter

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MESH Headings

• Animals
• Female
• Water Pollutants, Chemical/analysis
• Endangered Species
• Environmental Monitoring/methods
• Phenols
• Benzhydryl Compounds
• Ducks
• Benzophenones
• Endocrine Disruptors/analysis
• Phthalic Acids

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Affiliation(s)

Amalie V Ask Department of Biology, University of Turku, FI-20014, Turku, Finland.
Veerle L B Jaspers Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway
Junjie Zhang Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway
Alexandros G Asimakopoulos Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway
Sunniva H Frøyland Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway
Juho Jolkkonen Department of Biological and Environmental Science, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
Wasique Z Prian Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway
Nora M Wilson Ab Bengtskär Oy, FI-25950, Rosala, Finland; Physics, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, FI-20500, Turku, Finland
Christian Sonne Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Arctic Research Centre (ARC), DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark
Martin Hansen Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark
Markus Öst Environmental and Marine Biology, Åbo Akademi University, FI-20500, Turku, Finland
Sanna Koivisto Finnish Safety and Chemicals Agency, P.O. Box 66, FI-00521, Helsinki, Finland
Tapio Eeva Department of Biology, University of Turku, FI-20014, Turku, Finland
Farshad S Vakili Department of Biology, University of Turku, FI-20014, Turku, Finland
Céline Arzel Department of Biology, University of Turku, FI-20014, Turku, Finland

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Collaborators Collapse

Clearing the path: Unraveling bisphenol a removal and degradation mechanisms for a cleaner future

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a prevalent chemical found in a range of consumer goods, which has raised worries about its possible health hazards. Comprehending the breakdown pathways of BPA is essential for evaluating its environmental consequences and addressing associated concerns. This review emphasizes the significance of studying the degradation/removal of BPA, with a specific focus on both natural and artificial routes. It explores natural processes such as photolysis, hydrolysis, and biodegradation, as well as manmade methods including advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) and enzymatic degradation. Examining the decomposition of BPA helps to understand how it behaves in the environment, providing valuable information for managing risks and addressing pollution. Furthermore, comprehending degradation mechanisms aids in the creation of more secure substitutes and regulatory actions to reduce BPA exposure and safeguard human health. This review emphasizes the need of promptly addressing this environmental and public health concern through the research of BPA degradation.

Assessment of toxicity and endocrine-disrupting activity of bisphenol analogues during ozone and UV treatments in zebrafish eleutheroembryos

In recent decades, increased regulations on the use of bisphenol A (BPA) have prompted a surge in the use of BPA alternatives. Consequently, a widespread occurrence of BPA substitutes in aquatic environments is currently being detected. While some evidence exists about the degradation of these compounds through various water treatment technologies, the evolution of the resulting toxicity and endocrine-disrupting activity during these processes remains scarcely evaluated. In this study, the acute toxicity and transcriptomic responses in zebrafish eleutheroembryos exposed to selected bisphenols (BPA, bisphenol AF (BPAF) and bisphenol CCl (BPC-Cl)) were assessed during their oxidation by ozone. In addition, the response of zebrafish eleutheroembryos exposed to BPC-Cl treated with UV radiation was also investigated. Results showed that both ozonation and UV treatment effectively reduced the intrinsic toxicity of the studied bisphenols. This was observed with the increase of the survival and swim bladder inflation rates of zebrafish eleutheroembryos, reaching control levels. In concordance with these results, the initially altered mRNA levels in genes related to xenobiotic stimulus (cyp2k18); lipid homeostasis and transport (apoa1a); retinoid metabolism (aldh1a2); neutrophil differentiation (alas1); and oxygen transport (hbae3) in zebrafish eleutheroembryos were generally mitigated during the ozonation and UV treatment of bisphenols. Similarly, the high estrogenicity of these bisphenols, observed by elevated mRNA levels of cyp19a1b, decreased significantly during the ozonation treatment, reaching control levels. On the contrary, an increase in mRNA levels of fads2 and cyp19a1b was observed in animals exposed to BPC-Cl treated with UV radiation. These results suggest that the photolysis products of BPC-Cl may induce disruption of the lipid biosynthesis and estrogenicity. This was further confirmed with RNA-sequencing analysis, which revealed that embryos exposed to BPC-Cl treated with UV radiation presented alterations in mRNA levels of genes specifically related to estrogenic stimulus.

Toxicity of parental co-exposure of microplastic and bisphenol compounds on adult zebrafish: Multi-omics investigations on offspring

In recent years, the widespread use of bisphenol compounds and microplastics (MP) have attracted attention due to their harmful effects. Here, individual and combined effects of MP and bisphenol compounds, were assessed on adult zebrafish after co-exposure of bisphenol A (BPA) or bisphenol S (BPS) and 25 μm polyethylene MP. Impacts on their offspring (the F1 generation) were also investigated. The reproductive toxicity in adult zebrafish impacted exerted by bisphenol compounds were aggravated by the co-presence of MP. Transcriptomics and metabolomics further showed single or co-exposure of bisphenol compounds and MP could together regulate apoptosis, calcium signaling pathway and glycerophospholipid signaling pathways. Our results also showed the different toxicity mechanisms on transcriptional and metabolic profiles in the combination effects of bisphenol compounds and MP. The co-exposure of BPA and MP predominantly influenced neurotoxicity via the MAPK signaling pathway and voltage-dependent calcium channels, whereas the co-exposure of BPS and MP principally affected visual development through phototransduction and retinol metabolism. The co-exposure of BPA and MP, as well as BPS and MP, specifically regulate lipid metabolism and carbohydrate metabolism in zebrafish offspring, respectively. Overall, this study provided a deep understanding of the toxicity differences between co-exposure and single exposure of bisphenol compound and MP in zebrafish, as well as the transgenerational effects and potential molecular mechanisms of bisphenol compounds and MP in zebrafish offspring.

Behavioral neuroscience in zebrafish: unravelling the complexity of brain-behavior relationships

This paper reviews the utility of zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a model system for exploring neurobehavioral phenomena in preclinical research, focusing on physiological processes, disorders, and neurotoxicity biomarkers. A comprehensive review of the current literature was conducted to summarize the various behavioral characteristics of zebrafish. The study examined the etiological agents used to induce neurotoxicity and the biomarkers involved, including Aβ42, tau, MMP-13, MAO, NF-Кβ, and GFAP. Additionally, the different zebrafish study models and their responses to neurobehavioral analysis were discussed. The review identified several key biomarkers of neurotoxicity in zebrafish, each impacting different aspects of neurogenesis, inflammation, and neurodegeneration. Aβ42 was found to alter neuronal growth and stem cell function. Tau's interaction with tubulin affected microtubule stability and led to tauopathies under pathological conditions. MMP-13 was linked to oxidative assault and sensory neuron degeneration. MAO plays a role in neurotransmitter metabolism and neurotoxicity conversion. NF-Кβ was involved in pro-inflammatory pathways, and GFAP was indicative of neuroinflammation and astroglial activation. Zebrafish provide a valuable model for neurobehavioral research, adhering to the "3Rs" philosophy. Their neurotoxicity biomarkers offer insights into the mechanisms of neurogenesis, inflammation, and neurodegeneration. This model system aids in evaluating physiological and pathological conditions, enhancing our understanding of neurobehavioral phenomena and potential therapeutic interventions.

Parabens, bisphenols, and triclosan in coral polyps, algae, and sediments from sanya, China: Occurrence, profiles, and environmental implications

Parabens, bisphenols (BPs), and triclosan (TCS) are common environmental phenols widely applied in industrial products, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products. They are endocrine disruptors and pervade the natural environment, causing significant detrimental impacts on ecosystems, including marine habitats. Therefore, in this study, 40 samples comprising coral polyps, algae, and sediments were collected from Sanya, Hainan Province, China, in which the presence and compositional profiles of parabens, BPs, and TCS were examined to identify their fate in the oceans. The results unveiled the ubiquitous occurrence of at least one paraben or bisphenol in all samples, with TCS detected in over 80% of cases. Notably, coral samples contained the most contaminants (median concentration: 9.42 ng/g dry weight-dw), followed by sediment samples (5.95 ng/g dw) and algal samples (3.58 ng/g dw). Attributed to their broadest application, methylparaben (MeP) and propylparaben (PrP) emerged as the primary paraben constituents. MeP displayed the highest median concentration in coral samples (4.42 ng/g dw), probably related to its high-water solubility and the filtration mechanism employed by the coral polyps during seawater intake. Intriguingly, bisphenol P (BPP) superseded bisphenol A (BPA) as the dominant bisphenol, especially in the algal samples, probably owing to the lipophilic character of BPP and the enhanced biodegradability of BPA within aquatic environments. The highest concentration of TCS (3.44 ng/g dw) was found in the sediment samples, associated with its long half-life in the sediments. Furthermore, the correlation between multiple parabens and TCS implies their co-use to augment antimicrobial efficacy. Future research should prioritize the examination of these phenols in diverse marine environmental media. Corresponding toxicological experiments should be conducted to visualize their transport dynamics, degradation byproducts, and toxicity to marine biota to gain insights into the risks they pose to the marine ecosystem.

National investigation of bisphenols in the surface soil in China

The long-term production and extensive use have resulted in the widespread presence of bisphenols (BPs) in the environment. In order to clarify the pollution characteristics and potential sources of BPs, the national scale surface soil samples were collected in China in 2019. The results demonstrated that 32 target BPs existed widely in soil with the highest concentration for bisphenol A (BPA), and at least 2 BPs were detected in each sample. The total concentration of Σ32BPs (from 0.387 to 713 ng/g) exhibited a stepwise decrease from southeastern coast to inland regions, and due to the presence of more pollution sources concentrations of Σ32BPs in urban areas were slightly higher than rural areas. The different industrial structures (such as plastics, epoxy resins, and thermal paper) may be the important factors for the different pollution levels between southeastern coast and other regions. In addition, the high organic matter content in soil and low temperature may be the reasons for high concentrations of Σ32BPs in Northeast China. The results of source identification using the Positive Matrix Factorization model indicated that BPs in soil were originated from three sources: old sources represented by BPA, relatively new sources characterized by bisphenol S, and sources from specific industries using bisphenol F. The estimated daily intake indicated that BPA exposure through soil accounted for only a small proportion of the total exposure compared to other exposure routes, and the risk by BPA in soil can be negligible to human health. In summary, the study provided basic pollution information of BPs in Chinese surface soil for future related studies.

Growth and reproductive toxicity of bisphenol A in Oikopleura dioica at environmentally relevant concentrations

Bisphenol A (BPA), a known endocrine disruptor, is ubiquitous in various aquatic environments. Appendicularians are among the most abundant mesozooplankton populations and occupy a crucial niche in marine ecosystems. However, no toxicological data are available concerning the effects of BPA on this functional group. In this study, an evaluation of the toxicity of environmentally relevant levels of BPA (2.5-150 μg/L) on the appendicularian Oikopleura dioica, including its morphology and transcriptome, was conducted. Our results demonstrated the high sensitivity of O. dioica to BPA, with a LC50 of 142 μg/L. Exposure to 125 μg/L BPA significantly inhibited the somatic growth, gonadal development and reproduction of individuals, whereas exposure to an environmentally safe concentration (2.5 μg/L) affected female fecundity and fitness as well as male gene expression. The results of the transcriptomic analysis suggest that males were more sensitive to BPA stress at the molecular level. BPA exposure not only led to abnormal secretion of digestive enzymes and phospholipase A2, affecting the function of the digestive system and arachidonic acid but also significantly down-regulated the expression of mRNAs related to enzymes involved in carbohydrate and energy metabolism in males. These findings suggest that the current safe environmental concentrations may not be safe.

Bisphenol A induces lipid metabolism disorder and impairs hepatopancreas of Sesarmops sinensis

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical that disrupts the endocrine system and may have negative implications on the lipid metabolism of organisms. To ascertain BPA implications on lipid metabolism in the hepatopancreas of Sesarmops sinensis, we exposed S. sinensis to different concentrations of BPA for 14 days. The outcomes manifested that BPA may stimulate hepatopancreas injury and lipid deposition in the hepatopancreas of S. sinensis and lead to the increase of hepatosomatic index (HSI). Transcriptome analysis showed that lipid metabolism-related pathways were significantly enriched in KEGG pathways. BPA exposure also caused disorders in lipid metabolism by altering fatty acid composition and lipid metabolites. The up-regulation of lipid synthesis genes and the alteration of lipid transport genes may be important reasons for the disorder of lipid metabolism. Furthermore, these outcomes provide a fresh point of reference for comprehending the ecotoxicological impacts of BPA on aquatic organisms.

Bisphenol AP inhibits mouse oocyte maturation in vitro by disrupting cytoskeleton architecture and cell cycle processes

Bisphenol A (BPA) is among the extensively researched environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), and its utilization is restricted owing to the detrimental impacts it has on human health. Bisphenol AP (BPAP) is one of the alternatives to BPA, but the influence of BPAP on human health has not been elucidated. The objective of the current research was to determine the influence of BPAP exposure on the in vitro maturation of mouse oocytes and to explore its potential reproductive toxicity. BPAP exposure was found to inhibit polar body extrusion during mouse oocyte maturation, resulting in an arrest at the metaphase I stage of meiosis. Exposure to BPAP led to sustained activation of BubR1, preventing the degradation of both Securin and Cyclin B1. Mechanistically, BPAP exposure disrupts spindle assembly and chromosome alignment. Levels of acetylated α-tubulin were significantly elevated in BPAP-treated oocytes, reflecting decreased spindle stability. Exposure to BPAP also induced DNA damage and impaired DNA damage repair. In addition, BPAP exposure altered histone modification levels. In summary, this investigation suggests that exposure to BPAP can influence cytoskeletal assembly, interfere with cell cycle progression, induce DNA damage, alter histone modifications, and ultimately impede oocyte meiotic maturation. This investigation enhances understanding of the impact of bisphenol analogs on female gametes, underscoring that BPAP cannot be considered a reliable replacement for BPA.

Occurrence of bisphenol A analogues in the aquatic environment and their behaviors and toxicity effects in plants

Continuous technological and economic development has led to the extensive use of bisphenol A analogues (BPs) in products, leading to their release to aquatic environments and posing threats to aquatic plants. However, few papers have systemically reviewed the interactions between BPs and aquatic plants. This review comprehensively summarizes the properties, occurrence, fate, and hazardous influences of BPs on aquatic plants. BPs have been widely detected in the global aquatic environment, with concentrations generally ranging from a lower range of ng/L or ng/g to an upper range of μg/L or μg/g in surface water, groundwater, seawater, and sediments. Aquatic plants effectively uptake and translocate BPs, and metabolize them into new compounds. Meanwhile, BPs exposures have diverse toxic effects on the growth, photosynthesis, antioxidant, phytohormones, and structural integrity of aquatic plants. High-throughput omics assays provide significant evidence showing how BPs disturb gene transcription, proteins, and metabolism in plants. This review highlights the need for increased attention on the effects of emerging BPA alternatives, joint treatment, long-term exposure with environmental relevant doses, and potential hazards posed by ingesting polluted plants.

Bisphenol H exposure disrupts Leydig cell function in adult rats via oxidative stress-mediated m6A modifications: Implications for reproductive toxicity

Bisphenol H (BPH) has emerged as a potential alternative to bisphenol A (BPA), which has been curtailed for use due to concerns over its reproductive and endocrine toxicity. This study investigates whether BPH exerts antiandrogenic effects by impairing Leydig cell function, a critical component in testosterone production. We administered orally BPH to adult male rats at doses of 0, 1, 10, and 100 mg/kg/day for 7 days. Notably, BPH treatment resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in testicular testosterone levels, with significant decreases observed at ≥ 1 mg/kg/day. Additionally, BPH affected the expression of key genes involved in steroidogenesis and cholesterol metabolism, including Nr5a1, Nr3c4, Lhcgr, Scarb1, and Star, at higher doses (10 and/or 100 mg/kg/day). The study also revealed alterations in antioxidant gene expression (Sod2 and Cat) and modulation of m6A-related genes (Ythdf1-3 and Foxo3) and their proteins. Through MeRIP-qPCR analysis, we identified increased m6A modifications in Scarb1 and Star genes following BPH exposure. In vitro experiments with primary Leydig cells confirmed that BPH enhanced oxidative stress and diminished testosterone production, which were partially mitigated by antioxidant vitamin E supplementation and Ythdf3 knockdown. Meanwhile, simultaneous administration of BPH and vitamin E to primary Leydig cells partially counteracted BPH-induced alterations in the Ythdf3 expression. Our findings underscore a novel mechanism by which BPH disrupts Leydig cell function through the oxidative stress-m6A modification-autophagy pathway, raising concerns about its potential reproductive toxicity.

Effects of combined exposure to two bisphenol plasticizers (BPA and BPB) on Xenopus laevis development

Due to its endocrine disruptive activity, the plastic additive Bisphenol A (BPA) is classified as substance of very high concern (EU ECHA 2017). A correlation between environmental exposure to BPA and congenital defects has been described in humans and in experimental species including the amphibian Xenopus laevis, where severe branchial defects were associated to lethality. The exposure of X. laevis embryos to the BPA analogue bisphenol B (BPB) was recently linked to similar teratogenic effects, with BPB having relative potency about 3 times higher than BPA. The combined BPA-BPB exposure is realistic as both BPA and BPB are detected in human samples and environment. Limited experimental data are available on the combined developmental toxicity of BPA and BPB. The aim of the present work is to evaluate the effects of BPA and BPB mixture in the X. laevis development model, using R-FETAX procedure. The exposure was limited to the first day of development (corresponding to the phylotypic developmental period, common to all vertebrates). Samples were monitored for lethal effects during the full six-day test period and the external morphology was evaluated at the end of the test. Mixture effects were described by modelling, using the PROAST software package. Overall data modelling showed that dose-addiction could not be rejected, suggesting a health concern for co-exposure.

Multiple-biomarker approach in the assessment of bisphenol A effect on the grooved carpet clam Ruditapes decussatus (Linnaeus, 1758)

BACKGROUND

Bisphenol A (BPA), a plastic additive monomer, is among the most highly produced chemicals worldwide, and is broadly used in many industries, such as food and beverage containers, milk bottles, and paper products. Previous studies demonstrated that BPA has potential toxicity to aquatic organisms, causing endocrine disturbance and behavioural disorders. The current work aimed to determine the toxic impacts of BPA on the edible marine clam Ruditapes decussatus considering a multi-biomarker approach (mortality, biochemical studies, DNA strand breaks using comet assay, and histopathological examinations with semi-quantitative and quantitative histopathological analyses). The clams were exposed under laboratory conditions to three concentrations of BPA (0 "control", 1, and 5 µg/L) for a period of 21 days. After the exposure period, BPA impacts were assessed in the digestive gland as a versatile and environmentally relevant organ for ecotoxicological studies.

RESULTS

In BPA-treated clams, mortality (10%) occurred only at the highest BPA concentration (5 µg/L). Biochemical impairments were detected in a concentration-dependent manner as a consequence of BPA exposure. There were significant increases in malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) levels, while catalase (CAT) activity was significantly reduced. Our results revealed that BPA induced neurotoxicity in R. decussatus, as evidenced by the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, DNA damage was strongly induced as BPA levels increased. Additionally, our results have been affirmed by alterations in digestive gland tissues at BPA treatments, which consequently can impair the clam's ability for food absorption; these alterations included mainly atrophic and necrotic digestive tubules, epithelial cell vacuolization, hemocyte infiltration, and intertubular fibrosis. Based on the data obtained from the semi-quantitative and quantitative histopathological analyses, the exposure of the clam's digestive gland to BPA with concentrations of 1 and 5 µg/L for 21 days showed significant histopathological alterations compared with the control clams.

CONCLUSION

The multi-biomarker approach used in the current study proved to be a useful tool for assessing the impact of diphenylmethane compounds, such as BPA. Water-borne BPA causes oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, and deleterious effects on the clam digestive gland; all of these could deteriorate clam performance and health, causing tissue dysfunction.

Biochar supported Pseudomonas putida based globules for effective removal of Bisphenol A with a practical approach

The widespread and inevitable use of plastic has led to prospective ecological problems through Bisphenol A (BPA), a synthetic chemical in plastic manufacturing. The present study addresses a unique methodology for eliminating BPA using the assistance of Pseudomonas putida. In the present work, biomass was torrefied to generate biochar with highly porous networks that could accommodate the bacterial species for effective colonization and multiplication. The designed biochar-bacterial globules demonstrated the ability to effectively remove BPA (96.88%) at a concentration of up to 2 g/L. The biochar-bacterial globules could effectively adsorb BPA at a low concentration of 20 mg/L. The alteration in pH did not impact the globule's performance, providing additional support for the practical utilization of these globules in polluted water bodies. In addition, the biochar-bacterial globules exhibited superior effectiveness in degradation compared to the standard levels, particularly in saline conditions. The simplicity and effectiveness of the approach make it promising for real-world implementation in addressing ecological problems associated with BPA contamination.

Assessment of potential environmental and human risks for Bisphenol AF contaminant

Bisphenol AF (BPAF) is found in high concentrations in aquatic environments due to the increased use of thermal paper and food packaging. However, there have been relatively few toxicological studies and potential risk assessments of BPAF. In this study, the risk quotient (RQ) and hazard quotient (HQ) of BPAF were derived to present the safety standards for environmental risk management and protection in lakes, rivers, bays, and Italian regions. We applied the species sensitivity distribution (SSD) method based on the previous ecotoxicological data and the results of supplementary toxicity tests on BPAF. From the SSD curves, the hazardous concentration for 5 % of the species (HC5) values for the acute and chronic toxicity data were 464.75 µg/L and 3.59 µg/L, respectively, and the acute- and chronic-based predicted no-effect concentration were derived as 154.92 µg/L and 1.20 µg/L, respectively. The acute-based RQ (RQA)values of BPAF in all regions were negligible (RQ < 0.1). The chronic-based RQ (RQC) in the Xitang River (XR) and the Central Italy (CI) showed a considerably high ecological risk (12.77 and 1.29) and the Hangzhou Bay (0.21), the South and North Italy (0.79 and 0.27), and the Tamagawa River (0.13) had a medium ecological risk (0.1 < RQ < 1.0). However, the HQ values based on the tolerable daily intake for BPAF over all age groups in these regions was < 0.1, indicating the low health risk. Nonetheless, the result of this study indicates that BPAF contamination is serious in XR and CI, and their use and emissions require continuous monitoring.

Removal of bisphenol a micropollutants released from plastic waste using Pt-ZnO photocatalyst

Plastic pollution is becoming increasingly severe and is attracting global attention. One of its consequences is the recent discovery of micropollutant discharge into water, with Bisphenol A (BA-MP) being a typical example. This study utilizes an advanced oxidation process based on Pt-doped ZnO photocatalyst to remove BA-MP. Health concerns related to the release of BA-MP from plastic waste are discussed. Besides, the results of the photodegradation experiment show that the Pt-ZnO photocatalyst can remove 94.1% of BA-MP within 60 min when exposed to solar light. Moreover, after five reuse cycles, Pt-ZnO retains a high BA-MP removal efficiency of 71.2%, and its structure remains largely unchanged compared to the original material. The removal efficiency of BA-MP leaching from plastic waste was measured at 98.8%, confirming the suitability of Pt-ZnO for the treatment of micropollutants. Furthermore, this study also highlights the prospects and challenges of using Pt-ZnO for the treatment of micropollutants discharged from plastic waste.

Evaluation of the chronic toxicity of bisphenol A and bisphenol AF to sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus after long-term single and combined exposure at environmental relevant concentration

Bisphenols are emerging endocrine disrupting pollutant, and several studies have reported that they are already ubiquitous in various environmental matrices and intend to deposit in sediment. The primary sources of bisphenols are river and sewage discharge. Sea cucumber (Apostichopus japonicus), a typical deposit feeder, is one of the most important commercial marine species in Aisa. However, the effects of the bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogues bisphenol AF (BPAF) on sea cucumber was unclear. In this study, we carried out field survey in major sea cucumber farming areas in northern China, with the aim of determining which bisphenol analogue is the major bisphenol contamination in this aquaculture area. The results showed that the presence of BPAF was detected in four sampling sites (Dalian, Tangshan, Laizhou, and Longpan). The mean level of BPAF in Laizhou sediment samples was the highest which reached to 9.007 ± 4.702 μ g/kg. Among the seawater samples, the BPAF only have been detected in the samples collected at Longpan. (0.011 ± 0.003 μ g/L). Furthermore, we conducted an experiment to evaluate the single and combined toxicity of BPA and BPAF on sea cucumbers. The concentrations were informed by the findings based on the results of field research. (0.1, 1.0, and 10 μ g/L). After exposure, the body weight gain, and specific growth rate showed no significant changes (P > 0.05). We observed the histological alterations in respiratory tree of treated sea cucumbers including the fusion and detachment of lining epithelial tissue, and increase of lumen space. However, the catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione (GSH) activity was not significantly changed (P > 0.05). We evaluated the effects of BPA and BPAF through calculating the integrated biomarker response index (IBR), and the results indicated that the toxicity of combined treatment was higher than single treatment. Additionally, BPAF exposure to A. japonicus was more toxic than BPA.

Bisphenol A-What Do We Know? A Global or Local Approach at the Public Health Risk Level

BPA has demonstrated enormous multisystem and multi-organ toxicity shown mainly in animal models. Meanwhile, the effects of its exposure in humans still require years of observation, research, and answers to many questions. Even minimal and short-term exposure contributes to disorders or various types of dysfunction. It is released directly or indirectly into the environment at every stage of the product life cycle, demonstrating its ease of penetration into the body. The ubiquity and general prevalence of BPA influenced the main objective of the study, which was to assess the toxicity and health effects of BPA and its derivatives based on the available literature. In addition, the guidelines of various international institutions or regions of the world in terms of its reduction in individual products were checked. Bisphenol A is the most widely known chemical and perhaps even the most studied by virtually all international or national organizations, but nonetheless, it is still controversial. In general, the level of BPA biomonitoring is still too high and poses a potential threat to public health. It is beginning to be widely argued that future toxicity studies should focus on molecular biology and the assessment of human exposure to BPA, as well as its substitutes. The effects of its exposure still require years of observation, extensive research, and answers to many questions. It is necessary to continue to deepen the knowledge and interest of many organizations, companies, and consumers around the world in order to make rational purchases as well as future choices, not only consumer ones.

Anaerobic treatment removing tetrabromobisphenol A and biota safety: How do tropical aquatic species respond to effluent toxicity over short- and long-term exposures?

Wastewater containing tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), a commonly used flame retardant found in wastewater, can present significant toxic effects on biota, yet its impact on tropical freshwater environments is not well understood. This study explores the effectiveness of two independent anaerobic treatment systems, the acidogenic reactor (AR) and the methanogenic reactor (MR), for the ecotoxicity reduction of TBBPA-rich wastewater in four tropical freshwater species. Despite presenting good physicochemical performance and reduced toxicity of the influent for most species, AR and MR treatments remain acute and chronic toxicity. Overall, MR exhibited greater efficacy in reducing influent toxicity compared with AR. TBBPA bioaccumulation was observed in Chironomus sancticaroli after short-term exposure to 100% MR effluent. Multigenerational exposures highlighted changes in the wing length of C. sancticaroli, showing decreases after influent and AR exposures and increases after MR exposures. These findings underscore the need for ecotoxicological tools in studies of new treatment technologies, combining the removal of emerging contaminants with safeguarding aquatic biota. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Acidogenic and methanogenic reactors reduced the acute and chronic toxicity of wastewater containing tetrabromobisphenol A. Both treatments still exhibit toxicity, inducing short- and long-term toxic effects on four native tropical species. The aquatic species Pristina longiseta was most sensitive to effluents from acidogenic and methanogenic reactors. TBBPA concentrations recovered from Chironomus sancticaroli bioaccumulation analysis ranged from 1.07 to 1.35 μg g-1. Evaluating new treatment technologies with multiple species bioassays is essential for a comprehensive effluent toxicity assessment and ensuring aquatic safety.

Exposure characteristics and cumulative risk assessment of bisphenol A and its substitutes: the Taiwan environmental survey for toxicants 2013

Introduction

Ever since the use of bisphenol A (BPA) has been restricted, concerns have been raised regarding the use of its substitutes, such as bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF). Meanwhile, the EU European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) issued the new tolerable daily intake (TDI) after the latest re-risk assessment for BPA, which enforced the need for cumulative risk assessment in the population. This study was conducted to identify BPA and its substitute's exposure characteristics of the general Taiwanese population and estimate the cumulative risk of bisphenol exposure.

Methods

Urine samples (N = 366 [adult, 271; minor, 95]) were collected from individuals who participated in the Taiwan Environmental Survey for Toxicants 2013. The samples were analyzed for BPA, BPS, and BPF through ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Daily intake (DI) levels were calculated for each bisphenol. Hazard quotients (HQs) were calculated with the consideration of tolerable DI and a reference dose. Additionally, hazard index (HI; sum of HQs for each bisphenol) values were calculated.

Results

Our study found that the median level of BPA was significantly higher in adults (9.63 μg/g creatinine) than in minors (6.63 μg/g creatinine) (p < 0.001). The DI of BPS was higher in female (0.69 ng/kg/day) than in male (0.49 ng/kg/day); however, the DIs of BPF and BPS were higher in boys (1.15 and 0.26 ng/kg/day, respectively) than in girls (0.57 and 0.20 ng/kg/day, respectively). Most HI values exceeded 1 (99% of the participants) after EFSA re-establish the TDI of BPA.

Discussion

Our study revealed that the exposure profiles and risk of BPA and its substitute in Taiwanese varied by age and sex. Additionally, the exposure risk of BPA was deemed unacceptable in Taiwan according to new EFSA regulations, and food contamination could be the possible source of exposure. We suggest that the risk of exposure to BPA and its substitutes in most human biomonitoring studies should be reassessed based on new scientific evidence.

Ultrasonic synthesis of magnetic covalent organic frameworks and application magnetic solid phase extraction for rapid adsorption of trace bisphenols in food samples

A simple ultrasonic synthesis strategy was developed for a novel magnetic covalent organic framework. Firstly, the Fe3O4 nanoparticles were encapsulated by imine-type COF, which generated by the Schiff reaction of 4,4',4''-(1,3,5-Triazine-2,4,6-triyl)-trianiline (TAPT) and tris(4-formylphenyl)-amine (TFPA) using ultrasonic synthesis method within 2 h. The synthesised nanocomposites showed a sizeable specific surface area, and high adsorption capacity. A fast, sensitive MSPE method with Fe3O4@TAPT-TFPA-COF as adsorbent for analysing bisphenol compounds was developed. This method's advantages were simple operation, short extraction time, and avoidance of the use of centrifugal equipment. The method validation indicate that this method exhibited superior linearity, and detection limits range between 0.33 and 0.60 μg L-1. The recoveries of BPs ranged from 74.7 % to 107.0 %, with relative standard deviations of less than 3.8 % in water, milk, vinegar, and soy sauce samples. The proposed method was successfully applied for extracting BPs in food samples.

Green synthesis of magnetic azo-linked porous organic polymers with recyclable properties for enhanced Bisphenol-A adsorption from aqueous solutions

Porous organic polymers (POPs) present superior adsorption performance to steroid endocrine disruptors. However, the effective recovery and high cost have been a big limitation for their large-scale applications. Herein, magnetic azo-linked porous polymers (Fe3O4@SiO2/ALP-p) were designed and prepared in a green synthesis approach using low-price materials from phloroglucinol and pararosaniline via a diazo-coupling reaction under standard temperature and pressure conditions, which embedded with Fe3O4@SiO2 nanoparticles to form three-dimensional interlayer network structure with flexible-rigid interweaving. The saturated adsorption capacity to bisphenol-A (BPA) was 485.09 mg/g at 298 K, which increased by 1.4 times compared with ALP-p of relatively smaller mass density. This enhanced adsorption was ascribed to increment from surface adsorption and pore filling with 2.3 times of specific surface area and 2.6 times of pore volume, although the total organic functional groups decreased with Fe3O4@SiO2 amendment. Also, the adsorption rate increased by about 1.1 and 1.5-fold due to enhancement in the initial stage of surface adsorption and subsequent stage pore diffusion, respectively. Moreover, this adsorbent could be used in broad pH (3.0-7.0) and salinity adaptability (<0.5 mol/L). The loss of adsorption capacity and magnetic recovery were lower than 1.1% and 0.8% in each operation cycle because of the flexible-rigid interweave. This excellent performance was contributed by synergistic effects from physisorption and chemisorption, such as pore filling, electrostatic attraction, π-π stacking, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interaction. This study offered a cost-effective, high-performing, and ecologically friendly material along with a green preparation method.

Occurrence, source apportionment and ecological risk of bisphenol analogues in river sediments in areas with different land use patterns

Bisphenol analogues (BPs) have gained increasing attention in recent years due to their ubiquitousness and potential endocrine disrupting properties in environments. However, little information is available on their spatiotemporal distribution, source apportionment and ecological risk in river sediments, especially the case in river basins with a high population density and those typical regions with agricultural-urban gradient, where land use patterns and intensity of human activity are varying. In this study, field investigations of BPs in the sediment of the entire Qinhuai River Basin, a typical agricultural-suburban agricultural-urban gradient area, were conducted before and after the flood period. Thirty-two sites were sampled for six types of BPs, resulted in no significant difference in the concentration of ΣBPs between the two periods, with ΣBPs ranging from 3.92 to 151 ng/g and 2.16-59.0 ng/g, respectively. Bisphenol A (BPA) was the main contributor. Whereas a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) suggested that the composition structure of BPs had been influenced by water periods. The land use patterns had an impact on the distribution of ΣBPs in river sediments, which was more significant in after the flood period, with ΣBPs in urban rivers was 1.85 times, 3.44 times, and 3.08 times higher than the suburban rivers, agricultural rivers, and reservoirs, respectively. Yet land use types did not significantly alter the composition structure of BPs. The correlation analysis between BPs and the physicochemical properties of sediments showed a significant positive correlation between BPA and total organic carbon (TOC). The positive matrix factorization model (PMF) suggested that BPs in sediments of the basin might be influenced by industrial coatings, textiles, electronics and biopharmaceuticals, as well as urban wastewater or solid waste generated from daily life. The ecological risk assessment posed by BPA, based on the risk quotient, indicated that the ecological risk of BPA in sediments was low for three indicator benthic organisms: crustaceans, worms, and mollusks. However, the risk of BPA in river sediments varied among different land use patterns, with the risk ranking as follows: reservoirs < agricultural rivers < suburban rivers < urban rivers.

Spatiotemporal distribution, source apportionment, and ecological risk of bisphenol analogues in a highly urbanized river basin

Bisphenol analogues (BPs), as one of the endocrine disruptors, have received wide attention due to their adverse impacts on ecosystems. However, the seasonal spatiotemporal distribution, source apportionment, and ecological risk of BPs in natural basins are poorly understood. Especially in highly urbanized river basins with the extensive economic development and anthropogenic activities threaten these critical but ecologically fragile regions. In this study, field investigations of BPs in the waters of the entire Qinhuai River Basin (QRB) were conducted in June (before the annual flood period) and August (after the annual flood period) 2023. The Qinhuai River, an important primary tributary of the lower Yangtze River, is located in eastern China and the QRB is characterized by a high population density and dense urbanization. Thirty-two sites were sampled for six types of BPs known to be ubiquitous in the surface water of the QRB. Significant differences in the concentrations of those BPs were found. Specifically, the concentration of total BPs (ΣBPs) was significantly higher before than after the flood period: 20.3-472 ng/L (mean = 146 ng/L) and 14.1-105 ng/L (mean = 35.9 ng/L), respectively. BPA was the main contributor to ΣBPs before the flood, and BPB followed by BPA after the flood. ΣBP concentrations were 12-241 % higher downstream than upstream of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The results of a principal component analysis followed by multiple linear regression (PCA-MLR) suggested that untreated wastewater discharge from the WWTPs is an important source of BPs in the basin, with urban rainfall runoff as another potential source after the flood period. An assessment of the ecological risk of BPs, based on a calculation of the risk quotient, showed that BPA and BPS should be given due attention, and overall ecological risk of BPs pose a low risk to local algae but high and medium risks to invertebrates and fish, respectively.

Determination of bisphenols in beeswax based on sugaring out-assisted liquid-liquid extraction: Method development and application in survey, recycling and degradation studies

The methodology of sugaring out-assisted liquid-liquid extraction (SULLE) coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection was devised for quantifying bisphenol A (BPA) and bisphenol B (BPB) in beeswax. The effectiveness of SULLE was methodically explored and proved superior to the salting out-assisted liquid-liquid extraction approach for beeswax sample preparation. The analytical performance underwent comprehensive validation, revealing detection limits of 10 μg/kg for BPA and 20 μg/kg for BPB. The method developed was employed to analyse commercial beeswax (n = 15), beeswax foundation (n = 15) and wild-build comb wax (n = 26) samples. The analysis revealed BPA presence in four commercial beeswax samples and three beeswax foundation samples, with the highest detected residue content being 88 ± 7 μg/kg. For BPB, two beeswax foundation samples were positive, with concentrations below the limits of quantification and 85 ± 4 μg/kg, respectively. No bisphenols were detected in wild-build comb wax. Furthermore, the bisphenol removal efficacy of two recycling methods-boiling in water and methanol extraction-was assessed. The findings indicated that after four recycling cycles using water boiling, 9.6% of BPA and 29.2% of BPB remained in the beeswax. Whereas methanol extraction resulted in approximately 7% residual after one recycling process. A long-term study over 210 days revealed the slow degradation of bisphenols in comb beeswax. This degradation fitted well with a first-order model, indicating half-lives (DT50) of 139 days for BPA and 151 days for BPB, respectively. This research provides the first report on bisphenol contamination in beeswax. The low removal rate during the recycling process and the gradual degradation in beeswax underscore the significance of bisphenol contamination and migration in bee hives along with their potential risk to pollinators warranting concern. Furthermore, the developed SULLE method shows promise in preparing beeswax samples to analyse other analytes.

Perinatal exposure to bisphenol A or S: Effects on anxiety-related behaviors and serotonergic system

Bisphenols, synthetic organic compounds used in the production of plastics, are an extremely abundant class of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals, i.e., exogenous chemicals or mixtures of chemicals that can interfere with any aspect of hormone action. Exposure to BPs can lead to a wide range of effects, and it is especially dangerous if it occurs during specific critical periods of life. Focusing on the perinatal exposure to BPA or its largely used substitute BPS, we investigated the effects on anxiety-related behaviors and the serotonergic system, which is highly involved in controlling these behaviors, in adult mice. We treated C57BL/6J dams orally with a dose of 4 μg/kg body weight/day (i.e., EFSA TDI) of BPA or BPS dissolved in corn oil or with vehicle alone, at the onset of mating and continued treatment until the offspring were weaned. Adult offspring of both sexes performed the elevated plus maze and the open field tests. Then, we analyzed the serotonergic system in dorsal (DR) and median (MnR) raphe nuclei by immunohistochemical techniques. Behavioral tests highlighted alterations in BPA- and BPS-treated mice, suggesting different effects of the bisphenols exposure on anxiety-related behavior in males (anxiolytic) and females (anxiogenic). The analysis of the serotonergic system highlighted a sex dimorphism in the DR only, with control females showing higher values of serotonin immunoreactivity (5-HT-ir) than control males. BPA-treated males displayed a significant increase of 5-HT-ir in all analyzed nuclei, whereas BPS-treated males showed an increase in ventral DR only. In females, both bisphenols-treated groups showed a significant increase of 5-HT-ir in dorsal DR compared to the controls, and BPA-treated females also showed a significant increase in MnR.These results provide evidence that exposure during the early phases of life to BPA or BPS alters anxiety and the raphe serotonergic neurons in a sex-dependent manner.

Bisphenol A Analogues Induce Neuroendocrine Disruption via Gut-Brain Regulation in Zebrafish

There is epidemiological evidence in humans that exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals such as bisphenol A (BPA) is tied to abnormal neuroendocrine function with both behavioral and intestinal symptoms. However, the underlying mechanism of this effect, particularly the role of gut-brain regulation, is poorly understood. We exposed zebrafish embryos to a concentration series (including environmentally relevant levels) of BPA and its analogues. The analogue bisphenol G (BPG) yielded the strongest behavioral impact on zebrafish larvae and inhibited the largest number of neurotransmitters, with an effective concentration of 0.5 μg/L, followed by bisphenol AF (BPAF) and BPA. In neurod1:EGFP transgenic zebrafish, BPG and BPAF inhibited the distribution of enteroendocrine cells (EECs), which is associated with decreased neurotransmitters level and behavioral activity. Immune staining of ace-α-tubulin suggested that BPAF inhibited vagal neural development at 50 and 500 μg/L. Single-cell RNA-Seq demonstrated that BPG disrupted the neuroendocrine system by inducing inflammatory responses in intestinal epithelial cells via TNFα-trypsin-EEC signaling. BPAF exposure activated apoptosis and inhibited neural developmental pathways in vagal neurons, consistent with immunofluorescence imaging studies. These findings show that both BPG and BPAF affect the neuroendocrine system through the gut-brain axis but by different mechanisms, revealing new insights into the modes of bisphenol-mediated neuroendocrine disruption.

Catalytic activation of percarbonate with synthesized carrollite for efficient decomposition of bisphenol S: Performance, degradation mechanism and toxicity assessment

This study demonstrates the novel application of carrollite (CuCo2S4) for the activation of sodium percarbonate (SPC) towards bisphenol S (BPS) degradation. The effect of several crucial factors like BPS concentration, CuCo2S4 dosage, SPC concentration, reaction temperature, water matrices, inorganic anions, and pH value were investigated. Experimental results demonstrated that BPS could be efficiently degraded by CuCo2S4-activated SPC system (88.52% at pH = 6.9). The mechanism of BPS degradation by CuCo2S4-activated SPC system was uncovered by quenching and electron spin resonance experiments, discovering that a multiple reactive oxygen species process was involved in BPS degradation by hydroxyl radical (•OH), superoxide radical (•O2-), singlet oxygen superoxide (1O2) and carbonate radical (•CO3-). Furthermore, the S(-II) species facilitated rapid redox cycles between Cu(I)/Cu(II) and Co(II)/Co(III). •CO3- was found to not only directly react with BPS molecules, but also act as a bridge to promote •O2- and 1O2 generation, thereby accelerating BPS degradation. Finally, the combination of UHPLC/Q-TOF-MS test with density functional theory (DFT) method was employed to detect major degradation intermediates and thereby elucidate possible reaction pathways of BPS degradation. This study provides a novel strategy by integrating transition metal sulfides with percarbonate for the elimination of organic pollutants in water.

Toxic Effects of Bisphenol AF Exposure on the Reproduction and Liver of Female Marine Medaka (Oryzias melastigma)

In recent years, bisphenol AF (BPAF) in aquatic environments has drawn attention to its ecological risks. This study aims to investigate the toxic effects of BPAF (188.33 μg/L) exposure for 30 days on female marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma). On the 10th and 30th day of exposure, the toxicity was evaluated using histological analysis of the liver and ovaries and the transcription levels of genes related to the antioxidant system, immune system, and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. Findings revealed that (1) BPAF exposure caused vacuolation, karyopyknosis and karyolysis in the liver of marine medaka, and the toxic impact augmented with duration; (2) exposure to BPAF for 10 days facilitated the growth and maturation of primary ova, and this exposure had a comparatively inhibitory effect after 30 days; (3) exposure to BPAF resulted in a biphasic regulation of the transcriptional abundance of genes involved in antioxidant and inflammatory response (e.g., il-8, cat), with an initial up-regulation followed by down-regulation. Additionally, it disrupted the transcriptional pattern of HPG axis-related genes (e.g., 3βhsd, arα). In conclusion, 188.33 μg/L BPAF can alter the expression levels of functionally related genes, impair the structural integrity of marine organisms, and pose a threat to their overall health.

Environmentally relevant exposure to tetrabromobisphenol A induces reproductive toxicity via regulating glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase and sperm activation in Caenorhabditis elegans

Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), a ubiquitous brominated flame-retardant environmental pollutant, has been reported to cause reproductive toxicity by chronic exposure. However, the acute reproductive risk and mechanisms of TBBPA toxicity to individuals, especially at environmentally relevant levels, remains a topic of debate. In this study, Caenorhabditis elegans was used to investigate the reproductive toxicity of acute exposure to TBBPA at environmentally relevant doses. The reproductive end points (embryonic lethality ratio and brood size), oxidative stress, sperm activation, and molecular docking were evaluated. Results showed that, after 24 h of TBBPA treatment, even at the lowest concentration (1 μg/L), the embryonic lethality ratio of C. elegans increased significantly, from 1.63 % to 3.03 %. Furthermore, TBBPA induced oxidative stress with significantly increased expression of sod-3 in C. elegans, which further raised the level of reproductive toxicity through inhibiting the activation of sperm in nematodes. In addition, molecular docking suggested TBBPA might compete for the glucose-6-phosphate-binding site of glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase, resulting in oxidative stress generation. Accordingly, our findings indicate that even acute exposure to environmental concentrations of TBBPA may induce reproductive toxicity through reducing sperm activation in nematodes.

Hydroxyl radical and UV-induced reactions of bisphenol analogues in water: Kinetics, transformation products and estrogenic activity estimation

There is currently a concern about the endocrine-disrupting capacity of many bisphenol A substitutes, such as BPAF, BPAP, BPB, BPC, BPC-Cl, BPE, BPF, BPS and BPZ in natural waters. However, fundamental data (i.e., kinetics and mechanisms) about the performance of advanced oxidation processes and UV radiation for water decontamination are scarce. In this study, the removal of bisphenol A substitutes was evaluated by UV/H2O2 and UV treatments under neutral pH conditions. Reactivity of hydroxyl radical (·OH) with bisphenol analogues was studied by competition kinetics and their quantum yield was determined at 254 nm. Results revealed similar values of the second-order rate constants of ·OH with all bisphenols (5.89-14.1 × 109 M-1 s-1), as well as comparable values of the quantum yields (4.8-28.7 × 10-3 mol E-1), except for BPC-Cl. This compound showed a remarkably high quantum yield (4.7 × 10-1 mol E-1), which resulted in a removal higher than 60 % at typical UV disinfection doses (ca. 40 mJ cm-2). The transformation products formed by ·OH and UV-induced reactions were also assessed. Catechol and ortho-quinone derivatives were suggested as the main intermediates from the reaction of bisphenols with ·OH. Excluding BPC-Cl, the resulting photolysis products of bisphenols coincided with those from the ·OH reaction. A distinguished mechanism was proposed for the formation of the photolysis products of BPC-Cl, based on the favoured cleavage of the C-Cl bonds under UV irradiation. Phenanthrene-3,6-diol was suggested as main initial photolysis byproduct of BPC-Cl. Estrogenicity of bisphenols and detected intermediates was predicted using a Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) approach. Certain byproducts produced during bisphenols reaction with ·OH, such as catechol derivatives, may exhibit estrogenic activity, as they were predicted as very strong binders. Similarly, all photolysis intermediates of BPC-Cl were predicted as very strong binders as well, suggesting that estrogenicity could persist after the treatment.

Monolithic 3D structural-substrate SERS sensing platform for ultrasensitive and highly-specific analysis of trace bisphenol A

Constructing advanced substrates with excellent features is promising for sensitive surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) detection. Here a novel capillary monolithic 3D structural-substrate SERS platform with Au@cDNA@Ag@Cyanine 3-aptamer nanoparticles (Au@cDNA@Ag@Cy3-Apt NPs) was fabricated for rapid, highly specific profiling of ultra-trace Bisphenol A (BPA). The proposed SERS platform combined both in-capillary SERS and aptamer-affinity recognition strategies, in which the superior SERS properties of Au-Ag NPs, aptamer selectivity, and the advantages of capillary monolith were integrated. A 3D hierarchically porous network was constructed in the monolithic column, which was endowed with rich hotspots for SERS, rapid sample permeation, and better analysis efficiency than most plane-shaped SERS modes. By varying the amount of Ag+ precursor, the Ag-shell thickness on SERS was finely tuned to guarantee Cy3 label in proximity to the plasmonic surface. Based on the biorecognition of aptamer, the selective identification of BPA occurred and exhibited a significant change in SERS intensity without obvious interference. As a result, the monolithic SERS platform featured facile operation, excellent specificity, and rapid analysis (10 min, much less than the solution-based or planar substrate SERS modes). Ultra-high sensitivity and robust reproducibility for BPA analysis was achieved with a low limit of detection (LOD) at 9.12 × 10-4 ng/L. The feasibility of this SERS platform for monitoring BPA in water and milk samples was also validated. This work lights a new access to capillary monolithic SERS-sensing platform for ultrasensitive and specific analysis of BPA.

Mechanism of action of anthocyanin on the detoxification of foodborne contaminants-A review of recent literature

Foodborne contaminants refer to substances that are present in food and threaten food safety. Due to the progress in detection technology and the rising concerns regarding public health, there has been a surge in research focusing on the dangers posed by foodborne contaminants. These studies aim to explore and implement strategies that are both safe and efficient in mitigating the associated risks. Anthocyanins, a class of flavonoids, are abundantly present in various plant species, such as blueberries, grapes, purple sweet potatoes, cherries, mulberries, and others. Numerous epidemiological and nutritional intervention studies have provided evidence indicating that the consumption of anthocyanins through dietary intake offers a range of protective effects against the detrimental impact of foodborne contaminants. The present study aims to differentiate between two distinct subclasses of foodborne contaminants: those that are generated during the processing of food and those that originate from the surrounding environment. Furthermore, the impact of anthocyanins on foodborne contaminants was also summarized based on a review of articles published within the last 10 years. However, further investigation is warranted regarding the mechanism by which anthocyanins target foodborne contaminants, as well as the potential impact of individual variations in response. Additionally, it is important to note that there is currently a dearth of clinical research examining the efficacy of anthocyanins as an intervention for mitigating the effects of foodborne pollutants. Thus, by exploring the detoxification effect and mechanism of anthocyanins on foodborne pollutants, this review thereby provides evidence, supporting the utilization of anthocyanin-rich diets as a means to mitigate the detrimental effects of foodborne contaminants.

Probing the bioconcentration and metabolism disruption of bisphenol A and its analogues in adult female zebrafish from integrated AutoQSAR and metabolomics studies

Plenty of emerging bisphenol A (BPA) substitutes rise to wait for assessment of bioconcentration and metabolism disruption. Computational methods are useful to fill the data gap in chemical risk assessment, such as automated quantitative structure-activity relationship (AutoQSAR). It is not clear how AutoQSAR performs in predicting the bioconcentration factor (BCF) in adult zebrafish. Herein, AutoQSAR was used to predict the logBCFs of BPA, bisphenol AF (BPAF), bisphenol B, bisphenol F and bisphenol S (BPS). For the test set, a linear relationship was shown between the observed and predicted logBCFs with a slope of 0.97. The predicted logBCFs of these five bisphenols were quite close to their experimental data with a slope of 0.94, suggesting better performance than directed message passing neural networks and EPI Suite with a slope of 0.69 and 0.61, respectively. Thus, AutoQSAR is powerful in modeling logBCFs in fish with minimal time and expertise. To link bioconcentration with metabolic effects, female zebrafish were exposed to BPA, BPAF and BPS for metabolomics analysis. BPA caused a significant disturbance in amino acid metabolism, while BPAF and BPS significantly altered another three metabolic pathways, showing chemical-specific responses. BPAF with the highest logBCF elicited the strongest metabolomic responses reflected by the metabolic effect level index, followed by BPA and BPS. Thus, BPAF and BPS elicited higher or similar metabolism disruption compared with BPA in female zebrafish, respectively, reflecting consequences of bioconcentration.

Research Progress of Methods for Degradation of Bisphenol A

Bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine disruptor widely used in industrial production, is found in various environmental sources. Despite numerous reports on BPA degradation and removal, the details remain unclear. This paper aims to address this gap by providing a comprehensive review of BPA degradation methods, focusing on biological, physical, and chemical treatments and the factors that affect the degradation of BPA. Firstly, the paper uses VOSviewer software (version 1.6.15) to map out the literature on BPA degradation published in the past 20 years, which reveals the trends and research focus in this field. Next, the advantages and limitations of different BPA degradation methods are discussed. Overall, this review highlights the importance of BPA degradation to protect the environment and human health. The paper provides significant insights for researchers and policymakers to develop better approaches for BPA degradation and removal.