Mitochondria in apoptosis: Bcl-2 family members and mitochondrial dynamics

A vascular endothelial growth factor-loaded chitosan-hyaluronic acid hydrogel scaffold enhances the therapeutic effect of adipose-derived stem cells in the context of stroke

JOURNAL/nrgr/04.03/01300535-202512000-00028/figure1/v/2025-01-31T122243Z/r/image-tiff Adipose-derived stem cell, one type of mesenchymal stem cells, is a promising approach in treating ischemia-reperfusion injury caused by occlusion of the middle cerebral artery. However, its application has been limited by the complexities of the ischemic microenvironment. Hydrogel scaffolds, which are composed of hyaluronic acid and chitosan, exhibit excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, making them promising candidates as cell carriers. Vascular endothelial growth factor is a crucial regulatory factor for stem cells. Both hyaluronic acid and chitosan have the potential to make the microenvironment more hospitable to transplanted stem cells, thereby enhancing the therapeutic effect of mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in the context of stroke. Here, we found that vascular endothelial growth factor significantly improved the activity and paracrine function of adipose-derived stem cells. Subsequently, we developed a chitosan-hyaluronic acid hydrogel scaffold that incorporated vascular endothelial growth factor and first injected the scaffold into an animal model of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. When loaded with adipose-derived stem cells, this vascular endothelial growth factor-loaded scaffold markedly reduced neuronal apoptosis caused by oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation and substantially restored mitochondrial membrane potential and axon morphology. Further in vivo experiments revealed that this vascular endothelial growth factor-loaded hydrogel scaffold facilitated the transplantation of adipose-derived stem cells, leading to a reduction in infarct volume and neuronal apoptosis in a rat model of stroke induced by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. It also helped maintain mitochondrial integrity and axonal morphology, greatly improving rat motor function and angiogenesis. Therefore, utilizing a hydrogel scaffold loaded with vascular endothelial growth factor as a stem cell delivery system can mitigate the adverse effects of ischemic microenvironment on transplanted stem cells and enhance the therapeutic effect of stem cells in the context of stroke.

Hijacking the autophagy-apoptosis crosstalk: African swine fever virus orchestrates immune evasion via host remodeling for viral pathogenesis

African swine fever (ASF) is an acute, highly fatal hemorrhagic disease of domestic and wild pigs caused by African swine fever virus (ASFV). ASFV, a large double-stranded DNA virus of the Asfarviridae family, is highly infectious and pathogenic. Through modulation of host apoptosis and autophagy pathways, the virus subverts innate immune surveillance to promote its replication and dissemination. Following ASFV infection, domestic pigs may exhibit 100 % morbidity and mortality rates with highly virulent strains, constituting a major threat to the global pork industry. Nowadays, ASF is listed as a notifiable terrestrial animal disease by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). Therefore, elucidating ASFV's pathogenic mechanisms, particularly its molecular regulation of apoptosis and autophagy, is crucial for developing effective ASF control and prevention strategies. This review comprehensively summarizes the pathogenic mechanisms of ASFV, with particular focus on the autophagy-apoptosis crosstalk and viral manipulation of these cellular processes. These insights not only improve our understanding of ASFV-mediated immune evasion mechanisms but also provide valuable references for developing ASF control strategies targeting apoptosis and autophagy pathways.

Biochanin A, an isoflavone isolated from Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC., leaves promote ROS-mediated and caspase-dependent apoptosis in lung adenocarcinoma cells

The objective of this study was to isolate and characterize a cytotoxic compound from the hydromethanolic extract of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. leaves using the cold percolation technique. Thin-layer chromatography was employed to isolate the cytotoxic component from the crude plant extract, and its cytotoxicity against lung adenocarcinoma (A549) cells was evaluated using the MTT assay. The structure of the isolated cytotoxic compound was determined through FTIR, NMR, UV analysis, and LC-MS/MS methods. Through comprehensive characterization, a cytotoxic compound called Biochanin A (BA) was identified, exhibiting significant anticancer activity with an IC50 value of 21.92 ± 2.19 μM against A549 cells, while demonstrating lower cytotoxicity towards normal lung cells (WI-38) with an IC50 value of 285.12 ± 2.19 μM. Notably, BA induced morphological changes in A549 cells, leading to apoptotic alterations and the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as confirmed by multiple techniques (AO/EB, DAPI, Giemsa). In silico molecular docking, ADMET, MMGBSA, and molecular dynamics simulation investigations support the RT-PCR and cell biology findings. As a result, BA's molecular mechanism of action involves ROS-induced apoptosis mediated by caspases 9 and 3.

Bacillus licheniformis Alleviates Clostridium perfringens-Induced Intestinal Injury in Mice Model by Modulating Inflammation, Apoptosis, and Cecal Microbial-Metabolic Responses

Bacillus licheniformis (B. licheniformis) is a probiotic known for its ability to enhance host resistance against pathogenic infections. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of B. licheniformis in a mouse model challenged with Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens). C57BL/6J mice were pretreated with B. licheniformis for 21 days before oral infection with C. perfringens. The probiotic administration significantly prevented infection-induced weight loss and immune organ enlargement. Serum cytokine analysis revealed that B. licheniformis increased anti-inflammatory IL-4 and IL-10 levels while reducing pro-inflammatory IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels. Histological analysis showed that B. licheniformis preserved intestinal morphology and inhibited epithelial cell apoptosis. Moreover, the probiotic mitigated the infection-induced decline in volatile fatty acid (VFA) production. 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed that B. licheniformis reshaped the cecal microbiota, characterized by the increased abundance of Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, Muribaculaceae, and Parabacteroides, and reduced abundance of Alistipes. Untargeted metabolomic profiling identified differential metabolites-including D-glucono-1,5-lactone, D-erythrose 4-phosphate, and D-sedoheptulose 7-phosphate-enriched in the pentose phosphate pathway, suggesting a regulatory role in redox homeostasis and host response. Collectively, these results indicate that B. licheniformis exerts protective effects against C. perfringens infection by modulating inflammation, apoptosis, microbial composition, and metabolic pathways. This work provides new insights into the application of B. licheniformis as a functional microbial feed additive in livestock disease prevention.

Protective Effects of (-)-Butaclamol Against Gentamicin-Induced Ototoxicity: In Vivo and In Vitro Approaches

Gentamicin-induced ototoxicity leads to irreversible sensorineural hearing loss due to structural and functional damage to inner ear hair cells. In this study, we identified (-)-butaclamol as a potent protective agent against gentamicin-induced cytotoxicity through high-content screening (HCS) of a natural compound library. (-)-Butaclamol significantly enhanced cell viability in both HEI-OC1 cells and zebrafish neuromasts, demonstrating robust protection against gentamicin toxicity. Mechanistically, (-)-butaclamol inhibited intrinsic apoptosis, as evidenced by reduced TUNEL-positive cell counts and the downregulation of BAX and caspase-3, alongside the upregulation of BCL-2. Moreover, (-)-butaclamol activated key survival signaling pathways, including AKT/mTOR and ERK, while suppressing the inflammatory regulator NF-κB. Additional analyses revealed that (-)-butaclamol effectively mitigated oxidative stress and restored autophagic activity, as confirmed by CellROX and LysoTracker assays. Notably, TMRE staining showed that (-)-butaclamol preserved mitochondrial membrane potential in zebrafish hair cells, indicating mitochondrial protection. Collectively, these findings suggest that (-)-butaclamol exerts comprehensive cytoprotective effects against gentamicin-induced ototoxicity by modulating apoptosis, enhancing survival signaling, and restoring mitochondrial and cellular homeostasis. These results highlight the therapeutic potential of (-)-butaclamol and provide a foundation for future studies aimed at its clinical application.

Sex and region-specific disruption of autophagy and mitophagy in Alzheimer's disease: linking cellular dysfunction to cognitive decline

Macroautophagy and mitophagy are critical processes in Alzheimer's disease (AD), yet their links to behavioral outcomes, particularly sex-specific differences, are not fully understood. This study investigates autophagic (LC3B-II, SQSTM1) and mitophagic (BNIP3L, BNIP3, BCL2L13) markers in the cortex and hippocampus of male and female 3xTg-AD mice, using western blotting, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and behavioral tests (novel object recognition and novel object placement). Significant sex-specific differences emerged: female 3xTg-AD mice exhibited autophagosome accumulation due to impaired degradation in the cortex, while males showed fewer autophagosomes, especially in the hippocampus, without significant degradation changes. TEM analyses demonstrated variations in mitochondrial and mitophagosome numbers correlated with memory outcomes. Females had enhanced mitophagy, with higher BNIP3L and BCL2L13 levels, whereas males showed elevated BNIP3 dimers. Cognitive deficits in females correlated with mitochondrial dysfunction in the cortex, while in males, higher LC3B-II levels associated positively with cognitive performance, suggesting protective autophagy effects. Using machine learning, we predicted mitophagosome and mitochondrial numbers based on behavioral data, pioneering a predictive approach to cellular outcomes in AD. These findings underscore the importance of sex-specific regulation of autophagy and mitophagy in AD and support personalized therapeutic approaches targeting these pathways. Integrating machine learning emphasizes its potential to advance neurodegenerative research. Sex-specific differences in autophagy and mitophagy regulation in Alzheimer's disease (AD) are highlighted. Female 3xTg-AD mice show autophagosome accumulation and cognitive deficits, while males exhibit variations in mitophagy markers and behavior.

MDM1 overexpression promotes p53 expression and cell apoptosis to enhance therapeutic sensitivity to chemoradiotherapy in patients with colorectal cancer

OBJECTIVE

Identifying biomarkers that predict the efficacy and prognosis of chemoradiotherapy is important for individualized clinical treatment. We previously reported that high murine double minute 1 (MDM1) expression in patients with rectal cancer is linked to a favorable chemoradiation response. In this study the role of MDM1 in the chemoradiotherapy response in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients was evaluated.

METHODS

Colony formation and cell proliferation assays as well as xenograft models were used to determine if MDM1 expression affects the sensitivity of CRC cells to chemoradiation. RNA sequencing revealed that MDM1 regulates tumor protein 53 (TP53) expression and apoptosis. A series of molecular biology experiments were performed to determine how MDM1 affects p53 expression. The effects of inhibitors targeting apoptosis on MDM1 knockout cells were evaluated.

RESULTS

Gene expression profiling revealed that MDM1 is a potential chemoradiotherapy sensitivity marker. The sensitivity of CRC cells to chemoradiation treatment decreased after MDM1 knockout and increased after MDM1 overexpression. MDM1 affected p53 expression, thereby regulating apoptosis. MDM1 overexpression limited YBX1 binding to TP53 promoter, regulated TP53 expression, and rendered CRC cells more sensitive to chemoradiation. In CRC cells with low MDM1 expression, a combination of apoptosis-inducing inhibitors and chemoradiation treatment restored sensitivity to cancer therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study showed that MDM1 expression influences the sensitivity of CRC cells to chemoradiation by influencing p53 and apoptosis pathways, which is the basis for the underlying molecular mechanism, and serves as a possible predictive marker for chemoradiotherapy prognosis.

Cytotoxicity-guided isolation of elatostemanosides I-VI from Elatostema tenuicaudatum W. T. Wang and their cytotoxic activities

Elatostema tenuicaudatum W. T. Wang, a medicinal plant traditionally utilized in herbal remedies, was explored for its cytotoxic properties. Bioassay-guided fractionation led to the discovery of six novel compounds, designated as elatostemanosides I-VI, with their structures elucidated through advanced spectroscopic methods and DP4+ analysis. Among these, compounds 2, 5, and 6 demonstrated moderate cytotoxicity against the human liver cancer cell line HepG2, exhibiting IC50 values of 18.2 ± 2.1, 32.1 ± 0.4, and 57.6 ± 1.3 µM, respectively. Notably, compound 6 also displayed significant activity against the human breast cancer cell line HCC1806, with an IC50 value of 35.4 ± 0.3 µM. Mechanistic studies revealed these compounds induced apoptosis by modulating the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. Furthermore, structure-activity relationship (SAR) analysis underscored the importance of specific functional groups in mediating cytotoxic effects.

Effectiveness and mechanism of cisplatin combined with PDT on human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells transplanted tumor in nude mice

This study aims to investigate the effect and mechanism of photodynamic therapy (PDT) combined with cisplatin on human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells transplanted tumors in nude mice, and to provide a theoretical basis for clinical PDT. Construction of a nude mouse lung cancer transplantation tumor model using the human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cell line, and the mice were randomly divided into four groups: the control group, the cisplatin alone group, the PDT alone group, and the cisplatin combined PDT group. The apoptosis of tumor cells in the four groups was observed and compared by the TUNEL method, and the mRNA expression levels of apoptosis-related genes Bax, caspase-3 and Survivin, as well as the expression levels of the corresponding proteins, were detected by the real-time fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and the protein immunoblotting technique (Western blot) respectively. The results showed that photodynamic force combined with cisplatin was effective in inhibiting tumor growth, and its effect was superior to that of cisplatin or PDT alone. This may be related to the promotion of apoptosis, specifically through the up-regulation of Bax and caspase-3, and the down-regulation of Survivin gene expression, thus inhibiting cell proliferation.

Hydrogen alleviates myocardial infarction by impeding apoptosis via ROS-mediated mitochondrial endogenous pathway

BACKGROUND

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is a deadly cardiovascular disease with no effective solution except for percutaneous coronary intervention and coronary artery bypass grafting. Inflammation and apoptosis of the injured myocardium after revascularization seriously affect the prognosis. Hydrogen possesses anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and anti-apoptotic effects and may become a new treatment for AMI. This study explored the specific mechanism by which hydrogen operates during AMI treatment.

METHODS

Thirty Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into three groups: control, myocardial infarction (MI), and myocardial infarction + hydrogen (MI+H2), each containing 10 rats. The MI rat model was established by ligation of the left anterior descending branch. The MI+H2 group received 2% hydrogen inhalation treatment for 3 h/Bid.

RESULTS

Myocardial infarct size was evaluated using triphenyl tetrazolium chloride staining. Transmission electron microscopy showed reduced mitochondrial damage compared with the MI group. JC-1 staining, which indicates mitochondrial membrane potential, showed a low red/green fluorescence intensity ratio in the MI group compared to that in the control group, indicating mitochondrial membrane potential loss. After hydrogen inhalation, this ratio increased, suggesting partial recovery of membrane potential. In addition, mitochondrial ATP content, mitochondrial complex I, and mitochondrial complex III activity were significantly decreased in the MI group, which was improved after hydrogen administration. Western blotting analysis showed decreased Cyt-c protein levels in the myocardial mitochondria and increased levels in the cytoplasm of MI rats. Following hydrogen inhalation, the levels of ROS, 8-OHdG, and MDA that could represent oxidative stress injury significantly decreased. Besides, the expression of Cyt-C, Bax, cleaved-caspase-9, and cleaved-caspase-3 in MI group significantly increased, while the Bcl-2, TRX2, SOD2 expression decreased. The expression of these proteins in MI+H2 group was improved compared with the MI group.

CONCLUSION

Overall, hydrogen inhalation reduces myocardial infarct size, improves mitochondrial dysfunction, and modulates the levels of apoptosis-related substances. Importantly, Hydrogen reduces acute myocardial infarction damage by downregulating ROS and upregulating antioxidant proteins.

Mechanisms of fibrinogen trans-activation of the EGFR/Ca2+ signaling axis to regulate mitochondrial transport and energy transfer and inhibit axonal regeneration following cerebral ischemia

Ischemic stroke results in inhibition of axonal regeneration but the roles of fibrinogen (Fg) in neuronal signaling and energy crises in experimental stroke are under-investigated. We explored the mechanism of Fg modulation of axonal regeneration and neuronal energy crisis after cerebral ischemia using a permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rat model and primary cortical neurons under low glucose-low oxygen. Behavioral tests assessed neurological deficits; immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, and Western-blot analyzed Fg and protein levels. Fluo-3/AM fluorescence measured free Ca2+ and ATP levels were gauged via specific assays and F560nm/F510nm ratio calculations. Mito-Tracker Green labeled mitochondria and immunoprecipitation studied protein interactions. Our comprehensive study revealed that Fg inhibited axonal regeneration post-MCAO as indicated by reduced GAP43 expression along with elevated free Ca2+, both suggesting an energy crisis. Fg impeded mitochondrial function and mediated impairment through the EGFR/Ca2+ axis by trans-activating EGFR via integrin αvβ3 interaction. These results indicate that the binding of Fg with integrin αvβ3 leads to the trans-activation of the EGFR/Ca2+ signaling axis thereby disrupting mitochondrial energy transport and axonal regeneration and exacerbating the detrimental effects of ischemic neuronal injury.

Ferroptosis triggers mitochondrial fragmentation via Drp1 activation

Constitutive mitochondrial dynamics ensure quality control and metabolic fitness of cells, and their dysregulation has been implicated in various human diseases. The large GTPase Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) is intimately involved in mediating constitutive mitochondrial fission and has been implicated in mitochondrial cell death pathways. During ferroptosis, a recently identified type of regulated necrosis driven by excessive lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial fragmentation has been observed. Yet, how this is regulated and whether it is involved in ferroptotic cell death has remained unexplored. Here, we provide evidence that Drp1 is activated upon experimental induction of ferroptosis and promotes cell death execution and mitochondrial fragmentation. Using time-lapse microscopy, we found that ferroptosis induced mitochondrial fragmentation and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, but not mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization. Importantly, Drp1 accelerated ferroptotic cell death kinetics. Notably, this function was mediated by the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics, as overexpression of Mitofusin 2 phenocopied the effect of Drp1 deficiency in delaying ferroptosis cell death kinetics. Mechanistically, we found that Drp1 is phosphorylated and activated after induction of ferroptosis and that it translocates to mitochondria. Further activation at mitochondria through the phosphatase PGAM5 promoted ferroptotic cell death. Remarkably, Drp1 depletion delayed mitochondrial and plasma membrane lipid peroxidation. These data provide evidence for a functional role of Drp1 activation and mitochondrial fragmentation in the acceleration of ferroptotic cell death, with important implications for targeting mitochondrial dynamics in diseases associated with ferroptosis.

Study on the Effect of Quinoa Saponins on Human Colon Cancer HT-29 Cells

Quinoa saponins can inhibit the survival of specific cancer cells. However, there is still a lack of systematic research on the effects of quinoa saponins on colon cancer cells. This experiment confirmed that quinoa saponins prevented human colon cancer HT-29 cells from growing in vitro. The MTT experiment revealed that quinoa saponins significantly decreased the proliferative vitality of HT-29 cells. In comparison to the control group, the proportion of cell number in the G0/G1 phase increased by 22.97% and the rate of apoptosis increased by 22.55% after treating cells with quinoa saponins (40 μg/mL). By regulating the expression of Cyclin D1 and p21, it caused the cell cycle to be blocked in the G0/G1 phase. It also promoted the expression of Caspase3 and Bax while suppressing the expression of Bcl-2, which led to the apoptosis of HT-29 cells. In addition, quinoa saponins caused cells to undergo autophagy by upregulating the expression of LC-3II and Beclin1, while the addition of autophagy inhibitors significantly reduced the inhibitory effect on cell proliferation. Finally, the migration of HT-29 cells was also inhibited by quinoa saponins. After treating cells with quinoa saponins (40 μg/mL), compared with that in the control group, the wound healing rate of cells decreased by 38.21% and the migration ability decreased by 69.48%. The potential mechanism could be connected to increasing E-cadherin expression while decreasing N-cadherin expression. Importantly, all of these changes induced by quinoa saponins were dose dependent. Overall, these findings give a scientific basis for the anticancer mechanism of quinoa saponins.

Effects of Alnus japonica Hot Water Extract and Oregonin on Muscle Loss and Muscle Atrophy in C2C12 Murine Skeletal Muscle Cells

Background/Objectives: Sarcopenia is characterized by the loss of muscle mass and function, increases in mortality rate, and risk of comorbidities in the elderly. This study evaluated the effects of Alnus japonica hot water extract (AJHW) and its active compound, oregonin, on muscle atrophy and apoptosis in vitro. Methods: AJHW underwent phytochemical analysis. C2C12 cells were subjected to H2O2 and dexamethasone to induce oxidative stress and muscle loss, after which AJHW and oregonin were administered to assess their impacts on cell viability, apoptosis, muscle protein synthesis stimulation, and muscle protein degradation inhibition. Cell viability was assessed via an MTT assay, and apoptosis was analyzed by measuring Bcl-2, Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved PARP through Western blotting. Western blotting and RT-PCR were utilized to analyze MyoD, Myogenin, Atrogin-1, and MuRF1 protein and gene expression in a muscle atrophy model, as well as the Akt/mTOR and FoxO3α pathways. Results: AJHW was confirmed to contain oregonin, an active compound. AJHW and oregonin significantly increased cell viability and reduced apoptosis by upregulating Bcl-2 and downregulating Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved PARP. They significantly enhanced muscle protein synthesis through the upregulation of MyoD and Myogenin, while diminishing muscle degradation by downregulating Atrogin-1 and MuRF1. The activation of the Akt/mTOR pathway and inhibition of the FoxO3α pathway were also observed. Conclusions: AJHW and oregonin effectively prevented muscle cell apoptosis, promoted muscle protein synthesis, and inhibited muscle protein degradation in vitro. These results suggest that AJHW and oregonin could serve as therapeutic agents to prevent and treat sarcopenia.

Metabolism: a potential regulator of neutrophil fate

Neutrophils are essential components of the innate immune system that defend against the invading pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, as well as having regulatory roles in various conditions, including tissue repair, cancer immunity, and inflammation modulation. The function of neutrophils is strongly related to their mode of cell death, as different types of cell death involve various cellular and molecular alterations. Apoptosis, a non-inflammatory and programmed type of cell death, is the most common in neutrophils, while other modes of cell death, including NETOsis, necrosis, necroptosis, autophagy, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis, have specific roles in neutrophil function regulation. Immunometabolism refers to energy and substance metabolism in immune cells, and profoundly influences immune cell fate and immune system function. Intercellular and intracellular signal transduction modulate neutrophil metabolism, which can, in turn, alter their activities by influencing various cell signaling pathways. In this review, we compile an extensive body of evidence demonstrating the role of neutrophil metabolism in their various forms of cell death. The review highlights the intricate metabolic characteristics of neutrophils and their interplay with various types of cell death.

Sorafenib and SIAIS361034, a novel PROTAC degrader of BCL-xL, display synergistic antitumor effects on hepatocellular carcinoma with minimal hepatotoxicity

The overexpression of BCL-xL is closely associated with poor prognosis in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). While the strategy of combination of BCL-xL and MCL-1 for treating solid tumors has been reported, it presents significant hepatotoxicity. SIAIS361034, a novel proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) agent, selectively induces the ubiquitination and subsequent proteasomal degradation of BCL-xL through the CRBN-E3 ubiquitin ligase. When combined with sorafenib, SIAIS361034 showed a potent synergistic effect in inhibiting hepatocellular carcinoma development both in vitro and in vivo. Since SIAIS361034 exhibits a high degree of selectivity for degrading BCL-xL in hepatocellular carcinoma, the hepatotoxicity typically associated with the combined inhibition of BCL-xL and MCL-1 is significantly reduced, thereby greatly enhancing safety. Mechanistically, BCL-xL and MCL-1 sequester the BH3-only protein BIM on mitochondria at baseline. Treatment with SIAIS361034 and sorafenib destabilizes BIM/BCL-xL and BIM/MCL1 association, resulting in the liberation of more BIM proteins to trigger apoptosis. Additionally, we discovered a novel compensatory regulation mechanism in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. BIM can rapidly respond to changes in the balance between BCL-xL and MCL-1 through their co-transcription factor MEF2C to maintain apoptosis resistance. In summary, the combination therapy of SIAIS361034 and sorafenib represents an effective and safe approach for inhibiting hepatocellular carcinoma progression. The novel balancing mechanism may also provide insights for combination and precision therapies in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Pathogen-induced apoptosis in echinoderms: A review

Echinoderms possess unique biological traits that make them valuable models in immunology, regeneration, and developmental biology studies. As a class rich in active substances with significant nutritional and medicinal value, echinoderms face threats from marine pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and parasites, which have caused substantial economic losses in echinoderm aquaculture. Echinoderms counteract pathogen invasion through innate immunity and programmed cell death, in particular, with apoptosis being essential for eliminating infected or damaged cells and maintaining homeostasis in many echinoderm cell types. Despite the importance of this process, there is a lack of comprehensive and updated reviews on this topic. This review underscores that echinoderm apoptotic pathways exhibit a complexity comparable to that of vertebrates, featuring proteins with unique domains that may indicate the presence of novel signaling mechanisms. We synthesize current knowledge on how echinoderms utilize diverse transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms to regulate apoptosis in response to pathogen infections and explore how pathogens have evolved strategies to manipulate echinoderm apoptosis, either by inhibiting it to create survival niches or by inducing excessive apoptosis to weaken the host. By elucidating the primary apoptotic pathways in echinoderms and the host-pathogen interactions that modulate these pathways, this review aims to reveal new mechanisms of apoptosis in animal immune defense and provide insights into the evolutionary arms race between hosts and pathogens.

Mitochondrial structure and function: A new direction for the targeted treatment of chronic liver disease with Chinese herbal medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Excessive fat accumulation, biological clock dysregulation, viral infections, and sustained inflammatory responses can lead to liver inflammation, fibrosis, and cancer, thus promoting the development of chronic liver disease. A comprehensive understanding of the etiological factors leading to chronic liver disease and the intrinsic mechanisms influencing its onset and progression can aid in identifying potential targets for targeted therapy. Mitochondria, as key organelles that maintain the metabolic homeostasis of the liver, provide an important foundation for exploring therapeutic targets for chronic liver disease. Recent studies have shown that active ingredients in herbal medicines and their natural products can modulate chronic liver disease by influencing the structure and function of mitochondria. Therefore, studying how Chinese herbs target mitochondrial structure and function to treat chronic liver diseases is of great significance.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Investigating the prospects of herbal medicine the Lens of chronic liver disease based on mitochondrial structure and function.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A computerized search of PubMed was conducted using the keywords "mitochondrial structure", "mitochondrial function", "mitochondria and chronic liver disease", "botanicals, mitochondria and chronic liver disease".Data from the Web of Science and Science Direct databases were also included. The research findings regarding herbal medicines targeting mitochondrial structure and function for the treatment of chronic liver disease are summarized.

RESULTS

A computerized search of PubMed using the keywords "mitochondrial structure", "mitochondrial function", "mitochondria and chronic liver disease", "phytopharmaceuticals, mitochondria, and chronic liver disease", as well as the Web of Science and Science Direct databases was conducted to summarize information on studies of mitochondrial structure- and function-based Chinese herbal medicines for the treatment of chronic liver disease and to suggest that the effects of herbal medicines on mitochondrial division and fusion.The study suggested that there is much room for research on the influence of Chinese herbs on mitochondrial division and fusion.

CONCLUSIONS

Targeting mitochondrial structure and function is crucial for herbal medicine to combat chronic liver disease.

Longxuetongluo Capsule alleviate ischemia/reperfusion induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis through modulating oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction

BACKGROUND

Chinese dragon's blood, the red resin of Dracaena cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. C. Chen., is widely used to treat cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in China. Longxuetongluo Capsule (LTC) is a total phenolic compound extracted from Chinese dragon's blood, currently used in treating ischemic stroke. Myocardial injury can be aggravated after reperfusion of ischemic myocardium, which is called myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI), and the mechanism of MIRI is complex. However, the exact effect and mechanism of LTC on MIRI are still unclear. We explore the effect of LTC on alleviating MIRI based on mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To explore the cardioprotective mechanism of LTC against MIRI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A rat MIRI model was constructed through ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery, and LTC was given continuously for 28 days before surgery. The H9c2 cardiomyocyte injury model was induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R), and LTC was given 24 h before OGD. Myocardial ischemia areas were detected with 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining. Cardiac histopathological changes were detected with hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining. And biochemical indexes were detected with serum biochemical kit. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labelling (TUNEL) staining and flow cytometry were used to detect apoptosis. Fluorescent probes were used to observe reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), Ca2+and other indexes. MitoTracker staining and immunofluorescence were used to observe the morphology of mitochondria and translocation of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1). Finally, immunohistochemistry and Western blotting were used to examine the expression of proteins related to apoptosis, mitochondrial fission and fusion and oxidative stress.

RESULTS

LTC could ameliorate cardiac pathological changes, decrease myocardial infarct area and the content or level of relevant serum cardiac enzymes, indicating that LTC could alleviate MIRI. Meanwhile, LTC could inhibit cardiomyocyte apoptosis via regulating apoptosis-related protein expression, and it could restore mitochondrial morphology, maintain ΔΨm, inhibit mitochondrial ROS generation and Ca2+ accumulation, increase the expression of mitochondrial fusion protein 2 (Mfn2), decrease the level of phosphorylation dynamin-related protein 1 (p-Drp1), and regulate ATP synthesis, thereby significantly ameliorating mitochondrial dysfunction. Moreover, LTC significantly reduced the expression of NADPH oxidase 2 (NOX2), NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) and neutrophil cytosolic factor 2 (NOXA2/p67phox), and reduced ROS production.

CONCLUSION

The study demonstrated that LTC could inhibit MIRI induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis by inhibiting ROS generation and mitochondrial dysfunction, and these fundings suggested that LTC can be used to alleviate MIRI, which provides a potential therapeutic approach for future treatment of MIRI.

Sex and Region-Specific Disruption of Autophagy and Mitophagy in Alzheimer's Disease: Linking Cellular Dysfunction to Cognitive Decline

Macroautophagy and mitophagy are critical processes in Alzheimer's disease (AD), yet their links to behavioral outcomes, particularly sex-specific differences, are not fully understood. This study investigates autophagy (LC3B-II, SQSTM1) and mitophagy (BNIP3L, BNIP3, BCL2L13) markers in the cortex and hippocampus of male and female 3xTg-AD mice, using western blotting, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and behavioral tests (novel object recognition and novel object placement). Significant sex-specific differences emerged: female 3xTg-AD mice exhibited autophagosome accumulation due to impaired degradation in the cortex, while males showed fewer autophagosomes, especially in the hippocampus, without significant degradation changes. TEM analyses demonstrated variations in mitochondrial and mitophagosome numbers correlated with memory outcomes. Females had enhanced mitophagy, with higher BNIP3L and BCL2L13 levels, whereas males showed elevated BNIP3 dimers. Cognitive deficits in females correlated with mitochondrial dysfunction in the cortex, while in males, higher LC3B-II levels associated positively with cognitive performance, suggesting protective autophagy effects. Using machine learning, we predicted mitophagosome and mitochondrial numbers based on behavioral data, pioneering a predictive approach to cellular outcomes in AD. These findings underscore the importance of sex-specific regulation of autophagy and mitophagy in AD and support personalized therapeutic approaches targeting these pathways. Integrating machine learning emphasizes its potential to advance neurodegenerative research.

Abstract Figure

Protective effect of water-soluble nervonic acid micro-powder coated with chitosan oligosaccharide and silk fibroin on hippocampal neuronal HT22 cells

Nervonic acid (NA) is an extremely long chain monounsaturated fatty acid that plays a crucial biological role in brain development and repair. However, its low solubility reduced bioavailability and limited its applications. In this study, spherical water-soluble nervonic acid composite micro-powder (NA-WM) was constructed by layer-by-layer self-assembly technology under electrostatic interaction and hydrogen bond, in which electronegative NA was used as the core material, and electropositive COS (Chitosan oligosaccharide) with neuroprotective properties and electronegative SF (Silk fibroin) with biocompatibility and anti-inflammatory synergism were used as the wall material. In the preparation process, the electronegative NA was first combined with electropositive COS by antisolvent method, and then the electropositive COS-NA complex was encapsulated with electronegative SF to form NA-WM. The optimal preparation conditions were screened and optimized via single-factor and BBD method. Under the optimum conditions, the average particle size of NA-WM was 420 ± 35 nm. The results of TGA (Thermogravimetric), SEM (Scanning electron microscopy), and FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) confirmed that NA-WM had good thermal stability and spherical-defined layer-to-layer structure. Additionally, at pH 1.5, the NA release rate of NA-WM was as high as 89.54 % within 2.5 h. Through measuring the levels of MDA (Malondialdehyde), CAT (Catalase), SOD (Superoxide dismutase), GSH-Px (Glutathione peroxidase), and LDH (Lactate dehydrogenase), as well as flow cytometry and SEM analysis, it was confirmed that NA-WM could protect Aβ1-42-induced HT22 by inhibiting oxidative stress and reducing mitochondrial membrane potential. This study provided data support for the development and application of NA.

Effect of hypoxia on proliferation and differentiation of induced pluripotent stem cell-derived mesenchymal stem cells

Although mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are extensively applied in the regenerative field, the majority of MSCs die after a few weeks of transplantation. Therefore, hypoxia pre-conditioning is a crucial step in increasing the MSCs' tolerance to physiological conditions. Meanwhile, induced pluripotent stem cell-derived MSCs (iMSCs) were proposed as a possible alternative to MSCs, and recently, the interest is growing in applying iMSCs in the regenerative field. This study examined the effect of hypoxia pre-conditioning on the proliferation, viability, and differentiation of iMSCs. Both iMSCs and MSCs were subjected to two rounds of severe short-term hypoxia (1 % O2 for 24h). After that, iMSCs and MSCs were characterized by testing their surface markers' expression, proliferation, viability, oxidative stress, and differentiation potential. Our findings revealed that hypoxia did not have a consistent effect among all the analyzed lines: the severe short-term hypoxia (1 % O2) reduced iMSCs proliferation, cell viability, and MMP while showing a benign effect on surface markers expression, colony formation, ROS accumulation, and osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation. Though hypoxia adversely affected iMSCs' proliferation, this does not necessarily mean that hypoxia is harmful to iMSCs; on the contrary, our results suggest that short-term hypoxia might have a beneficial long-term effect on the proliferation of iMSCs. Thus, the effect of hypoxia on proliferation, viability, and differentiation should also be tested after a long recovery period from iMSCs. Our next step will be to test the effect of hypoxia for a longer period besides uncovering the changes in the expression profile of hypoxic iMSCs.

Targeting PI3K/Akt in Cerebral Ischemia Reperfusion Injury Alleviation: From Signaling Networks to Targeted Therapy

Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is a pathological event that results in reperfusion due to low blood flow to an organ. Cerebral ischemia is a common cerebrovascular disease with high mortality, and reperfusion is the current standard intervention. However, reperfusion may further induce cellular damage and dysfunction known as cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CIRI). Currently, strategies for the clinical management of CIRI are limited, necessitating the exploration of novel and efficacious treatment modalities for the benefit of patients. PI3K/Akt signaling pathway is an important cellular process associated with the disease. Stimulation of the PI3K/Akt pathway enhances I/R injury in multiple organs such as heart, brain, lung, and liver. It stands as a pivotal signaling pathway crucial for diminishing cerebral infarction size and safeguarding the functionality of brain tissue after CIRI. During CIRI, activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway exhibits a protective effect on CIRI. Furthermore, activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway has the potential to augment the activity of antioxidant enzymes, resulting in a decrease in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the associated oxidative stress. Meanwhile, PI3K/Akt plays a neuroprotective role by inhibiting inflammatory responses and apoptosis. For example, PI3K/Akt interacts with NF-κB, Nrf2, and MAPK signaling pathways to mitigate CIRI. This article is aimed to explore the pivotal role and underlying mechanism of PI3K/Akt in ameliorating CIRI and investigate the influence of ischemic preconditioning and post-processing, as well as the impact of pertinent drugs or activators targeting the PI3K/Akt pathway on CIRI. The primary objective is to furnish compelling evidence supporting the activation of PI3K/Akt in the context of CIRI, elucidating its mechanistic intricacies. By doing so, the paper aims to underscore the critical contribution of PI3K/Akt in mitigating CIRI, providing a theoretical foundation for considering the PI3K/Akt pathway as a viable target for CIRI treatment.

The Effect of Chronic Immunosuppressive Regimen Treatment on Apoptosis in the Heart of Rats

Chronic immunosuppressive therapy is currently the only effective method to prevent acute rejection of a transplanted organ. Unfortunately, the expected effect of treatment brings a number of grave side effects, one of the most serious being cardiovascular complications. In our study, we wanted to investigate how treatment with commonly used immunosuppressive drugs affects the occurrence of programmed cardiac cell death. For this purpose, five groups of rats were treated with different triple immunosuppressive regimens. Cardiac tissue fragments were subjected to the TUNEL assay to visualize apoptotic cells. The expression of Bcl-2 protein, Bax protein, caspase 3 and caspase 9 was also assessed. This study indicates that all immunosuppressive protocols used chronically at therapeutic doses result in an increased percentage of cells undergoing apoptosis in rat heart tissue. The greatest changes were recorded in the TMG (rats treated with tacrolimus, mycophenolate mofetil and glucocorticosteroids) and CMG (rats treated with cyclosporin A, mycophenolate mofetil and glucocorticosteroids) groups. The TRG (rats treated with rapamycin, tacrolimus and glucocorticosteroids) group showed the lowest percentage of apoptotic cells. The internal apoptosis pathway was confirmed only in the TMG group; in the remaining groups, the results indicate programmed cell death via the receptor pathway.

Narciclasine induces colon carcinoma cell apoptosis by inhibiting the IL-17A/Act1/TRAF6/NF-κB signaling pathway

IL-17 A is a promoter of colorectal cancer initiation and progression. Narciclasine is a polyhydroxy alkaloid compound isolated from Narcissus plants, which has potent anti-inflammatory and antitumor actions. The effects of narciclasine on colorectal tumors were evaluated, with a focus on IL-17 A. Narciclasine reduced the growth of HCT-116 and SW-480 colon cancer cells in vitro and in vivo in murine xenografts. The results of flow cytometry on JC-1 and Annexin V/PI revealed that narciclasine significantly reduced the mitochondrial membrane potential and induced apoptosis, findings confirmed by western blotting results of reduced Bcl-2 and enhanced Bax expression, as well as accumulation of cleaved Caspase-3, Caspase-8, Caspase-9, and cytoplasmic Cytochrome-c. After narciclasine incubation, IL-17 A, Act1, and TRAF6 were down-regulated, while p-P65 (Ser536) accumulated in the cytoplasm, a finding confirmed by laser scanning confocal microscopy. IL17A substitution could partly reverse these narciclasine effects while they were elevated by IL17A silencing. Moreover, IL-17 A, Act1, and TRAF6 were significantly expressed to greater extents in human colorectal cancer compared to normal adjacent tissue specimens and were closely linked with a poor prognosis. This study provided evidence that narciclasine may be a useful therapeutic drug for colorectal cancer treatment through its actions in down-regulating the L-17A/Act1/TRAF6/NF-κB anti-apoptotic signaling pathway.

Sustained high expression of NRF2 inhibits cell apoptosis in arsenite-transformed human keratinocytes

Our previous study identified that nuclear factor-erythroid-2 p45-related factor 2 (NRF2) was activated in arsenite-induced tumorigenesis. However, the underlying mechanisms of NRF2 mediating apoptosis in arsenic-induced skin carcinogenesis remain unknown. This study explored the dynamic changes in apoptosis rate and the expression of apoptosis proteins in immortalized human keratinocytes (HaCaT) malignant transformation caused by 1.0 μM NaAsO2 at passages 0, 1, 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35. The result showed that the apoptosis rate decreased. The apoptosis-related proteins cleaved-caspase-3/caspase-3 ratio decreased in the later stages (passages 21, 28, and 35). Moreover, the expression of intrinsic ER stress pathway-related CHOP, ATF4, ATF6, and the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway-related Bax protein decreased in the later stages, while Bcl-2 and Mcl-1 increased, and NRF2 protein levels also increased. The apoptosis rate increased by silencing NRF2 expression in arsenite-transformed HaCaT (T-HaCaT) cells. Meanwhile, the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins (cleaved-caspase-3/caspase-3, CHOP, Bax) and ATF4, ATF6 increased. On the contrary, antiapoptotic protein levels (Bcl-2 and Mcl-1) decreased. The ability of colony formation and migration of T-HaCaT cells decreased. In conclusion, arsenite activated NRF2 in the later stages, decreasing apoptosis characterized by inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum stress-depended and mitochondria-depended apoptosis pathway, and further promoting NaAsO2-induced HaCaT cellular malignant transformation.

Application of Natural Medicinal Plants Active Ingredients in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common malignant cancer of the head and neck, with high morbidity and mortality, ranking as the sixth most common cancer in the world. The treatment of OSCC is mainly radiotherapy, chemotherapy and surgery, however, the prognosis of patients is still poor and the recurrence rate is high. This paper reviews the range of effects of natural medicinal plant active ingredients (NMPAIs) on OSCC cancer, including the types of NMPAIs, anti-cancer mechanisms, involved signaling pathways, and clinical trials. The NMPAIs include terpenoids, phenols, flavonoids, glycosides, alkaloids, coumarins, and volatile oils. These active ingredients inhibit proliferation, induce apoptosis and autophagy, inhibit migration and invasion of OSCC cells, and regulate cancer immunity to exert anti-cancer effects. The mechanism involves signaling pathways such as mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase/protein kinase B, nuclear factor kappa B, miR-22/WNT1/β-catenin and Nrf2/Keap1. Clinically, NMPAIs can inhibit the growth of OSCC, and the combined drug is more effective. Natural medicinal plants are promising candidates for the treatment of OSCC.

A promising future of metal-N-heterocyclic carbene complexes in medicinal chemistry: The emerging bioorganometallic antitumor agents

Metal complexes based on N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands have emerged as promising broad-spectrum antitumor agents in bioorganometallic medicinal chemistry. In recent decades, studies on cytotoxic metal-NHC complexes have yielded numerous compounds exhibiting superior cytotoxicity compared to cisplatin. Although the molecular mechanisms of these anticancer complexes are not fully understood, some potential targets and modes of action have been identified. However, a comprehensive review of their biological mechanisms is currently absent. In general, apoptosis caused by metal-NHCs is common in tumor cells. They can cause a series of changes after entering cells, such as mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) variation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, cytochrome c (cyt c) release, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, lysosome damage, and caspase activation, ultimately leading to apoptosis. Therefore, a detailed understanding of the influence of metal-NHCs on cancer cell apoptosis is crucial. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of recent advances in metal-NHC complexes that trigger apoptotic cell death via different apoptosis-related targets or signaling pathways, including B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2 family), p53, cyt c, ER stress, lysosome damage, thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) inhibition, and so forth. We also discuss the challenges, limitations, and future directions of metal-NHC complexes to elucidate their emerging application in medicinal chemistry.

The romantic history of signaling pathway discovery in cell death: an updated review

Cell death is a fundamental physiological process in all living organisms. Processes such as embryonic development, organ formation, tissue growth, organismal immunity, and drug response are accompanied by cell death. In recent years with the development of electron microscopy as well as biological techniques, especially the discovery of novel death modes such as ferroptosis, cuprotosis, alkaliptosis, oxeiptosis, and disulfidptosis, researchers have been promoted to have a deeper understanding of cell death modes. In this systematic review, we examined the current understanding of modes of cell death, including the recently discovered novel death modes. Our analysis highlights the common and unique pathways of these death modes, as well as their impact on surrounding cells and the organism as a whole. Our aim was to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research on cell death, with a focus on identifying gaps in our knowledge and opportunities for future investigation. We also presented a new insight for macroscopic intracellular survival patterns, namely that intracellular molecular homeostasis is central to the balance of different cell death modes, and this viewpoint can be well justified by the signaling crosstalk of different death modes. These concepts can facilitate the future research about cell death in clinical diagnosis, drug development, and therapeutic modalities.

Pretreatment can alleviate programmed cell death in mesenchymal stem cells

In this editorial, we delved into the article titled "Cellular preconditioning and mesenchymal stem cell ferroptosis." This groundbreaking study underscores a pivotal discovery: Ferroptosis, a type of programmed cell death, drastically reduces the viability of donor mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) after engraftment, thereby undermining the therapeutic value of cell-based therapies. Furthermore, the article proposes that by manipulating ferroptosis mechanisms through preconditioning, we can potentially enhance the survival rate and functionality of MSCs, ultimately amplifying their therapeutic potential. Given the crucial role ferroptosis plays in shaping the therapeutic outcomes of MSCs, we deem it imperative to further investigate the intricate interplay between programmed cell death and the therapeutic effectiveness of MSCs.

Probucol-bile acid nanoparticles: a novel approach and promising solution to prevent cellular oxidative stress in sensorineural hearing loss

The use of antioxidants could thus prove an effective medication to prevent or facilitate recovery from oxidative stress-induced sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). One promising strategy to prevent SNHL is developing probucol (PB)-based nanoparticles using encapsulation technology and administering them to the inner ear via the established intratympanic route. The preclinical, clinical and epidemiological studies support that PB is a proven antioxidant that could effectively prevent oxidative stress in different study models. Such findings suggest its applicability in preventing oxidative stress within the inner ear and its associated neural cells. However, several hurdles, such as overcoming the blood-labyrinth barrier, ensuring sustained release, minimising systemic side effects and optimising targeted delivery in the intricate inner ear structures, must be overcome to efficiently deliver PB to the inner ear. This review explores the background and pathogenesis of hearing loss, the potential of PB in treating oxidative stress and its cellular mechanisms, and the obstacles linked to inner ear drug delivery for effectively introducing PB to the inner ear.

Novel Thienopyrimidine-Hydrazinyl Compounds Induce DRP1-Mediated Non-Apoptotic Cell Death in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Apoptosis induction with taxanes or anthracyclines is the primary therapy for TNBC. Cancer cells can develop resistance to anticancer drugs, causing them to recur and metastasize. Therefore, non-apoptotic cell death inducers could be a potential treatment to circumvent apoptotic drug resistance. In this study, we discovered two novel compounds, TPH104c and TPH104m, which induced non-apoptotic cell death in TNBC cells. These lead compounds were 15- to 30-fold more selective in TNBC cell lines and significantly decreased the proliferation of TNBC cells compared to that of normal mammary epithelial cell lines. TPH104c and TPH104m induced a unique type of non-apoptotic cell death, characterized by the absence of cellular shrinkage and the absence of nuclear fragmentation and apoptotic blebs. Although TPH104c and TPH104m induced the loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential, TPH104c- and TPH104m-induced cell death did not increase the levels of cytochrome c and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and caspase activation, and cell death was not rescued by incubating cells with the pan-caspase inhibitor, carbobenzoxy-valyl-alanyl-aspartyl-[O-methyl]-fluoromethylketone (Z-VAD-FMK). Furthermore, TPH104c and TPH104m significantly downregulated the expression of the mitochondrial fission protein, DRP1, and their levels determined their cytotoxic efficacy. Overall, TPH104c and TPH104m induced non-apoptotic cell death, and further determination of their cell death mechanisms will aid in the development of new potent and efficacious anticancer drugs to treat TNBC.

An In-Silico Drug Designing Approach Attempted on a Newly Synthesized Co(II) Complex along with its Other Biological Activities: A Combined Investigation of both Experimental and Theoretical Aspects

A new Co (II) complex incorporating a novel Schiff base ligand acquired from the condensation of 3,3'-Methylenedianiline and 2-Hydroxy-5-bromobenzaldehyde was synthesized and characterized. The synthesized complex was air and moisture stable, monomeric, and non-electrolytic in nature. Based on physical and spectral studies, tetrahedral conformation was ascribed to the synthesized Co (II) complex.Density Functional Theory (DFT) was used to analysis different electronic parameters of the optimized structure of Co(II) complex to reveal its stability.Using different analytic and spectroscopic techniques, the new Co (II) complex was established to interact with DNA quite effectively and works as an efficient metallo intercalators. The synthesized complex was discovered to cleave DNA significantly, so it can be inferred that the complex will inhibit the growth of pathogens. Molecular docking was performed to check the binding affinity of the cobalt complex with different receptors, responsible for different diseases. Proteins like progesterone receptor and induced myeloid leukemia cell differentiation Mcl-1 protein showed high binding affinity with this complex, and hence the complex might have some implications for inhibition of progesterone hormones in biological systems. Biological activity of the Co (II) complex was also predicted through computational analysis with SwissADME.Using strains of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus, an in vitro antibacterial activity of the ligand and Co (II) complex was carried out. This activity was further validated by a molecular docking investigation.

Developing an advanced diagnostic model for hepatocellular carcinoma through multi-omics integration leveraging diverse cell-death patterns

Introduction

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), representing more than 80% of primary liver cancer cases, lacks satisfactory etiology and diagnostic methods. This study aimed to elucidate the role of programmed cell death-associated genes (CDRGs) in HCC by constructing a diagnostic model using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data.

Methods

Six categories of CDRGs, including apoptosis, necroptosis, autophagy, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and cuproptosis, were collected. RNA-seq data from blood-derived exosomes were sourced from the exoRBase database, RNA-seq data from cancer tissues from the TCGA database, and scRNA-seq data from the GEO database. Subsequently, we intersected the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of the HCC cohort from exoRBase and TCGA databases with CDRGs, as well as DEGs obtained from single-cell datasets. Candidate biomarker genes were then screened using clinical indicators and a machine learning approach, resulting in the construction of a seven-gene diagnostic model for HCC. Additionally, scRNA-seq and spatial transcriptome sequencing (stRNA-seq) data of HCC from the Mendeley data portal were used to investigate the underlying mechanisms of these seven key genes and their association with immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy. Finally, we validated the expression of key molecules in tissues and blood-derived exosomes through quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR) and immunohistochemistry experiments.

Results

Collectively, we obtained a total of 50 samples and 104,288 single cells. Following the meticulous screening, we established a seven-gene diagnostic model for HCC, demonstrating high diagnostic efficacy in both the exoRBase HCC cohort (training set: AUC = 1; testing set: AUC = 0.847) and TCGA HCC cohort (training set: AUC = 1; testing set: AUC = 0.976). Subsequent analysis revealed that HCC cluster 3 exhibited a higher stemness index and could serve as the starting point for the differentiation trajectory of HCC cells, also displaying more abundant interactions with other cell types in the microenvironment. Notably, key genes TRIB3 and NQO1 displayed elevated expression levels in HCC cells. Experimental validation further confirmed their elevated expression in both tumor tissues and blood-derived exosomes of cancer patients. Additionally, stRNA analysis not only substantiated these findings but also suggested that patients with high TRIB3 and NQO1 expression might respond more favorably to ICB therapy.

Conclusions

The seven-gene diagnostic model demonstrated remarkable accuracy in HCC screening, with TRIB3 emerging as a promising diagnostic tool and therapeutic target for HCC.

MicroRNA miR-20a-5p targets CYCS to inhibit apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma is a primary liver cancer, characterised by diverse etiology, late diagnoses, and poor prognosis. Hepatocellular carcinoma is mostly resistant to current treatment options, therefore, identification of more effective druggable therapeutic targets is needed. We found microRNA miR-20a-5p is upregulated during mouse liver tumor progression and in human hepatocellular carcinoma patients. In this study, we elucidated the therapeutic potential of targeting oncogenic miR-20a-5p, in vivo, in a xenograft model and in two transgenic hepatocellular carcinoma mouse models via adeno-associated virus-mediated miR-20a-Tough-Decoy treatment. In vivo knockdown of miR-20a-5p attenuates tumor burden and prolongs survival in the two independent hepatocellular carcinoma mouse models. We identified and validated cytochrome c as a novel target of miR-20a-5p. Cytochrome c plays a key role in initiation of the apoptotic cascade and in the electron transport chain. We show for the first time, that miR-20a modulation affects both these key functions of cytochrome c during HCC development. Our study thus demonstrates the promising 'two birds with one stone' approach of therapeutic in vivo targeting of an oncogenic miRNA, whereby more than one key deregulated cellular process is affected, and unequivocally leads to more effective attenuation of HCC progression and significantly longer overall survival.

Monocytic Differentiation in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells: Diagnostic Criteria, Biological Heterogeneity, Mitochondrial Metabolism, Resistance to and Induction by Targeted Therapies

We review the importance of monocytic differentiation and differentiation induction in non-APL (acute promyelocytic leukemia) variants of acute myeloid leukemia (AML), a malignancy characterized by proliferation of immature myeloid cells. Even though the cellular differentiation block is a fundamental characteristic, the AML cells can show limited signs of differentiation. According to the French-American-British (FAB-M4/M5 subset) and the World Health Organization (WHO) 2016 classifications, monocytic differentiation is characterized by morphological signs and the expression of specific molecular markers involved in cellular communication and adhesion. Furthermore, monocytic FAB-M4/M5 patients are heterogeneous with regards to cytogenetic and molecular genetic abnormalities, and monocytic differentiation does not have any major prognostic impact for these patients when receiving conventional intensive cytotoxic therapy. In contrast, FAB-M4/M5 patients have decreased susceptibility to the Bcl-2 inhibitor venetoclax, and this seems to be due to common molecular characteristics involving mitochondrial regulation of the cellular metabolism and survival, including decreased dependency on Bcl-2 compared to other AML patients. Thus, the susceptibility to Bcl-2 inhibition does not only depend on general resistance/susceptibility mechanisms known from conventional AML therapy but also specific mechanisms involving the molecular target itself or the molecular context of the target. AML cell differentiation status is also associated with susceptibility to other targeted therapies (e.g., CDK2/4/6 and bromodomain inhibition), and differentiation induction seems to be a part of the antileukemic effect for several targeted anti-AML therapies. Differentiation-associated molecular mechanisms may thus become important in the future implementation of targeted therapies in human AML.

Super-resolution microscopies, technological breakthrough to decipher mitochondrial structure and dynamic

Mitochondria are complex organelles with an outer membrane enveloping a second inner membrane that creates a vast matrix space partitioned by pockets or cristae that join the peripheral inner membrane with several thin junctions. Several micrometres long, mitochondria are generally close to 300 nm in diameter, with membrane layers separated by a few tens of nanometres. Ultrastructural data from electron microscopy revealed the structure of these mitochondria, while conventional optical microscopy revealed their extraordinary dynamics through fusion, fission, and migration processes but its limited resolution power restricted the possibility to go further. By overcoming the limits of light diffraction, Super-Resolution Microscopy (SRM) now offers the potential to establish the links between the ultrastructure and remodelling of mitochondrial membranes, leading to major advances in our understanding of mitochondria's structure-function. Here we review the contributions of SRM imaging to our understanding of the relationship between mitochondrial structure and function. What are the hopes for these new imaging approaches which are particularly important for mitochondrial pathologies?

New insights into the spleen injury by mitochondrial dysfunction of chicken under polystyrene microplastics stress

Microplastics biological toxicity, environmental persistence and biological chemicals have been paid widespread attention. Microplastics exposed to chicken spleen injury of the specific mechanism is unclear. Thus, we randomly assigned chickens to 4 groups: C (normal diet), L-MPs (1 mg/L), M-MPs (10 mg/L), and H-MPs (100 mg/L), and assessed spleen damage after 42 d of exposure. Morphologically, the boundary between the red and white pulp of the spleen was blurred, along with the expansion of the white pulp. It was further speculated that microplastics induced mitochondrial dynamic homeostasis (Drp1 upgraded, Mfn1, Mfn2, and OPA1 reduced), and provoked the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway (Bcl-2/Bax decreased, cytc, caspase3, and caspase9 raised), resulting in redox imbalance and lipid peroxide accumulation (MDA increased, CAT, GSH, and T-AOC plummeted), and further stimulated ferroptosis (FTH1, GPX4, and SLC7A11 decreased). Here we explored the impact of polystyrene microplastics on the spleen, as well as the programmed death (apoptosis and ferroptosis) involved, and the regulative role of mitochondria in this process. This could be of significant importance in bridging the gap in laboratory research on microplastics-induced spleen injury in chicken.

Multi-omic profiling reveals potential biomarkers of hepatocellular carcinoma prognosis and therapy response among mitochondria-associated cell death genes in the context of 3P medicine

Background

Cancer cell growth, metastasis, and drug resistance are major challenges in treating liver hepatocellular carcinoma (LIHC). However, the lack of comprehensive and reliable models hamper the effectiveness of the predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM/3PM) strategy in managing LIHC.

Methods

Leveraging seven distinct patterns of mitochondrial cell death (MCD), we conducted a multi-omic screening of MCD-related genes. A novel machine learning framework was developed, integrating 10 machine learning algorithms with 67 different combinations to establish a consensus mitochondrial cell death index (MCDI). This index underwent rigorous evaluation across training, validation, and in-house clinical cohorts. A comprehensive multi-omics analysis encompassing bulk, single-cell, and spatial transcriptomics was employed to achieve a deeper insight into the constructed signature. The response of risk subgroups to immunotherapy and targeted therapy was evaluated and validated. RT-qPCR, western blotting, and immunohistochemical staining were utilized for findings validation.

Results

Nine critical differentially expressed MCD-related genes were identified in LIHC. A consensus MCDI was constructed based on a 67-combination machine learning computational framework, demonstrating outstanding performance in predicting prognosis and clinical translation. MCDI correlated with immune infiltration, Tumor Immune Dysfunction and Exclusion (TIDE) score and sorafenib sensitivity. Findings were validated experimentally. Moreover, we identified PAK1IP1 as the most important gene for predicting LIHC prognosis and validated its potential as an indicator of prognosis and sorafenib response in our in-house clinical cohorts.

Conclusion

This study developed a novel predictive model for LIHC, namely MCDI. Incorporating MCDI into the PPPM framework will enhance clinical decision-making processes and optimize individualized treatment strategies for LIHC patients.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13167-024-00362-8.

Inhibition of MFN1 restores tamoxifen-induced apoptosis in resistant cells by disrupting aberrant mitochondrial fusion dynamics

Tamoxifen (TAM) resistance presents a major clinical obstacle in the management of estrogen-sensitive breast cancer, highlighting the need to understand the underlying mechanisms and potential therapeutic approaches. We showed that dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics were involved in TAM resistance by protecting against mitochondrial apoptosis. The dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics were associated with increased mitochondrial fusion and decreased fission, thus preventing the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c to the cytoplasm following TAM treatment. Dynamin-related GTPase protein mitofusin 1 (MFN1), which promotes fusion, was upregulated in TAM-resistant cells, and high MFN1 expression indicated a poor prognosis in TAM-treated patients. Mitochondrial translocation of MFN1 and interaction between MFN1 and mitofusin 2 (MFN2) were enhanced to promote mitochondrial outer membrane fusion. The interaction of MFN1 and cristae-shaping protein optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) and OPA1 oligomerization were reduced due to augmented OPA1 proteolytic cleavage, and their apoptosis-promoting function was reduced due to cristae remodeling. Furthermore, the interaction of MFN1 and BAK were increased, which restrained BAK activation following TAM treatment. Knockdown or pharmacological inhibition of MFN1 blocked mitochondrial fusion, restored BAK oligomerization and cytochrome c release, and amplified activation of caspase-3/9, thus sensitizing resistant cells to apoptosis and facilitating the therapeutic effects of TAM both in vivo and in vitro. Conversely, overexpression of MFN1 alleviated TAM-induced mitochondrial apoptosis and promoted TAM resistance in sensitive cells. These results revealed that dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics contributes to the development of TAM resistance, suggesting that targeting MFN1-mediated mitochondrial fusion is a promising strategy to circumvent TAM resistance.

The regulation of the apoptotic pore-An immunological tightrope walk

Apoptotic pore formation in mitochondria is the pivotal point for cell death during mitochondrial apoptosis. It is regulated by BCL-2 family proteins in response to various cellular stress triggers and mediates mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP). This allows the release of mitochondrial contents into the cytosol, which triggers rapid cell death and clearance through the activation of caspases. However, under conditions of low caspase activity, the mitochondrial contents released into the cytosol through apoptotic pores serve as inflammatory signals and activate various inflammatory responses. In this chapter, we discuss how the formation of the apoptotic pore is regulated by BCL-2 proteins as well as other cellular or mitochondrial proteins and membrane lipids. Moreover, we highlight the importance of sublethal MOMP in the regulation of mitochondrial-activated inflammation and discuss its physiological consequences in the context of pathogen infection and disease and how it can potentially be exploited therapeutically, for example to improve cancer treatment.

Sonrotoclax overcomes BCL2 G101V mutation-induced venetoclax resistance in preclinical models of hematologic malignancy

ABSTRACT

Venetoclax, the first-generation inhibitor of the apoptosis regulator B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2), disrupts the interaction between BCL2 and proapoptotic proteins, promoting the apoptosis in malignant cells. Venetoclax is the mainstay of therapy for relapsed chronic lymphocytic leukemia and is under investigation in multiple clinical trials for the treatment of various cancers. Although venetoclax treatment can result in high rates of durable remission, relapse has been widely observed, indicating the emergence of drug resistance. The G101V mutation in BCL2 is frequently observed in patients who relapsed treated with venetoclax and sufficient to confer resistance to venetoclax by interfering with compound binding. Therefore, the development of next-generation BCL2 inhibitors to overcome drug resistance is urgently needed. In this study, we discovered that sonrotoclax, a potent and selective BCL2 inhibitor, demonstrates stronger cytotoxic activity in various hematologic cancer cells and more profound tumor growth inhibition in multiple hematologic tumor models than venetoclax. Notably, sonrotoclax effectively inhibits venetoclax-resistant BCL2 variants, such as G101V. The crystal structures of wild-type BCL2/BCL2 G101V in complex with sonrotoclax revealed that sonrotoclax adopts a novel binding mode within the P2 pocket of BCL2 and could explain why sonrotoclax maintains stronger potency than venetoclax against the G101V mutant. In summary, sonrotoclax emerges as a potential second-generation BCL2 inhibitor for the treatment of hematologic malignancies with the potential to overcome BCL2 mutation-induced venetoclax resistance. Sonrotoclax is currently under investigation in multiple clinical trials.

The involvement of ROS-regulated programmed cell death in hepatocellular carcinoma

Reactive oxidative species (ROS) is a crucial factor in the regulation of cellular biological activity and function, and aberrant levels of ROS can contribute to the development of a variety of diseases, particularly cancer. Numerous discoveries have affirmed that this process is strongly associated with "programmed cell death (PCD)," which refers to the suicide protection mechanism initiated by cells in response to external stimuli, such as apoptosis, autophagy, ferroptosis, etc. Research has demonstrated that ROS-induced PCD is crucial for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). These activities serve a dual function in both facilitating and inhibiting cancer, suggesting the existence of a delicate balance within healthy cells that can be disrupted by the abnormal generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby influencing the eventual advancement or regression of a tumor. In this review, we summarize how ROS regulates PCD to influence the tumorigenesis and progression of HCC. Studying how ROS-induced PCD affects the progression of HCC at a molecular level can help develop better prevention and treatment methods and facilitate the design of more effective preventative and therapeutic strategies.

Tumour suppressor ABCA8 inhibits malignant progression of colorectal cancer via Wnt/β-catenin pathway

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most commonly diagnosed malignant tumours of the digestive tract, and new therapeutic targets and prognostic markers are still urgently required. However, the role and molecular mechanisms of ATP binding cassette subfamily A member 8 (ABCA8) in CRC remain unclear.

METHODS

Databases and clinical specimens were analysed to determine the expression level of ABCA8 in CRC. Colony formation, CCK-8 and Transwell assays were conducted to determine cell proliferation, viability, migration and invasion. Flow cytometry was used to detect cell cycle progression and apoptosis. Western blot and rescue experiments were performed to determine the specific mechanisms of action of ABCA8.

RESULTS

ABCA8 expression is dramatically down-regulated in CRC tissues and cell lines. Ectopic expression of ABCA8 induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in vitro, inhibited cell growth, suppressed migration and invasion, reversed epithelial-mesenchymal transition and suppressed xenograft tumour growth and metastasis in vivo. Mechanistically, ABCA8 inhibited CRC cell proliferation and metastasis through the Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway, both in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSION

We verified that ABCA8 inhibits the malignant progression of CRC through the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. This newly discovered ABCA8-Wnt-β-catenin signalling axis is probably helpful in guiding the clinical diagnosis and treatment of CRC.

Studies Related to the Involvement of EsA in Improving Intestinal Inflammation in Acute Pancreatitis via the NF-κB Pathway

Background

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is a clinically frequent acute abdominal condition, which refers to an inflammatory response syndrome of edema, bleeding, and even necrosis caused by abnormal activation of the pancreas's own digestive enzymes. Intestinal damage can occur early in the course of AP and is manifested by impaired intestinal mucosal barrier function, and inflammatory reactions of the intestinal mucosa, among other factors. It can cause translocation of intestinal bacteria and endotoxins, further aggravating the condition of AP. Therefore, actively protecting the intestinal mucosal barrier, controlling the progression of intestinal inflammation, and improving intestinal dynamics in the early stages of AP play an important role in enhancing the prognosis of AP.

Methods

The viability and apoptosis of RAW264.7 cells treated with Esculentoside A (EsA) and/or lipopolysaccharide were detected using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and flow cytometry, respectively. The expression of apoptosis-related proteins and NF-κB signaling pathway-related proteins were detected by western blot (WB). An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure TNF-α and IL-6 secretion.

Results

In vitro experiments demonstrated that EsA not only promoted the apoptosis of inflammatory cells but also reduced the secretion of TNF-α and IL-6 in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, it inhibited the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway by decreasing the expression of phosphorylated-p65(p-p65) and elevating the expression of IκBα. Similarly, in vivo experiments using a rat AP model showed that EsA inhibited the expression of p-p65 elevating the expression of IκBα in the intestinal tissues of the rat AP model and promoting the apoptosis of inflammatory cells in the intestinal mucosa in vivo experiments, while improving the pathological outcome of the pancreatic and intestinal tissues.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that EsA can reduce intestinal inflammation in the rat AP model and that EsA may be a candidate for treating intestinal inflammation in AP and further arresting AP progression.

TRAIL-induced apoptosis and proteasomal activity - Mechanisms, signalling and interplay

Programmed cell death, in particular apoptosis, is essential during development and tissue homeostasis, and also is the primary strategy to induce cancer cell death by cytotoxic therapies. Precision therapeutics targeting TRAIL death receptors are being evaluated as novel anti-cancer agents, while in parallel highly specific proteasome inhibitors have gained approval as drugs. TRAIL-dependent signalling and proteasomal control of cellular proteostasis are intricate processes, and their interplay can be exploited to enhance therapeutic killing of cancer cells in combination therapies. This review provides detailed insights into the complex signalling of TRAIL-induced pathways and the activities of the proteasome. It explores their core mechanisms of action, pharmaceutical druggability, and describes how their interplay can be strategically leveraged to enhance cell death responses in cancer cells. Offering this comprehensive and timely overview will allow to navigate the complexity of the processes governing cell death mechanisms in TRAIL- and proteasome inhibitor-based treatment conditions.

Venetoclax Combination Treatment of Acute Myeloid Leukemia in Adolescents and Young Adult Patients

Over the past two decades, the prognosis in adolescents and young adults (AYAs) diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) has significantly improved. The standard intensive cytotoxic treatment approach for AYAs with AML, consisting of induction chemotherapy with anthracycline/cytarabine combination followed by consolidation chemotherapy or stem cell transplantation, has lately been shifting toward novel targeted therapies, mostly in the fields of clinical trials. One of the most recent advances in treating AML is the combination of the B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) inhibitor venetoclax with hypomethylating agents, which has been studied in elderly populations and was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for patients over 75 years of age or patients excluded from intensive chemotherapy induction schemas due to comorbidities. Regarding the AYA population, venetoclax combination therapy could be a therapeutic option for patients with refractory/relapsed (R/R) AML, although data from real-world studies are currently limited. Venetoclax is frequently used by AYAs diagnosed with advanced hematologic malignancies, mainly acute lymphoblastic leukemia and myelodysplastic syndromes, as a salvage therapeutic option with considerable efficacy and safety. Herein, we aim to summarize the evidence obtained from clinical trials and observational studies on venetoclax use in AYAs with AML. Based on the available evidence, venetoclax is a safe and effective therapeutic option for R/R AML AYA patients. However, further research in larger cohorts is needed to confirm these data, establishing the benefits of a venetoclax-based regimen for this special population.

Probucol-bile acid based nanoparticles protect auditory cells from oxidative stress: an in vitro study

Aim: Excessive free radicals contribute to oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). The antioxidant probucol holds promise, but its limited bioavailability and inner ear barriers hinder effective SNHL treatment. Methodology: We addressed this by developing probucol-loaded nanoparticles with polymers and lithocholic acid and tested them on House Ear Institute-Organ of Corti cells. Results: Probucol-based nanoparticles effectively reduced oxidative stress-induced apoptosis, enhanced cellular viability, improved probucol uptake and promoted mitochondrial function. Additionally, they demonstrated the capacity to reduce reactive oxygen species through the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1 pathway. Conclusion: This innovative nanoparticle system holds the potential to prevent oxidative stress-related hearing impairment, providing an effective solution for SNHL.

Cell signaling and epigenetic regulation of nicotine-induced carcinogenesis

Nicotine, a naturally occurring tobacco alkaloid responsible for tobacco addiction, has long been considered non-carcinogenic. However, emerging evidence suggests that nicotine may possess carcinogenic properties in mice and could be a potential carcinogen in humans. This review aims to summarize the potential molecular mechanisms underlying nicotine-induced carcinogenesis, with a specific focus on epigenetic regulation and the activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in addition to genotoxicity and excess reactive oxygen species (ROS). Additionally, we explore a novel hypothesis regarding nicotine's carcinogenicity involving the downregulation of stem-loop binding protein (SLBP), a critical regulator of canonical histone mRNA, and the polyadenylation of canonical histone mRNA. By shedding light on these mechanisms, this review underscores the need for further research to elucidate the carcinogenic potential of nicotine and its implications for human health.

Effects of Dityrosine on Lactic Acid Metabolism in Mice Gastrocnemius Muscle During Endurance Exercise via the Oxidative Stress-Induced Mitochondria Damage

Dityrosine (Dityr) has been detected in commercial food as a product of protein oxidation and has been shown to pose a threat to human health. This study aims to investigate whether Dityr causes a decrease in lactic acid metabolism in the gastrocnemius muscle during endurance exercise. C57BL/6 mice were administered Dityr or saline by gavage for 13 weeks and underwent an endurance exercise test on a treadmill. Dityr caused a severe reduction in motion displacement and endurance time, along with a significant increase in lactic acid accumulation in the blood and gastrocnemius muscle in mice after exercise. Dityr induced significant mitochondrial defects in the gastrocnemius muscle of mice. Additionally, Dityr induced serious oxidative stress in the gastrocnemius muscle, accompanied by inflammation, which might be one of the causes of mitochondrial dysfunction. Moreover, significant apoptosis in the gastrocnemius muscle increased after exposure to Dityr. This study confirmed that Dityr induced oxidative stress in the gastrocnemius muscle, which further caused significant mitochondrial damage in the gastrocnemius muscle cell, resulting in decreased capacity of lactic acid metabolism and finally affected performance in endurance exercise. This may be one of the possible mechanisms by which highly oxidized foods cause a decreased muscle energy metabolism.