Protective effects of selenium yeast against cadmium-induced necroptosis via inhibition of oxidative stress and MAPK pathway in chicken liver

Cadmium exposure induces Leydig cell injury via necroptosis caused by oxidative stress and TNF-α/TNFR1 signaling

Cadmium, a ubiquitous environmental pollutant, has been linked to testicular damage, primarily through mechanisms such as oxidative stress and various forms of programmed cell death. Despite extensive studies on its toxic effects, the specific role of necroptosis in cadmium-induced reproductive toxicity remains unclear. In this study, we provide critical insights into how cadmium triggers necroptosis in Leydig cells, leading to testicular dysfunction. Using both in vitro and in vivo models, we demonstrated that cadmium exposure induces necroptotic cell death in Leydig cells, with significant involvement of the TNF-α/TNFR1 signaling pathway and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Co-treatment with Nec-1, a specific necroptosis inhibitor, significantly reduced elevated ROS levels and suppressed TNF-α/TNFR1-induced necroptotic cell death, suggesting that ROS and the TNF-α/TNFR1 signaling pathway contribute to necroptosis activation in cadmium-induced Leydig cell injury. In conclusion, we demonstrate that necroptosis is a key driver of cadmium-induced testicular damage, suggesting that targeting necroptosis could offer novel therapeutic strategies for mitigating reproductive toxicity caused by heavy metals.

Dietary selenium mitigates cadmium-induced apoptosis and inflammation in chicken testicles by inhibiting oxidative stress through the activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway

Cadmium (Cd) is a non-essential heavy metal that is highly toxic to testicle. Selenium (Se) is known to possess antagonistic effects against Cd toxicity, yet the precise mechanisms through which Se counteracts Cd-induced testicular damage in chickens through Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/Heme oxygenase-1 (Nrf2/HO-1) signaling pathway, oxidative stress (OS), apoptosis, and inflammation remained unclear. In the present study, the experimental model of chicken testis was established by incorporating CdCl2 and Na2SeO3 into the dietary intake. After 60 days, chickens from each group were euthanized, and testicular and serum samples were subsequently collected. Ultrastructural assessment revealed that Se supplementation significantly mitigated the testicular damage induced by Cd. Se effectively suppressed the Cd-induced elevation in ROS, MDA, and H2O2 levels, while also preventing the downregulation of CAT, GSH, and T-AOC levels. Furthermore, Se administration ameliorated the reduction in the expression levels of Nrf2, HO-1, and Bcl-2 induced by Cd, and counteracted the overexpression of Caspase-3, Bax, Cyt-c, and Caspase-9, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6, and IL-1β. Meanwhile, immunofluorescence data demonstrated that Se attenuated the Cd-induced decrease in Nrf2 and HO-1 expression and the upregulation of IL-6 expression. In conclusion, this study elucidated that Se might mitigate Cd-induced oxidative stress in chicken testicles through the stimulation of the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway, thereby inhibiting apoptosis and inflammation, and was beneficial in reducing Cd-induced testicular injury.

Live yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) improves growth performance and liver metabolic status of lactating Hu sheep

Yeast, a natural starter culture, is widely used to improve digestion function in ruminants. However, whether yeast affects the physiological state of the liver in ruminants is currently unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of yeast on liver metabolic status and physiological functions of Hu sheep during lactation. A total of 24 lactating Hu sheep were randomly divided into 4 groups with 6 sheep in each group: the control group (normal diet) and the low-, medium-, and high-dose groups, in which each sheep was fed an additional 0.5 g, 1 g, and 2 g yeast per morning, respectively. Blood, liver, small intestine samples were collected for subsequent analysis, and milk production and BW were recorded during the experimental period. The results showed that dietary yeast supplementation mitigated BW loss, enhanced liver function, and increased milk protein and lactose contents in Hu sheep during lactation. Compared with the normal diet, dietary yeast supplementation reduced the content of lipid droplets in the liver, significantly upregulated the expression of lipid β-oxidation-related enzymes (PPARA and CPT1A), and significantly decreased the expression of lipid synthesis-related enzymes (FASN, PPARγ, DGAT1, and DGAT2) in the liver without affecting the capacity of the small intestine to absorb foodborne lipids. In addition, dietary yeast supplementation significantly decreased blood nonesterified free fatty acid content and increased blood glucose and liver expression of key enzymes involved in gluconeogenesis (PCK1α, FBP, and G6PC). These results suggest that dietary yeast supplementation may alleviate weight loss and enhance milk quality in Hu sheep during lactation. Furthermore, it can improve liver metabolic adaptability and protect liver health by regulating lipid metabolism and metabolic glucose homeostasis in the liver. Notably, adding 1 g or 2 g of yeast to the daily diet yields superior effects.

Novel selenium-enriched Pichia kudriavzevii as a dietary supplement to alleviate dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice by modulating the gut microbiota and host metabolism

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) poses persistent challenges due to its chronic and recurrent nature, exacerbated by the unsatisfactory outcomes of the traditional treatment approaches. In this study, we developed a dietary supplement, selenium-enriched Pichia kudriavzevii (SeY), to alleviate dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice. The newly developed functional food shows dual-functional activity, acting both as a probiotic and a reliable source of organic selenium. This study aimed to investigate the preventive effects of SeY against dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice and elucidate the underlying mechanisms. Results showed that SeY, especially at high doses (HSeY), significantly ameliorated colitis symptoms, reduced colonic damage, attenuated inflammatory responses, and mitigated oxidative stress. Furthermore, HSeY strengthened intestinal barrier function by increasing goblet cell numbers, upregulating MUC2 expression, and enhancing tight junction proteins (ZO-1, claudin-1, and occludin). Additionally, HSeY alleviated gut microbiota dysbiosis by promoting the colonization of beneficial bacteria such as norank-f-Muribaculaceae and Bacteroides, while suppressing harmful microorganisms such as norank-f-norank-o-Clostridia-UCG-014. The altered gut microbiota also affected gut metabolism, with differential metabolites primarily associated with amino acids, such as tryptophan metabolism, contributing to the mitigation of oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Further studies involving antibiotic-mediated depletion of gut flora and fecal microbiota transfer trials corroborated that the preventive effect of HSeY against IBD relied on the gut microbiota. This study provides vital insights into colitis prevention and advances selenium-enriched fortified food-targeted nutritional interventions.

Oxidative stress in poultry production

Oxidative stress (OS) is a major concern that impacts the overall health of chickens in modern production systems. It is characterized by an imbalance between antioxidant defence mechanisms and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This literature review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of oxidative stress in poultry production, with an emphasis on its effects on growth performance, immune responses, and reproductive outcomes. This review highlights the intricate mechanisms underlying OS and discusses how various factors, including dietary components, genetic predispositions, and environmental stressors can exacerbate the production of ROS. Additionally, the impact of oxidative stress on the production performance and physiological systems of poultry is examined. The study also emphasizes the relationship between oxidative stress and poultry diseases, highlighting how impaired antioxidant defenses increase bird's susceptibility to infections. The review assesses the existing approaches to reducing oxidative stress in chickens in response to these challenges. This includes managing techniques to lower stress in the production environment, antioxidant supplements, and nutritional interventions. The effectiveness of naturally occurring antioxidants, including plant extracts, minerals, and vitamins to improve poultry resistance to oxidative damage is also examined. To improve the antioxidant defenses of poultry under stress conditions, the activation of cellular homeostatic networks termed vitagenes, such as Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor 2 (Nrf2) is necessary for the synthesis of protective factors that can counteract the increased production of ROS and RNS. Future studies into novel strategies for managing oxidative stress in chicken production would build on these research advances and the knowledge gaps identified in this review.

Dietary selenomethionine reduced oxidative stress by resisting METTL3-mediated m6A methylation level of Nrf2 to ameliorate LPS-induced liver necroptosis in laying hens

Selenomethionine (SeMet) as the main form of daily dietary selenium, occupies essential roles in providing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which alleviates inflammatory liver damage. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is one of the most prevalent and abundant internal transcriptional modifications that regulate gene expression. To investigate the protective mechanism of SeMet on liver injury and the regulatory effect of m6A methylation modification, we established the model by supplementing dietary SeMet, and LPS as stimulus in laying hens. LMH cells were intervened with SeMet (0.075 µM) and/or LPS (60 µg/mL). Subsequently, histopathology and ultrastructure of liver were observed. Western Blot, qRT-PCR, colorimetry, MeRIP-qPCR, fluorescent probe staining and AO/EB were used to detect total m6A methylation level, m6A methylation level of Nrf2, ROS, inflammatory and necroptosis factors. Studies showed that SeMet suppressed LPS-induced upregulation of total m6A methylation levels and METTL3 expression. Interestingly, SeMet reduced the m6A methylation level of Nrf2, activated antioxidant pathways and alleviated oxidative stress. LMH cells were transfected with 50 µm siMETTL3. SeMet/SiMETTL3 reversed the LPS-induced reduction in Nrf2 mRNA stability, slowed down its degradation rate. Moreover, LPS induced oxidative stress, led to necroptosis and activated NF-κB to promote the expression of inflammatory factors. SeMet/SiMETTL3 alleviated LPS-induced necroptosis and inflammation. Altogether, SeMet enhanced antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity by reducing METTL3-mediated m6A methylation levels of Nrf2, ultimately alleviating liver damage. Our findings provided new insights and therapeutic target for the practical application of dietary SeMet in the treatment and prevention of liver inflammation, and supplied a reference for comparative medicine.

MicroRNA expression and oxidative stress markers in pectoral muscle of broiler chickens fed diets supplemented with phytobiotics composition

Phytobiotic compositions are commercially used in broiler production, mostly to improve general health and the production parameters. Moreover, some of their active substances may change the expression of miRNA in different tissues. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of the phytobiotic composition (PBC) containing white mustard, calamus, turmeric, and common ivy on production parameters, oxidative stress markers and expression of selected miRNAs in pectoral muscle of broiler chickens. The experiment was performed on broiler chickens fed the control diet (without PBC), and a diet supplemented with 60 or 100 mg/kg of PBC for 35 days. After the experiment, samples (blood and muscle) were collected for analyses. The analyzed production parameters included: feed conversion ratio, feed intake and body weight. There was no effect on growth performance of broiler chickens but feeding diet supplemented with 60 mg/kg phytobiotics significantly increased the expression of miR-30a-5p, miR-181a-5p, and miR-206, and decreased that of miR-99a-5p, miR-133a-5p, miR-142-5p, and miR-222 in pectoral muscle of chickens. The addition of 100 mg/kg phytobiotics significantly increased miR-99a-5p and miR-181a-5p expression, and caused down-regulation of the expression of miR-26a-5p and miR-30a-5p. Chickens fed diet supplemented with 100 mg/kg PBC had lower level of lipid peroxidation products in blood, while in the muscle tissue it was higher in birds fed a diet with the addition of 60 mg/kg as compared to the control group. The results suggest that this unique composition of phytobiotics does not affect productive traits but can change expression of miRNAs that are crucial for muscle physiology and pathology in broiler chickens. This additive may also protect against the oxidative stress but the effect is dose dependent.

Selenium-Enriched Cardamine violifolia Alleviates LPS-Induced Hepatic Damage and Inflammation by Suppressing TLR4/NODs-Necroptosis Signal Axes in Piglets

Selenium-enriched Cardamine violifolia (SEC), a cruciferous plant, exerts excellent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity, but its effect on hepatic function is unclear. This study investigated the effect and potential mechanism of SEC on hepatic injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Twenty-four weaned piglets were randomly allotted to treatment with SEC (0.3 mg/kg Se) and/or LPS (100 μg/kg). After 28 days of the trial, pigs were injected with LPS to induce hepatic injury. These results indicated that SEC supplementation attenuated LPS-induced hepatic morphological injury and reduced aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities in plasma. SEC also inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) after the LPS challenge. In addition, SEC improved hepatic antioxidant capacity via enhancing glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity and decreasing malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration. Moreover, SEC downregulated the mRNA expression of hepatic myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain proteins 1 (NOD1) and its adaptor molecule receptor interacting protein kinase 2 (RIPK2). SEC also alleviated LPS-induced hepatic necroptosis by inhibiting RIPK1, RIPK3, and mixed-lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL) expression. These data suggest that SEC potentially mitigates LPS-induced hepatic injury via inhibiting Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/NOD2 and necroptosis signaling pathways in weaned piglets.

Selenoproteins in Health

Selenium (Se) is a naturally occurring essential micronutrient that is required for human health. The existing form of Se includes inorganic and organic. In contrast to the inorganic Se, which has low bioavailability and high cytotoxicity, organic Se exhibits higher bioavailability, lower toxicity, and has a more diverse composition and structure. This review presents the nutritional benefits of Se by listing and linking selenoprotein (SeP) functions to evidence of health benefits. The research status of SeP from foods in recent years is introduced systematically, particularly the sources, biochemical transformation and speciation, and the bioactivities. These aspects are elaborated with references for further research and utilization of organic Se compounds in the field of health.

Detoxification of Selenium Yeast on Mycotoxins and Heavy Metals: a Review

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by specific fungi. More than 400 different mycotoxins are known in the world, and the concentration of these toxins in food and feed often exceeds the acceptable limit, thus causing serious harm to animals and human body. At the same time, modern industrial agriculture will also bring a lot of environmental pollution in the development process, including the increase of heavy metal content, and often the clinical symptoms of low/medium level chronic heavy metal poisoning are not obvious, thus delaying the best treatment opportunity. However, the traditional ways of detoxification cannot completely eliminate the adverse effects of these toxins on the body, and sometimes bring some side effects, so it is essential to find a new type of safe antidote. Trace element selenium is among the essential mineral nutrient elements of human and animal bodies, which can effectively remove excessive free radicals and reactive oxygen species in the body, and has the effects of antioxidant, resisting stress, and improving body immunity. Selenium is common in nature in inorganic selenium and organic selenium. In previous studies, it was found that the use of inorganic selenium (sodium selenite) can play a certain protective role against mycotoxins and heavy metal poisoning. However, while it plays the role of antioxidant, it will also have adverse effects on the body. Therefore, it was found in the latest study that selenium yeast could not only replace the protective effect of sodium selenite on mycotoxins and heavy metal poisoning, but also improve the immunity of the body. Selenium yeast is an organic selenium source with high activity and low toxicity, which is produced by selenium relying on the cell protein structure of growing yeast. It not only has high absorption rate, but also can be stored in the body after meeting the physiological needs of the body for selenium, so as to avoid selenium deficiency again in the short term. However, few of these studies can clearly reveal the protective mechanism of yeast selenium. In this paper, the detoxification mechanism of selenium yeast on mycotoxins and heavy metal poisoning was reviewed, which provided some theoretical support for further understanding of the biological function of selenium yeast and its replacement for inorganic selenium. The conclusions suggest that selenium yeast can effectively alleviate the oxidative damage by regulating different signaling pathways, improving the activity of antioxidant enzymes, reversing the content of inflammatory factors, regulating the protein expression of apoptosis-related genes, and reducing the accumulation of mycotoxins and heavy metals in the body.

Selenium deficiency caused hepatitis in chickens via the miR-138-5p/SelM/ROS/Ca2+ overload pathway induced by hepatocyte necroptosis

Selenoprotein M (SelM), a key thioredoxin like enzyme in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is closely related to hepatocyte degeneration. However, the role of miR-138-5p/SelM and necroptosis in chicken SelM-deficient hepatitis and the specific biological mechanism of liver inflammation caused by SelM deficiency have not been elucidated. We established an in vivo chicken liver Se deficiency model by feeding a low-Se diet. The miR-138-5p knockdown and overexpression models and SelM knockdown models were established in LMH cells for an in vitro study. Transmission electron microscopy, H&E staining, Fluo4-AM/ER staining, and flow cytometry were used to detect the morphological changes in chicken liver tissue and the expression changes of necroptosis and inflammation in chicken liver cells. We observed that Se deficiency resulted in liver inflammation, up-regulation of miR-138-5p expression and down-regulation of SelM expression in chickens. Oxidative stress, Ca2+ overload, energy metabolism disorder and necroptosis occurred in chicken liver tissue. Importantly, ROS and the Ca2+ inhibitor could effectively alleviate the energy metabolism disorder, necroptosis and inflammatory cytokine secretion caused by miR-138-5p overexpression and SelM knockdown in LMH cells. In conclusion, selenium deficiency causes hepatitis by upregulating miR-138-5p targeting SelM. Our research findings enrich our knowledge about the biological functions of SelM and provide a theoretical basis for the lack of SelM leading to liver inflammation in chickens.

Selenium alleviates cadmium-induced oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and apoptosis in L8824 cells

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic pollutant in industrial production that induces organ damage and apoptosis, While, selenium (Se) has the biological function of antagonizing Cd toxicity. Hence, to gain further insight into the protective mechanisms of selenium against Cd-induced damage in Ctenopharyngodon idella liver (L8824) cells, L8824 were exposed to 5 μM, 15 μM, 25 μM cadmium chloride for 24 h after pre-incubation with 25 μM sodium selenite for 9 h. Cell proliferation and morphological changes, the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant enzyme activity, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-related pathway genes expression, intracellular calcium levels and apoptosis were assessed to explore the protective effect of selenium in Cd-induced L8824 cell damage. The results showed that Cd caused decreased cell viability, ROS accumulation, reduced activity of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT GPx and T-AOC) and apoptosis in L8824 cells. The incubation of Se prominently ameliorated cell proliferation, activated the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway, and restored antioxidant enzyme activity. Furthermore, the expression of grp78, perk, eif-2α, atf4, chop bax, jnk, caspase-3 and caspase-9 was significantly upregulated after Cd exposure, while the expression of bcl-2 was significantly downregulated. Se supplementation alleviated Cd-induced ERS and apoptosis. Moreover, Cd-induced elevation of intracellular Ca2+ levels were alleviated by dantrolene and 2-APB, suggesting that intracellular calcium disorders were caused by Ca2+ released by RyR and IP3R-mediated ER. The results of this study suggested that Cd could induce oxidative stress, ERS, mitochondrial damage and evoke apoptosis, whereas Se had protective effects in preventing Cd induced damage by inhibiting ERS, maintaining intracellular calcium homeostasis, enhancing the antioxidant capacity of L8824 cells and downregulating the Keap1/Nrf2 pathway.

Cadmium exposure induces necroptosis of porcine spleen via ROS-mediated activation of STAT1/RIPK3 signaling pathway

Cadmium (Cd), a heavy metal, is used in a wide range of applications, such as plastics, electroplating process, electronics, and so forth. Due to its bioaccumulation ability, Cd can contaminate soil, water, air and food. To determine the effect of Cd exposure on the necroptosis in pig spleen and its mechanistic investigation, we constructed a model in pigs by feeding them food containing 20 mg/kg Cd. In this study, we analyzed the effects of Cd exposure on pig spleen through HE staining, Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), Western blot (WB), and principal component analysis (PCA). Results show that Cd exposure can destroy the structure and function of pig spleen, which is closely related to necroptosis. Further results show that Cd exposure can induce necroptosis through ROS-mediated activation of Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1/Receptor-Interacting Serine/Threonine-Protein Kinase 3 (STAT1/RIPK3) signaling pathway in pig spleen. Additionally, Cd exposure also can affect the stability of mitochondrial-associated endoplasmic reticulum membrane (MAMs) structure, which also contributes to the process of necroptosis. Our study provides insights into the physiological toxicity caused by Cd exposure.

Dietary intake of household cadmium-contaminated rice caused genome-wide DNA methylation changes on gene/hubs related to metabolic disorders and cancers

Cadmium (Cd) contamination in food has raised broad concerns in food safety and human health. The toxicity of Cd to animals/humans have been widely reported, yet little is known about the health risk of dietary Cd intake at the epigenetic level. Here, we investigated the effect of a household Cd-contaminated rice (Cd-rice) on genome-wide DNA methylation (DNAm) changes in the model mouse. Feeding Cd-rice increased kidney Cd and urinary Cd concentrations compared with the Control rice (low-Cd rice), whereas supplementation of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid iron sodium salt (NaFeEDTA) in the diet significantly increased urinary Cd and consequently decreased kidney Cd concentrations. Genome-wide DNAm sequencing revealed that dietary Cd-rice exposure caused the differentially methylated sites (DMSs), which were mainly located in the promoter (32.5%), downstream (32.5%), and intron (26.1%) regions of genes. Notably, Cd-rice exposure induced hypermethylation at the promoter sites of genes Caspase-8 and interleukin-1β (Il-1β), and consequently, their expressions were down-regulated. The two genes are critical in apoptosis and inflammation, respectively. In contrast, Cd-rice induced hypomethylation of the gene midline 1 (Mid1), which is vital to neurodevelopment. Furthermore, 'pathways in cancer' was significantly enriched as the leading canonical pathway. Supplementation of NaFeEDTA partly alleviated the toxic symptoms and DNAm alternations induced by Cd-rice exposure. These results highlight the broad effects of elevated dietary Cd intake on the level of DNAm, providing epigenetic evidence on the specific endpoints of health risks induced by Cd-rice exposure.

Nano-selenium protects grass carp hepatocytes against 4-tert-butylphenol-induced mitochondrial apoptosis and necroptosis via suppressing ROS-PARP1 axis

4-tert-butylphenol (4-tBP) is a monomer widely used in the synthesis of industrial chemicals, and posed a high risk to aquatic animals. Our study focused on toxic phenotype and mechanism of detoxification in grass carp hepatocytes (L8824) after 4-tBP-treatment. In this experiment, L8824 displayed hallmark phenotypes of apoptosis and necroptosis after 4-tBP exposure, as evidenced by changes in cell morphology, increased rates of apoptosis and necrosis, the loss of MMP, the accumulation of ROS, and changes in associated factors (PARP1, JNK, Bid, Bcl-2, Bax, AIFM1, CytC, Caspase 9, APAF1, Caspase 3, TNF-α, TNFR1, RIPK1, RIPK3, and MLKL). Furthermore, we found that 4-tBP-induced apoptosis and necroptosis were reversed by pretreating with N-Acetylcysteine (a ROS scavenger) and 3-Aminobenzamide (a PARP1 inhibitor), indicating that 4-tBP induced the onset of mitochondrial apoptosis and necroptosis in L8824 via activating ROS-PARP1 axis. Nano-selenium (Nano-Se) is a novel form of Se with a noteworthy antioxidant capacity. Here, Nano-Se was found to have preventive, therapeutic, and resistance effects on 4-tBP-induced L8824 apoptosis and necroptosis. Nano-Se co-treatment with 4-tBP was an optimal way to alleviate 4-tBP-induced apoptosis and necroptosis. We demonstrated for the first time that Nano-Se protected L8824 against 4-tBP-induced mitochondrial apoptosis and necroptosis through ROS-PARP1 pathway. This study will provide a new theoretical basis for 4-tBP toxicology researches and aquatic animal protection.

Selenium alleviates cadmium-induced oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress and programmed necrosis in chicken testes

Cadmium (Cd) is a common heavy metal pollutant, and one of the important target organs of its toxicity is the testis. Selenium (Se) has the ability to antagonize the toxicity of Cd. However, the mechanism of the alleviating effects of Se on Cd in chicken testis injury through oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS), and programmed necrosis remained unclear. To explore this, 80 7-day-old chickens were divided into the Control group, the Se group (1.00 mg/kg Se), the Cd group (150.00 mg/kg Cd), and the CdSe group. On the 30th and 60th days, serum and chicken testis tissue samples were collected for testing. The results showed that Cd exposure resulted in swelling and deformation of seminiferous tubules, and thinning of the seminiferous epithelium. The ROS and MDA increased, and the SOD, CAT, GSH, GSH-Px decreased. The expression of GRP78, PERK, IRE1, ATF6, CHOP, and JNK in the Cd group increased. The expression of TNF-α, TNFR1, RIP1, RIP3, MLKL, and PARP1 increased, while the expression of Caspase-8 decreased. Histopathological changes, oxidative stress, ERS, and programmed necrosis were improved after CdSe treatment. In conclusion, Se antagonized the toxicity of Cd, and Se could alleviate Cd-induced oxidative stress, ERS, and programmed necrosis in chicken testis.

Molybdenum and Cadmium Co-induce Pyroptosis via Inhibiting Nrf2-Mediated Antioxidant Defense Response in the Brain of Ducks

Excess molybdenum (Mo) and cadmium (Cd) are harmful to animals, but the neurotoxic mechanism co-induced by Mo and Cd is unclear. To estimate the effects of Mo and Cd co-exposure on pyroptosis by nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-mediated antioxidant defense response in duck brains, 40 healthy 7-day-old ducks were randomly assigned to 4 groups and fed diet supplemented with Mo or/and Cd for 16 weeks, respectively. Results showed that Mo or/and Cd markedly increased Mo and Cd contents; decreased iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and selenium (Se) contents, elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) content; and decreased total-antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), total-superoxide dismutase (T-SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), and catalase (CAT) activities accompanied by pathological damage in brain. Additionally, Mo or/and Cd inhibited Nrf2 pathway via decreasing Nrf2, CAT, SOD1, glutathione S-transferase (GST), hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD (P) H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC), and modifier subunit (GCLM) mRNA levels and Nrf2 protein level, which induced pyroptosis through upregulating nucleotide oligomerization domain-like receptor protein-3 (NLRP3), apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC), gasdermin A (GSDMA), gasdermin E (GSDME), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-18 (IL-18), Caspase-1, NIMA-related kinase 7 (NEK7) mRNA levels and NLRP3, Caspase-1 p20, gasdermin D (GSDMD), ASC protein levels and IL-1β, and IL-18 contents. Besides, the changes of these indicators were most apparent in the Mo and Cd co-treated group. Collectively, the results certificated that Mo and Cd might synergistically induce pyroptosis via inhibiting Nrf2-mediated antioxidant defense response in duck brains, whose mechanism is closely related to Mo and Cd accumulation.

Subacute Cadmium Exposure Induces Necroptosis in Swine Lung via Influencing Th1/Th2 Balance

Cadmium (Cd) is a type of toxic substance, which widely exists in nature. However, the effect of Cd exposure on the toxicity of swine lungs and its underlying mechanism involved have not yet been reported. In our study, we divided swine into two groups, including a control group (C group) and Cd-exposed group. Swine in the C group were fed a basic diet, whereas swine in the Cd group were fed a 20 mg Cd/kg diet. Immunofluorescence, qRT-PCR, western blot analysis, and H&E staining were performed to detect necroptosis-related indicators. Our results found that after Cd exposure, Th1/Th2 imbalance occurred, miR-181-5p was down-regulated, TNF-α expression was increased, and the NF-κB/NLRP3 and JAK/STAT pathways and RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL axis were activated. Furthermore, histopathological examination showed necrosis in swine lung after Cd exposure. Together, the above-mentioned results indicate that subacute Cd exposure is closely linked with necroptosis in swine lung. Our study provided evidence that Cd may act through miR-181-5p/TNF-α to induce necroptosis in swine lung. The findings of this study supplement the toxicological study of Cd and provide a reference for comparative medicine.

Genes and Signaling Pathways Involved in the Regulation of Selenium-Enriched Yeast on Liver Metabolism and Health of Broiler (Gallus gallus)

Selenium-enriched yeast (SeY) plays an important role in the liver health and metabolism of the broiler. However, the mechanism by which it regulates liver metabolism and the health of broilers is largely unknown. Therefore, this study was conducted to elucidate the key genes and signaling pathways involved in regulating SeY in liver metabolism and bird's health. Thus, the mRNA expression microarray, GSE25151, was downloaded from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. GSE25151 consists of liver samples from SeY-treated and the control broilers. Six hundred four differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in livers between SeY-treated and control. Gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis indicated that those DEGs are mainly involved in metabolism-related biological processes, such as biological regulation, molecular processes, responses to stimuli, cell communication and proliferation, and growth. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis revealed the DEGs mainly enriched in metabolism-related signaling pathways, including PI3K, Akt, Wnt, calcium, IGF1 receptor, and MAPK signaling pathways. Moreover, many genes, such as NMUR1, NMU, and GPRC6A, might contribute to the regulation of SeY to broiler liver metabolism and health. In conclusion, the current study enhances our understanding of the regulation of SeY in liver metabolism and health of the birds and will assist studies of the molecular mechanisms of SeY regulation in chicken liver.

Antagonism of cadmium-induced liver injury in ducks by α-bisabolol

Cadmium (Cd) is an ecological pollutant which causes hazardous effects in animals and humans. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of α-bisabolol (BISA) in antagonizing the Cd-induced hepatotoxicity in ducks. Two-week old ducks were allocated into 8 groups (10 ducks/group): Group I received basal diet and was gavaged with sunflower oil (BISA vehicle, 1.1 mL/kg/day); group II was administered BISA orally (50 mg/kg/day; diluted with sunflower oil); groups III, IV, and V were fed the basal diet mixed with CdCl2 at 37.5, 75, and 150 mg/kg diet, respectively, and were gavaged with sunflower oil; group VI, VII, and VIII were given basal diet containing CdCl2 at the aforementioned consecutive doses plus BISA. All treatments were provided daily for 4 weeks. Exposure to CdCl2 induced mortality in ducks, increased hepatic Cd content and serum levels of hepatopathic biomarkers, and caused oxidative stress and morphological alterations in ducks' liver. Furthermore, exposure to Cd caused upregulation of the mRNA of proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α and apoptotic gene Bax, and that of cyclooxygenase-2 protein in the liver. All effects of Cd were dose-dependent. BISA antagonized all of the aforementioned CdCl2-induced changes. These findings suggested that BISA exert the hepatoprotective effect against Cd toxicity through reducing the hepatic content of Cd as well as antagonizing oxidative insults, inflammation, and apoptosis. Thus, BISA has a great potential to be used as an antidote in the control of Cd poisoning.

Selenium-enriched yeast modulates the metal bioaccumulation, oxidant status, and inflammation in copper-stressed broiler chickens

Copper (Cu) could be seriously hazardous when present at excessive levels, despite its vital contribution to various cellular processes. Selenium-enriched yeast (SeY) was reported to improve the health and metabolic status in broiler chicken. Hence, our study was endeavored to illustrate the mitigating efficacy of SeY on Cu-induced hepatic and renal damage. Cobb chicks aged 1 day were allocated into four experimental groups and offered a basal diet, SeY (0.5 mg/kg), CuSO₄ (300 mg/kg), or SeY plus CuSO₄ in their diets for 42 days. Our results revealed that SeY supplement antagonized significantly the Cu accumulation in livers and kidneys of exposed birds. Marked declines were also detected in the AST, ALT, urea, and creatinine levels, besides marked increases in total protein, glycerides, and cholesterol in the SeY-supplemented group. Moreover, enhancement of cellular antioxidant biomarkers (superoxide dismutase, CAT, GPx, and GSH) along with lowered MDA contents were achieved by SeY in hepatic and renal tissues. Further, SeY exerted a noteworthy anti-inflammatory action as indicated by decreased inflammatory biomarkers (IL-1β and TNF-α) and NO levels in both organs. Noticeable histopathological alterations of both organs further validated the changes in the markers mentioned above. To sum up, our findings indicate that SeY can be considered a potential feed supplement for alleviating Cu-induced hepatic and renal damage in broilers, possibly via activation of antioxidant molecules and lessening the inflammatory stress.

Polystyrene nanoplastics exacerbated lipopolysaccharide-induced necroptosis and inflammation via the ROS/MAPK pathway in mice spleen

Plastics are novel environmental pollutants with potential threats to the ecosystem. At least 5.25 trillion plastic particles in the environment, of which nanoplastics are <100 nm in diameter. Polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) exposure damaged the spleen's immune function. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced other toxicants to damage cells and organs, triggering inflammation. However, the mechanism of PS-NPs aggravated LPS-induced spleen injury remains unclear. In this study, the PS-NPs or/and LPS mice exposure model was replicated by intraperitoneal injection of PS-NPs or/and LPS, and PS-NPs or/and LPS were exposed to RAW264.7 cells. The histopathological and ultrastructural changes of the mice spleen were observed by H&E staining and transmission electron microscope. Western Blot, qRT-PCR, and fluorescent probes staining were used to detect reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidative stress indicators, inflammatory factors, and necroptosis-related indicators in mice spleen and RAW264.7 cells. The results showed that PS-NPs or LPS induced oxidative stress, activated the MAPK pathway, and eventually caused necroptosis and inflammation in mice spleen and RAW264.7 cells. Compared with the single treatment group, the changes in PS-NPs + LPS group were more obvious. Furthermore, ROS inhibitor N-Acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) significantly inhibited the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway caused by co-treatment of PS-NPs and LPS, reducing necroptosis and inflammation. The results demonstrated that PS-NPs promoted LPS-induced spleen necroptosis and inflammation in mice through the ROS/MAPK pathway. This study increases the data on the damage of PS-NPs to the organism and expands the research ideas and clues.

Curative Potential of Substances with Bioactive Properties to Alleviate Cd Toxicity: A Review

Rapid urbanization and industrialization have led to alarming cadmium (Cd) pollution. Cd is a toxic heavy metal without any known physiological function in the organism, leading to severe health threat to the population. Cd has a long half-life (10-30 years) and thus it represents serious concern as it to a great extent accumulates in organs or organelles where it often causes irreversible damage. Moreover, Cd contamination might further lead to certain carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks. Therefore, its negative effect on population health has to be minimalized. As Cd is able to enter the body through the air, water, soil, and food chain one possible way to defend and eliminate Cd toxicities is via dietary supplements that aim to eliminate the adverse effects of Cd to the organism. Naturally occurring bioactive compounds in food or medicinal plants with beneficial, mostly antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, or anti-tumorigenesis impact on the organism, have been described to mitigate the negative effect of various contaminants and pollutants, including Cd. This study summarizes the curative effect of recently studied bioactive substances and mineral elements capable to alleviate the negative impact of Cd on various model systems, supposing that not only the Cd-derived health threat can be reduced, but also prevention and control of Cd toxicity and elimination of Cd contamination can be achieved in the future.

The role of inflammation in cadmium nephrotoxicity: NF-κB comes into view

Kidney diseases are major health problem and understanding the underlined mechanisms that lead to kidney diseases are critical research points with a marked potential impact on health. Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal that occurs naturally and can be found in contaminated food. Kidneys are the most susceptible organ to heavy metal intoxication as it is the main route of waste excretion. The harmful effects of Cd were previously well proved. Cd induces inflammatory responses, oxidative injury, mitochondrial dysfunction and disturbs Ca²⁺ homeostasis. The nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) is a cellular transcription factor that regulates inflammation and controls the expression of many inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, great therapeutic benefits can be attained from NF-κB inhibition. In this review we focused on certain compounds including cytochalasin D, mangiferin, N-acetylcysteine, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, roflumilast, rosmarinic acid, sildenafil, sinapic acid, telmisartan and wogonin and certain plants as Astragalus Polysaccharide, Ginkgo Biloba and Thymus serrulatus that potently inhibit NF-κB and effectively counteracted Cd-associated renal intoxication. In conclusion, the proposed NF-κB involvement in Cd-renal intoxication clarified the underlined inflammation associated with Cd-nephropathy and the beneficial effects of NF-κB inhibitors that make them the potential to substantially optimize treatment protocols for Cd-renal intoxication.

Nano-Selenium Alleviates Cadmium-Induced Acute Hepatic Toxicity by Decreasing Oxidative Stress and Activating the Nrf2 Pathway in Male Kunming Mice

Cadmium (Cd) is known as a highly toxic heavy metal and has been reported to induce hepatotoxicity in animals. Nano-selenium (NSe) is an antioxidant that plays many biological roles such as oxidative stress alleviation. The purpose of this study is to explore the mechanism of action by which NSe inhibits Cd-induced hepatic toxicity and oxidative stress. Sixty eight-week-old male Kunming mice were randomly divided into four groups (15 mice per group). The control group and cadmium groups received distilled water, whereas the sodium-selenite group received 0.2 mg/kg SSe and the NSe group received 0.2 mg/kg NSe intragastrically for 2 weeks. On the last day, all the other groups were treated with Cd (126 mg/kg) except for the control group. The results obtained in this study showed that NSe alleviated Cd-induced hepatic pathological changes. Furthermore, NSe reduced the activities of ALT and AST as well as the content of MDA, while elevated the activities of T-AOC, T-SOD and GSH (P < 0.05). In addition, the NSe group significantly increased mRNA expressions of Nrf2 pathway related molecules (Nrf2, HO-1, NQO-1, GST, GSH-Px, CAT and SOD) compared to the Cd group (P < 0.05). In conclusion, NSe shows its potentiality to reduce Cd-induced liver injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and activating the Nrf2 pathway.

Autophagy flux inhibition mediated by lysosomal dysfunction participates in the cadmium exposure-induced cardiotoxicity in swine

Cadmium (Cd), a common toxic heavy metal, is believed as a risk factor for the induction and progression of cardiovascular disease. Autophagy is a highly ordered intracellular lysosomal-mediated degradation pathway that is crucial for protein and organelle quality control. Autophagy dysfunction could develop exacerbated cardiac dysfunction. However, the role of autophagy in Cd exposure-induced cardiotoxicity remains largely unknown. In this study, the Cd-induced swine cardiotoxicity model was established by feeding with a CdCl₂ suppled diet (20 mg Cd/kg diet). The results showed that Cd exposure increased the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress-related genes (GRP78, GRP94, IRE1, XBP1, PERK, ATF4, and ATF6), increased the expression of Ca²⁺ release channels IP3R and RYR1 and decreased the expression of Ca²⁺ uptake pump SERCA1. Cd exposure upregulated the expression of autophagy-related genes (CAMKKII, AMPK, ATG5, ATG7, ATG12, Beclin1, LC3-II, and P62) and downregulated mTOR expression. Cd exposure inhibited the expression of V-ATPase and cathepsins (CTSB and CTSD), and increased the expression of cathepsins in cytoplasm. Cd exposure decreased the colocalization of autophagosome and lysosome. This study revealed that autophagy flux inhibition caused by lysosomal dysfunction participates in the cardiotoxicity induced by Cd exposure in swine.

Selenium Antagonizes Cadmium-Induced Inflammation and Oxidative Stress via Suppressing the Interplay between NLRP3 Inflammasome and HMGB1/NF-κB Pathway in Duck Hepatocytes

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal that can accumulate in the liver of animals, damaging liver function. Inflammation and oxidative stress are considered primary causes of Cd-induced liver damage. Selenium (Se) is an antioxidant and can resist the detrimental impacts of Cd on the liver. To elucidate the antagonism of Se on Cd against hepatocyte injury and its mechanism, duck embryo hepatocytes were treated with Cd (4 μM) and/or Se (0.4 μM) for 24 h. Then, the hepatocyte viability, oxidative stress and inflammatory status were assessed. The findings manifested that the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the levels of pro-inflammatory factors were elevated in the Cd group. Simultaneously, immunofluorescence staining revealed that the interaction between NOD-like receptor pyran domain containing 3 (NLRP3) and apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC) was enhanced, the movement of high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) from nucleus to cytoplasm was increased and the inflammatory response was further amplified. Nevertheless, the addition of Se relieved the above-mentioned effects, thereby alleviating cellular oxidative stress and inflammation. Collectively, the results suggested that Se could mitigate Cd-stimulated oxidative stress and inflammation in hepatocytes, which might be correlated with the NLRP3 inflammasome and HMGB1/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway.

Antagonistic Interaction of Selenium and Cadmium in Human Hepatic Cells Through Selenoproteins

Cadmium (Cd) is a highly toxic heavy metal for humans and animals, which is associated with acute hepatotoxicity. Selenium (Se) confers protection against Cd-induced toxicity in cells, diminishing the levels of ROS and increasing the activity of antioxidant selenoproteins such as glutathione peroxidase (GPx). The aim of this study was to evaluate the antagonistic effect of selenomethionine (SeMet) against Cd toxicity in HepG2 cells, through the modulation of selenoproteins. To this end, the cells were cultured in the presence of 100 µM SeMet and 5 μM, 15 µM, and 25 µM CdCl₂ and a combination of both species for 24 h. At the end of the experiment, cell viability was determined by MTT assay. The total metal content of Cd and Se was analyzed by triple-quadrupole inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-QqQ-MS). To quantify the concentration of three selenoproteins [GPx, selenoprotein P (SELENOP), and selenoalbumin (SeAlb)] and selenometabolites, an analytical methodology based on column switching and a species-unspecific isotopic dilution approach using two-dimensional size exclusion and affinity chromatography coupled to ICP-QqQ-MS was applied. The co-exposure of SeMet and Cd in HepG2 cells enhanced the cell viability and diminished the Cd accumulation in cells. Se supplementation increased the levels of selenometabolites, GPx, SELENOP, and SeAlb; however, the presence of Cd resulted in a significant diminution of selenometabolites and SELENOP. These results suggested that SeMet may affect the accumulation of Cd in cells, as well as the suppression of selenoprotein synthesis induced by Cd.

Selenium protects against cadmium-induced cardiac injury by attenuating programmed cell death via PI3K/AKT/PTEN signaling

Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental pollutant that has an enormous influence on agricultural production, but selenium (Se) can alleviate its toxicity. The present study aimed to illustrate the effects of Se on Cd-induced heart injury. All 40 rabbits were randomly divided into four groups: control group, Se [0.5 mg kg^-1 ·body weight (BW)] group, Cd (1 mg kg^-1 ·BW) group, and Se + Cd group. After 30 days of feeding, morphological changes, the levels of oxidative stress and myocardial enzyme, the content of cardiac troponin T, programmed cell death (pyroptosis, autophagy and apoptosis), and PI3K/AKT/PTEN transduction capacity were observed. The results showed that Cd destroyed the physiological balance of trace elements and caused myocardial damage, increased the cardiac oxidative damage and led to programmed cell death. Coadministration of Se prominently ameliorated histological lesions and improved cardiac function of hearts in Cd-induced rabbits. Furthermore, Se exerted detoxification and oxidation resistance, maintained trace element homeostasis, and alleviated the changes of mRNA and protein levels of pyroptosis-, autophagy- and apoptosis-controlling factors and PI3K/AKT/PTEN signal molecules caused by Cd. In conclusion, Se might protect against Cd-induced pyroptosis, autophagy and apoptosis by interfering with PI3K/AKT/PTEN signaling in heart.

Protective role of curcumin on aflatoxin B1-induced TLR4/RIPK pathway mediated-necroptosis and inflammation in chicken liver

This study set out to assess the mitigative effects of curcumin on AFB1-induced necroptosis and inflammation in chicken liver. Ninety-six one-day-old AA broiler chickens were separated into four groups, including control group, AFB1 (1 mg/kg) group, curcumin (300 mg/kg) + AFB1 (1 mg/kg) group and curcumin (300 mg/kg) group. After 28 days treatment, livers were collected for different experimental analyses. The morphological observation results showed obvious necrotic characteristics, including cell swelling, rupture of cell and mitochondrial membranes and inflammation in chicken livers. AFB1 exposure increased oxidative stress index (ROS and MDA) and decreased the antioxidant activity markers (SOD, CAT and GSH) and ATPase activities in chickens' liver. ELISA results showed that AFB1 exposure significantly induced the cytokines (TNF-α, iNOS, IL-6 and IL-1β) release from the liver tissues. While, western blot and qRT-PCR results showed that the protein and mRNA expressions of inflammatory (TLR4/myd88/NF-κB) and necroptosis (RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL) genes were up-regulated by AFB1 exposure. We suspect that signal crosstalk between TLR4 and TNF-α triggers inflammation and RIPK1/RIPK3 mediating necroptosis in AFB1-induced chicken liver injury. Curcumin can regulate the TLR4/RIPK signaling pathway, reduced oxidative stress biomarkers and inflammatory cytokines levels and attenuated the expression of necroptosis and inflammation genes altered by AFB1 to reduce necroptosis of chicken liver tissue. In conclusion, curcumin can protect against AFB1-induced necroptosis and inflammation by TLR4/RIPK pathway in chicken liver.

Myo-inositol oxygenase overexpression exacerbates cadmium-induced kidney injury via oxidant stress and necroptosis

Conceivably, like other forms of acute kidney injury, cadmium-induced renal injury may also be associated with oxidative stress and various forms of cell death, including necroptosis, a form of regulated necrosis-associated cell death. Myo-inositol oxygenase (MIOX), an enzyme localized in renal proximal tubules, regulates oxidative stress and programmed cell death in various forms of renal injuries. Herein, the role and potential mechanism(s) by which MIOX potentiates cadmium-induced renal tubular damage were investigated. Overexpression of MIOX exacerbated cadmium-induced cell death and proximal tubular injury in mice, whereas MIOX gene disruption attenuated cellular damage in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, necroptosis was observed in the renal tubular compartment, and, more importantly, it was corroborated by inhibitor experiments with necrostatin-1 (Nec-1). Coadministration of Nec-1 dampened including receptor-interacting protein kinase (RIP)1/RIP3/mixed-lineage kinase domain-like signaling, which is relevant to the process of necroptosis. Interestingly, the necroptosis induced by cadmium in tubules was modulated by MIOX expression profile. Also, the increased reactive oxygen species generation and NADPH consumption were accelerated by MIOX overexpression, and they were mitigated by Nec-1 administration. These findings suggest that MIOX-potentiated redox injury and necroptosis are intricately involved in the pathogenesis of cadmium-induced nephropathy, and this may yield novel potential therapeutic targets for amelioration of cadmium-induced kidney injury.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is a seminal article documenting the role of myo-inositol oxygenase (MIOX), a renal proximal tubule-specific enzyme, in the exacerbation of cadmium-induced acute kidney injury by perturbing redox balance and inducing necroptosis. MIOX gene disruption or administration of necrostatin-1 (a necroptosis inhibitor) diminished cadmium-induced renal damage, in both in vitro and in vivo systems, suggesting a therapeutic potential of MIOX to attenuate necroptosis and relevant signaling pathways in cadmium-induced renal injury.

Roles of necroptosis in alcoholic liver disease and hepatic pathogenesis

Chronic alcohol consumption can cause alcoholic liver disease (ALD), leading to morbidity and mortality worldwide. Complex disease progression of ALD varies from alcoholic fatty liver to alcoholic steatohepatitis, eventually contributing to fibrosis and cirrhosis. Accumulating evidence revealed that necroptosis, a way of programmed cell death different from apoptosis and traditional necrosis, is involved in the underlying pathogenic molecular mechanism of ALD. Receptor‐interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), RIPK3 and mixed‐lineage kinase domain‐like pseudokinase have been implicated as key mediators to execute necroptosis. Also, necroptosis has gained increasing attention due to its potential association with primary pathological hallmarks of ALD, including oxidative stress, hepatic steatosis and inflammation. This review summarizes the recent progress on the roles and mechanisms of necroptosis and focuses on the crosstalk between necroptosis and the other pathogenesis of ALD, providing a theoretical basis for targeting necroptosis as a novel treatment for ALD.

Selenomethionine protects against ammonia-induced apoptosis through inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress in pig kidneys

Ammonia (NH₃) emission is a common threat to farm animals. Selenium (Se) is known for its antioxidant property and can resist several stressors affecting farm animals. The aims of this study were (Ⅰ) to determine how excess NH₃ exert nephrotoxic effects in pigs and (Ⅱ) to investigate whether selenomethionine has an alleviative effect on NH₃ toxicity. Two diets supplemented with different doses of Se (0.22 mg/kg or 0.50 mg/kg) and two concentrations of NH₃ (< 5 mg/m³ or 89.8 mg/m³) were used in a 2 × 2 factorial design trial for a period of 30 days. The results showed that NH₃ exposure caused apoptosis and increased the number of apoptotic cells in pig kidneys. Further, the activities of antioxidant enzymes were decreased, and the transcriptional and translational levels of endoplasmic reticulum stress-related genes, Bcl-2 and Caspase family members were increased under NH₃ exposure. In addition, Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway was suppressed after NH₃ treatment. Dietary supplement with selenomethionine appears to offer protection against NH₃-induced kidney injury in pigs and the pathologic changes above were alleviated. Our findings provide additional insight into the mechanism of NH₃ toxicity in pigs while elucidating the role of Se as a potential antidote against NH₃ poisoning.

The protection of selenium against cadmium-induced mitophagy via modulating nuclear xenobiotic receptors response and oxidative stress in the liver of rabbits

Cadmium (Cd) is a harmful heavy metal that can cause many health problems, while selenium (Se) is an essential nutrient for organisms that can protect them from heavy metal-induced damage. To explore the effects of Se on Cd-induced mitophagy in the liver, forty 3-month-old New Zealand white rabbits (2-2.5 kg), half male and half female, were randomly divided into four groups: the Control group, the Se (0.5 mg/kg body weight (BW)) group, the Cd (1 mg/kg BW) group and the Se+Cd group. After 30 days, the toxicity from Cd in the liver was assessed in terms of the nuclear xenobiotic receptor (NXR) response, oxidative stress and mitophagy. It was found that Cd decreased the activities of CYP450 enzymes and antioxidant enzymes and increased the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and also increased the consumption of reduced glutathione (GSH). Moreover, the mRNA levels of NXRs (CAR, PXR, AHR and Nrf2), some mitochondrial function factors (PGC-1α, Sirt1, Sirt3, Nrf1 and TFAM) and mitochondrial fusion factors (Mfn1, Mfn2 and OPA1) were downregulated, but the mRNA levels of other mitochondrial function factors (VDAC1, Cyt C and PRDX3), mitochondrial fission factors (Fis1 and MFF) and those in the PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy pathway (p62, Bnip3 and LC3) were upregulated under Cd exposure. The protein expression levels of Nrf2, SOD2, PGC-1α, PINK1 and Parkin were consistent with the mRNA expression levels in the Cd group. Se alleviated the changes in the abovementioned factors induced by Cd. In conclusion, the results indicate that Cd can cause oxidative stress in rabbit livers by inhibiting NXRs and the antioxidation response leading to mitophagy, and these harmful changes caused by Cd can be alleviated by Se.

Protective effects of selenium yeast against cadmium-induced necroptosis through miR-26a-5p/PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in chicken kidney

Cadmium (Cd) is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant of increasing worldwide concern to both humans and animals. Selenium yeast (Se-Y) is an organic selenium source that has been shown an advantage in antagonizing Cd-induced liver necroptosis in chicken. Herein, we described the discovery path of Se-Y antagonism in Cd-induced renal necroptosis in chicken through targeting miR-26a-5p/PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. We set up four groups of chickens at random: control group (0.5 mg/kg Na₂SeO₃), Se-Y group (0.5 mg/kg Se-Y), Se-Y+Cd group (0.5 mg/kg Se-Y and 150 mg/kg CdCl₂) and Cd group (150 mg/kg CdCl₂ and 0.5 mg/kg Na₂SeO₃). Interestingly, we found Se-Y, but not Na₂SeO₃, significantly blocked Cd accumulation in the kidney and alleviated Cd-induced necroptosis through inhibiting the expression of RIP1, RIP3 and MLKL. Se-Y, activated miR-26a-5p expression, thereby down-regulated the expression of PTEN, resulting in the up-regulation of PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and the inhibition of oxidative stress in both Se-Y and Cd treated chickens. Besides that, Se-Y could also specifically reduce the expression levels of heat shock protein 60 (HSP60), HSP70 and HSP90 in Se-Y and Cd co-treated chickens. Taken together, our results showed that Se-Y has an added value to antagonize Cd-induced necroptosis in chicken kidney by regulating the miR-26a-5p/PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and HSPs, indicating that Se-Y could serve as an effective antagonist on Cd-induced renal necroptosis in chickens.

Selenoproteins Protect Against Avian Liver Necrosis by Metabolizing Peroxides and Regulating Receptor Interacting Serine Threonine Kinase 1/Receptor Interacting Serine Threonine Kinase 3/Mixed Lineage Kinase Domain-Like and Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling

Liver necroptosis of chicks is induced by selenium (Se)/vitamin E (VE) deficiencies and may be associated with oxidative cell damage. To reveal the underlying mechanisms of liver necrosis, a pool of the corn-soy basal diet (10 μg Se/kg; no VE added), a basal diet plus all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate (50 mg/kg), Se (sodium selenite at 0.3 mg/kg), or both of these nutrients were provided to day-old broiler chicks (n = 40/group) for 6 weeks. High incidences of liver necrosis (30%) of chicks were induced by -SE-VE, starting at day 16. The Se concentration in liver and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity were decreased (P < 0.05) by dietary Se deficiency. Meanwhile, Se deficiency elevated malondialdehyde content and decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in the liver at weeks 2 and 4. Chicks fed with the two Se-deficient diets showed lower (P < 0.05) hepatic mRNA expression of Gpx1, Gpx3, Gpx4, Selenof, Selenoh, Selenok, Selenom, Selenon, Selenoo, Selenop, Selenot, Selenou, Selenow, and Dio1 than those fed with the two Se-supplemented diets. Dietary Se deficiency had elevated (P < 0.05) the expression of SELENOP, but decreased the downregulation (P < 0.05) of GPX1, GPX4, SELENON, and SELENOW in the liver of chicks at two time points. Meanwhile, dietary Se deficiency upregulated (P < 0.05) the abundance of hepatic proteins of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, phospho-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, phospho-c-Jun N-terminal kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, phospho-mitogen-activated protein kinase, receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase 1 (RIPK1), receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase 3 (RIPK3), and mixed lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL) at two time points. In conclusion, our data confirmed the differential regulation of dietary Se deficiency on several key selenoproteins, the RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL, and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway in chicks and identified new molecular clues for understanding the etiology of nutritional liver necrosis.

Effects of Cadmium Exposure on the Immune System and Immunoregulation

Cadmium (Cd), a biologically non-essential heavy metal, is widespread in the environment, including the air, water, and soil, and is widely present in foods and quantum dot preparations. Cd enters the body primarily through inhalation and ingestion. Its biological half-life in humans is 10-35 years; therefore, Cd poses long-term health risks. While most studies on Cd toxicity have focused on organ and tissue damage, the immunotoxicity of Cd has drawn increasing attention recently. Cd accumulates in immune cells, modulates the function of the immune system, triggers immunological responses, and leads to diverse health problems. Cd acts as an immunotoxic agent by regulating the activity and apoptosis of immune cells, altering the secretion of immune cytokines, inducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and oxidative stress, changing the frequency of T lymphocyte subsets, and altering the production of selective antibodies in immune cells. This review summarizes the immunological toxicity of Cd, elucidates the mechanisms underlying Cd toxicity in terms of innate immunity and adaptive immunity, and discusses potential strategies to alleviate the adverse effects of Cd on the immune system.

Recent development in Se-enriched yeast, lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria

Endemic selenium (Se) deficiency is a major worldwide nutritional challenge. Organic Se can be synthesized through physical and chemical methods that are conducive to human absorption, but its high production cost and low output cannot meet the actual demand for Se supplementation. Some microbes are known to convert inorganic Se into organic forms of high nutritional value and Se-enriched probiotics are the main representatives. The aim of the present review is to describe the characteristics of Se-enriched yeast, lactic acid bacteria, bifidobacteria and discuss their Se enrichment mechanisms. Se products metabolized by Se-enriched probiotics have been classified, such as Se nanoparticles (SeNPs) and selenoprotein, and their bioactivities have been assessed. The factors affecting the Se enrichment capacity of probiotics and their application in animal feed, food additives, and functional food production have been summarized. Moreover, a brief summary and the development of Se-enriched probiotics, particularly their potential applications in the field of biomedicine have been provided. In conclusion, Se-enriched probiotics not just have a wide range of applications in the food industry but also have great potential for application in the field of biomedicine in the future.

Selenium triggers Nrf2-AMPK crosstalk to alleviate cadmium-induced autophagy in rabbit cerebrum

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal that accumulates in the brain and causes a series of histopathological changes. Selenium (Se) exerts a crucial function in protecting damage caused by toxic heavy metals, but its potential mechanism is rarely studied. The main purpose of this study is to explore the protective effects of Se on Cd-induced oxidative stress and autophagy in rabbit cerebrum. Forty rabbits were randomly divided into four groups and treated as follows: Control group, Cd (1 mg/kg⋅BW) group, Se (0.5 mg/kg⋅BW) group and Cd (1 mg/kg⋅BW)+Se (0.5 mg/kg⋅BW) group, with 30 days feeding management. Our results suggested that Se treatment significantly suppressed the Cd-induced degenerative changes including cell necrosis, vacuolization, and atrophic neurons. In addition, Se decreased the contents of MDA and H₂O₂ and increased the activities of CAT, SOD, GST, GSH and GSH-Px, alleviating the imbalance of the redox system induced by Cd. Furthermore, Cd caused the up-regulation of the mRNA levels of autophagy-related genes (ATG3, ATG5, ATG7, ATG12 and p62), AMPK (Prkaa1, Prkaa2, Prkab1, Prkab2, Prkag2, Prkag3) and Nrf2 (Nrf2, HO-1 and NQO1) signaling pathway, and the expression levels of LC3II/LC3I, p-AMPK/AMPK, Beclin-1, Nrf2 and HO-1 proteins, which were alleviated by Se, indicated that Se inhibited Cd-induced autophagy and Nrf2 signaling pathway activation. In conclusion, our study found that Se antagonized Cd-induced oxidative stress and autophagy in the brain by generating crosstalk between AMPK and Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Cadmium exposure induces inflammation and necroptosis in porcine adrenal gland via activating NF-κB/MAPK pathway

Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal harmful to animals and humans. Cd exposure causes inflammation or necroptosis in many tissues, including adrenal tissue. However, the current researches on the effects of Cd²⁺ in adrenal tissues are not enough. Therefore, in our experiment Cd chloride (CdCl₂) was added to the piglet's diet at a concentration of 20 mg/kg to study the effects of Cd²⁺ exposure on the porcine adrenal tissue. Our results showed that Cd²⁺ exposure could cause inflammation by activating the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathway, which in turn induced necroptosis in adrenal tissue with the activated mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. The expression increase of inflammatory factors and necroptosis downstream genes, and the downregualtion of cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase 8 (Caspase 8) proved that Cd²⁺ exposure caused inflammation and necroptosis in adrenal tissue. We conclude that this report provides more basic theoretical data for exploring the mechanism of adrenal injury.

Comparative study on protective effect of different selenium sources against cadmium-induced nephrotoxicity via regulating the transcriptions of selenoproteome

Cadmium (Cd) is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant, which mainly input to the aquatic environment through discharge of industrial and agricultural waste, can be a threat to human and animal health. Selenium (Se) possesses a beneficial role in protecting animals and ameliorating the toxic effects of Cd. However, the comparative antagonistic effects of different Se sources such as inorganic, organic Se and nano-form Se on Cd toxicity are still under-investigated. Hence, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the comparative of Se sources antagonism on Cd-induced nephrotoxicity via oxidative stress and selenoproteome transcription. In the present study, Cd-diet disturbed in the system balance of 5 trace elements (Zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Se, Cd) and impaired renal function. Se sources, including nano- Se (NS), Se- yeast (SY), sodium selenite (SS) and mixed selenium (MS) significantly recovered the balance of 4 trace elements (Zn, Cu, Cd, Se) and renal impaired indexes (blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine (CREA)). Histological appearance of Cd-treated kidney indicated renal tubular epithelial vacuoles, particle degeneration and enlarged capsular space. Ultrastructure observation results illustrated that Cd-induced mitochondrial cristae reduction, membrane disappearance, and nuclear deformation. Treatment with Se sources, NS appeared a better impact on improving kidney tissues against the pathological alterations resulting from Cd administration. Meanwhile, NS reflected a significant impact on relieving Cd-induced kidney oxidative damage, and significantly restored the antioxidant defense system of the body. Our findings also showed NS ameliorated the Cd-induced downtrends expression of selenoproteome and selenoprotein synthesis related transcription factors. Overall, NS was the most effective Se source in avoiding of Cd cumulative toxicity, improving antioxidant capacity and regulating of selenoproteome transcriptome and selenoprotein synthesis related transcription factors expression, which contributes to ameliorate Cd-induced nephrotoxicity in chickens. These results demonstrated diet supplement with NS may prove to be an effective approach for alleviating Cd toxicity and minimizing Cd -induced health risk.

Protective Effects of α-Lipoic Acid and Chlorogenic Acid on Cadmium-Induced Liver Injury in Three-Yellow Chickens

Simple Summary

Cadmium (Cd) exerts pernicious influences on global health. We evaluated the protective effects of α-lipoic acid (α-LA) or chlorogenic acid (CGA) and their combination on counteracting Cd toxicity in vivo in three-yellow chickens. Administration of Cd (50 mg/L) alone lowered the production performance and resulted in biochemical, histologic and enzyme changes within the liver consistent with hepatic injury induced by oxidative stress and apoptosis of hepatocytes. However, the above variations of the Cd group were partially or fully reversed by administration of either α-LA or CGA; their combination showed an even better effect in attenuating Cd-induced hepatotoxicity. This study provided a practical and feasible approach to rescuing Cd intoxication in animal production.

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd) is a type of noxious heavy metal that is distributed widely. It can severely injure the hepatocytes and cause liver dysfunction by inducing oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage. We evaluated the protective effects of α-lipoic acid (α-LA) or chlorogenic acid (CGA) and their combination on counteracting cadmium toxicity in vivo in three-yellow chickens. For three months, CdCl₂ (50 mg/L) was administrated through their drinking water, α-LA (400 mg/kg) was added to feed and CGA (45 mg/kg) was employed by gavage. The administration of Cd led to variations in growth performance, biochemical markers (of the liver, kidney and heart), hematological parameters, liver histopathology (which suggested hepatic injury) and ultrastructure of hepatocytes. Some antioxidant enzymes and oxidative stress parameters showed significant differences in the Cd-exposure group when compared with the control group. The groups treated with Cd and administrated α-LA or CGA showed significant amelioration with inhibited mitochondrial pathway-induced apoptosis. Combining both drugs was the most effective in reducing Cd toxicity in the liver. In summary, the results demonstrated that α-LA and CGA may be beneficial in alleviating oxidative stress induced by oxygen free radicals and tissue injury resulting from Cd-triggered hepatotoxicity.

The Alleviative Effects of Quercetin on Cadmium-Induced Necroptosis via Inhibition ROS/iNOS/NF-κB Pathway in the Chicken Brain

Cadmium (Cd), a ubiquitous environmental pollutant, has neurotoxicity to humans and animals. Quercetin (QE), the main component of flavonoids, has strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. However, little is reported about the influence of Cd exposure on necroptosis in the chicken brain and the antagonistic impacts of QE against Cd-induced brain necroptosis. The aim of this study was to ascertain the alleviative mechanism of QE on Cd-induced necroptosis in the chicken brain. Two hundred 3.5-month-old Isa hens were randomly divided into four groups, control group, QE group, Cd group, and Cd + QE co-administration group. The histopathological analysis indicated that necrosis features were observed in the Cd-intoxicated chicken brains. Meanwhile, the expression levels of RIPK1, RIPK3, and MLKL were elevated and the level of Caspase 8 was reduced in the Cd group, which further testified Cd triggered the occurrence of necroptosis in the chicken brain. Cd exposure obviously increased Cd accumulation, ROS generation, and MDA level; weakened the activities of antioxidase (SOD, GPx, and CAT); enhanced iNOS activity and NO production; promoted the expression of inflammatory factors (NF-κB, TNFα, COX-2, iNOS, PTGEs, and IL-1β); and activated HSPs (HSP27, HSP40, HSP60, HSP70, and HSP90). But, these Cd-caused variations were obviously attenuated in the Cd + QE group. This study indicated that QE had an alleviative effect on Cd-induced necroptosis in the chicken brain through inhibition ROS/iNOS/NF-κB pathway.

Cadmium exposure induces TNF-α-mediated necroptosis via FPR2/TGF-β/NF-κB pathway in swine myocardium

Cadmium (Cd) is one common environmental pollutant with systemic toxicity. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) can regulate transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) pathway and alleviate tissue injury via binding to formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2). The activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway can promote the occurence of necroptosis. However, whether Cd exposure induces necroptosis in swine myocardium and the role of FPR2/TGF-β/NF-κB pathway in this process are unclear. Hence, we established Cd-exposed swine myocardial injury model by feeding a CdCl₂ added diet (20 mg Cd/kg diet). Hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining was used to observe the morphological changes, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was performed to detect the levels of ion elements in myocardium. We further detected LXA4 and its receptor FPR2, TGF-β, Nrf2, NF-κB pathway and necroptosis related-genes expressions by RT-PCR and western blot. The results showed that Cd exposure induced necrotic cell death and ion homeostasis imbalance in swine myocardium. Moreover, Cd exposure increased the LXA4 content, inhibited the FPR2 expression, activated TGF-β pathway and suppressed Nrf2 pathway, activating the NF-κB pathway. In addition, Cd exposure increased the expressions of necroptosis related-genes TNF-α, TNFR1, RIP1, RIP3 and MLKL. It indicated Cd exposure induced necroptosis via FPR2/TGF-β/NF-κB pathway, revealing the potential mechanism of Cd-induced cardiotoxicity in swine myocardium.