Effects of anisakid nematodes Anisakis simplex (s.l.), Pseudoterranova decipiens (s.l.) and Contracaecum osculatum (s.l.) on fish and consumer health

Location and elimination of Anisakis simplex third stage larvae in Atlantic herring Clupea harengus L

We here describe the location of anisakid third stage larvae in Atlantic herring Clupea harengus L. caught in the North Sea in August 2023. We further demonstrate how industrial processing (mechanical gutting, removal of entrails, head, tail, hypaxial anterior musculature and vertebral column) reduces the overall infection and worm load in the musculature. The isolated anisakid larvae were identified as Anisakis simplex sensu stricto by a combination of morphometrics and molecular methods (PCR of rDNA and mtDNA, sequencing, BLAST analysis). As a baseline we examined a total of 75 specimens of freshly caught and ungutted herring and showed a positive correlation between host size (fish length and weight) and infection level. The overall prevalence of infection was 84 %, the mean intensity 11.3 (range 1-38 parasites per fish) and the abundance 9.52. The main part of the overall worm population was associated with stomach and pyloric caeca in the body cavity (77 %) and only 5 % was found in the musculature. Larvae occurred in the hypaxial part of the musculature (21), the epaxial part (7 worms) and the caudal part (5 worms). The prevalence of muscle infection was 28 % and the mean intensity 1.6 (range 1-5) parasites per fish and abundance 0.44 parasites per fish. In order to assess the effect of industrial processing on worm occurrence in the fish we examined a total of 67 specimens of herring, from exactly the same batch, but following processing. This included removal of organs in the body cavity, cutting the lower part of the hypaxial segment but leaving the right and left musculature connected by dorsal connective tissue. Five out of these fish carried one larva (prevalence 7.5%, mean intensity 1, abundance 0.07 larvae per fish), and these worms were located in the ventral part of the anterior musculature (2), in the central part of the anterior musculature (2) and one larva in the central part of the caudal musculature. The industrial processing reduced the overall occurrence (abundance) of worms in the fish from 9.52 to 0.07 (136 times reduction) and the occurrence in the musculature from 0.44 to 0.07 (6.28 times reduction). The overall prevalence was reduced from 84 % to 7.5 % (11.2 times reduction). Muscle infection prevalence fell from 28 % to 7.5 % (3.7 times reduction). We then followed another batch of herring following a marinating process (11% NaCl for 24 h and subsequent incubation in acetic acid and vinegar) by artificially digesting the flaps during week 1-8. Although a total of 31 larvae were recovered from 144 fish examined no live nematode larvae were isolated. The importance of fish handling, processing and marination for consumer safety is discussed.

Modulation of the rat intestinal microbiota in the course of Anisakis pegreffii infection

Background

Anisakis are globally distributed, marine parasitic nematodes that can cause human health problems, including symptoms such as vomiting, acute diarrhea, and allergic reactions. As parasitic nematodes that primarily affect the patient's digestive tract, intestinal helminths can interact directly with the host microbiota through physical contact, chemicals, or nutrient competition. It is widely accepted that the host microbiota plays a crucial role in the regulation of immunity.

Materials and methods

Nematodes collected from the abdominal cavity of marine fish were identified by molecular biology and live worms were artificially infected in rats. Infection was determined by indirect ELISA based on rat serum and worm extraction. Feces were collected for 16S rDNA-based analysis of microbiota diversity.

Results

Molecular biology identification based on ITS sequences identified the collected nematodes as A. pegreffii. The success of the artificial infection was determined by indirect ELISA based on serum and worm extraction from artificially infected rats. Microbiota diversity analysis showed that a total of 773 ASVs were generated, and PCoA showed that the infected group was differentiated from the control group. The control group contained five characterized genera (Prevotellaceae NK3B31 group, Turicibacter, Clostridium sensu stricto 1, Candidatus Stoquefichus, Lachnospira) and the infected group contained nine characterized genera (Rodentibacter, Christensenella, Dubosiella, Streptococcus, Anaeroplasma, Lactococcus, Papillibacter, Desulfovibrio, Roseburia). Based on the Wilcoxon test, four processes were found to be significant: bacterial secretion system, bacterial invasion of epithelial cells, bacterial chemotaxis, and ABC transporters.

Conclusion

This study is the first to analyze the diversity of the intestinal microbiota of rats infected with A. pegreffii and to determine the damage and regulation of metabolism and immunity caused by the infection in the rat gut. The findings provide a basis for further research on host-helminth-microbe correlationships.

Fish feed composition by high-throughput sequencing analysis: Parasite risk assessment

The use of wild small fish species as feed for aquaculture has clearly an economic incentive by speeding the growth of farmed species. Since feed ingredients are sourced from wild fisheries the farmed species could contain natural contaminants which may introduce food safety concerns. In this study, we used High-Throughput Sequencing (HTS) to explore the whole DNA profile of ten dry commercial feeds commonly used by Spanish fish farming companies. The feeds were mainly made of species within the genus Sprattus, Ammodytes and Clupea, and vegetables of the genus Triticum. In the feeds, DNA sequences of parasitic nematodes of fishes (˂1 % total OTUs) were also identified. A taxonomic assignment of query sequences, using a phylogeny-based approach, estimation of pairwise nucleotide identities within and between sequence groups and haplotype network analysis, allow assign short query sequences to the species Phocanema krabbei (Anisakidae) and Hysterothylacium aduncum (Rhaphidascarididae). Both species were identified as ingredient in two and six fish feeds, respectively. This result is of highly concern regarding dietetic recommendations to sensitized patients to anisakids, considering the growing evidence on the possible allergenic potential of both genera, and the recent data on the transfer of anisakid heat-resistant allergens from fishmeal to farm and aquaculture animals.

Opening a can of worms: Archived canned fish fillets reveal 40 years of change in parasite burden for four Alaskan salmon species

How has parasitism changed for Alaskan salmon over the past several decades? Parasitological assessments of salmon are inconsistent across time, and though parasite data are sometimes noted when processing fillets for the market, those data are not retained for more than a few years. The landscape of parasite risk is changing for salmon, and long-term data are needed to quantify this change. Parasitic nematodes of the family Anisakidae (anisakids) use salmonid fishes as intermediate or paratenic hosts in life cycles that terminate in marine mammal definitive hosts. Alaskan marine mammals have been protected since the 1970s, and as populations recover, the density of definitive hosts in this region has increased. To assess whether the anisakid burden has changed in salmonids over time, we used a novel data source: salmon that were caught, canned, and thermally processed for human consumption in Alaska, USA. We examined canned fillets of chum (Oncorhynchus keta, n = 42), coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch, n = 22), pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, n = 62), and sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka, n = 52) processed between 1979 and 2019. We dissected each fillet and quantified the number of worms per gram of salmon tissue. Anisakid burden increased over time in chum and pink salmon, but there was no change in sockeye or coho salmon. This difference may be due to differences in the prey preferences of each species, or to differences in the parasite species detected across hosts. Canned fish serve as a window into the past, providing information that would otherwise be lost, including information on changes over time in the parasite burden of commercially, culturally, and ecologically important fish species.

Variation in the levels of anisakid infection in the European anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus (Linnaeus) from the Bay of Biscay during the period 2000-2023 (ICES Subarea 8)

The European anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus is one of the most important commercial species in the Bay of Biscay (ICES Subarea 8), and our analysis focused on the analysis of the temporal mean abundance, prevalence, and intensity of Anisakis spp. larvae species in anchovies from ICES Subarea 8 in the years 2000, 2001, 2014-2016, and 2019-2023. Prevalence in adult individuals of anchovy was only 1% in 2000 but increased to 90% in 2014. Since 2015, the prevalence has decreased, and the number of individuals affected in 2023 accounted for 17.6%. The mean abundance showed a similar trend, with a peak of 3.79 nematodes/anchovy in 2014, falling to 0.21 in 2023. The species A. simplex sensu stricto and A. pegreffii were identified by PCR/SANGER sequencing and PCR/RLFP techniques in 2019 and 2020. Anisakis simplex (s.s.) was the most abundant species and, according to the results returned by these two techniques, it accounted for an average of 62.4% and 52.1% of total nematodes in 2019 and 2020, respectively. The results of studies monitoring infection levels in anchovies showed that the mean abundance and prevalence changed over the course of the study period and that the proportion of different species of Anisakis is also subject to variation from year to year.

First record of Pseudoterranova decipiens in sprat (Sprattus sprattus) from the Baltic Sea

A dispersion of Anisakidae nematodes (particularly Contracaecum osculatum) among marine organisms in the Baltic Sea has been reported over the last decade. This is in line with an increase in the number of grey seal that act as final host for Contracaecum osculatum and Pseudoterranova sp., and are thus indispensable for the completion of their life cycles. Most attention has been paid to zoonotic nematode species, like Pseudoterranova sp., which have been noted in commercially important fish in the area. Little is known about the spread and transmission of Pseudoterranova sp. in the Baltic Sea. The aim of this study was to investigate whether sprat may play a role as a transport host for this Anisakidae. Samples were collected in three areas of the southern Baltic Sea (south and east of Bornholm, Słupsk Farrow and the Gulf of Gdańsk) during a research cruise in August 2019. A visual inspection of the viscera of 556 sprats was conducted. Parasites were identified using anatomomorphological and molecular methods. Nematodes were recorded only in sprat caught southeast of Bornholm (prevalence 2.7%; intensity of infection 1-4; abundance 0.05). Molecular identification revealed the presence of Pseudoterranova decipiens. This is the first report of P. decipiens in sprat from the Baltic Sea. Sprat is likely a transmitter of P. decipiens in the Baltic Sea food web.

Does Anisakis spp. infestation affect the proximate composition, fatty acids, and minerals contents of its host Merluccius merlucccius?

Fish play an important role in human nutrition. They are not only a great source of protein and healthy fats, but also a unique source of essential nutrients such as omega-3 fatty acids. Moreover, most fish are parasitized, and some of these parasites are able to influence the reallocation of resources in their favor and thus reduce the nutritional quality of the fish. The present study was conducted to investigate the impact of the third stage larvae (L3) of Anisakis spp. on the proximate composition, macro-minerals (potassium, calcium, and sodium), and fatty acids of European hake (Merluccius merluccius Linnaeus, 1758). In parasitized female group, our results revealed a decrease (p< 0.005) in the amount of carbohydrate by 6.5%, of calcium by 17%, and of 2 polyunsaturated fatty acids (arachidonic acid (C20: 4w-6), and eicosapentaenoic acid (C20: 5w-3) with 33% and 15% respectively. Simultaneously, an increase by 25% in the level of a single saturated fatty acid C10:0 was noticed. According to the principal component analysis, the parasitized female was wealthy of saturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids and contains less of polyunsaturated fatty acids, omega-3 fatty acids, and omega-6 fatty acids than the unparasitized female and male. No significant changes were observed in the biochemical composition of male hake, probably due to the low mean intensity of L3 larvae of Anisakis spp. in this group.

Low prevalence of Contracaecum third-stage larvae parasitizing Sea of Galilee fisheries: 1-year survey after 57 years of no information

Freshwater and marine ecosystems are a suitable habitat for parasitic nematodes of the genus Contracaecum (family: Anisakidae) to complete their complex life cycle. Several fish species of the Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret) were reported in 1964 as second intermediate/paratenic hosts of Contracaecum spp. larvae. The lack of taxonomically relevant morphological features of these larvae hindered their proper identification. Here we report the results of a 1-year survey conducted in 2021, 57 years after the first (and only) such survey. We analyzed 352 specimens from 10 fish species (native and non-native) of the Sea of Galilee (Israel) ichthyofauna. We compared our results with those of the first parasitological survey conducted by Paperna in 1964; the overall prevalence of nematodes referable to Contracaecum larvae was 16.8% and 0.85% in 1964 and in 2021, respectively. Different from the first survey that identified Contracaecum larvae morphologically, we used both morphological and molecular tools. Two wild native cyprinids-Jordan himri (Carasobarbus canis) and Jordan barbel (Luciobarbus longiceps)-were infected (a single specimen each) with Contracaecum quadripapillatum larvae in their abdominal cavity. A single specimen of blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus) was infected with two larvae of Contracaecum multipapillatum E, localized in the pericardial cavity. The findings of our study, which is part of a large project focused on Contracaecum spp. infecting both piscivorous birds and fish collected in Israel, advance our knowledge about the distribution and host range of this potentially zoonotic parasite in fishery products of the Sea of Galilee.

Comparative histopathology of livers from Baltic cod infected with the parasitic nematode Contracaecum osculatum

Infection levels with the parasitic nematode Contracaecum osculatum in Eastern Baltic cod have increased in the last decades. Eastern Baltic cod is transport host for this parasite that has a high affinity for the liver of the fish. The liver is a highly vital organ and damage to the liver tissue can result in reduced functionality of the organ. Previous studies have revealed that cod with high infections loads reveal impaired physiological performance, reduced nutritional condition and show signs of having a liver disease. Yet, little is known about the pathological changes and inflammatory reactions of the cod liver related to the infections. In this study, we performed histological examinations on 30 Baltic cod livers caught in the eastern part of the Baltic Sea (length; 38 ± 0.9 cm, weight; 454 ± 34.8 gram) and three Sound cod livers (length; 63 ± 2.9 cm, weight; 3396 ± 300.2 gram) to categorize the degree of inflammation and its relation to pathological changes in infected cod livers. We further investigated how C. osculatum infection levels varied with intensity of inflammation and co-infections. We found that high infection loads with C. osculatum caused severe inflammation in the liver tissue of cod and reduced fat content of the hepatocytes. Conspicuous amounts of glycogen were found in the muscle and intestinal epithelial cells of the nematodes and parasitic co-infections occurred more frequently in the most heavily infected livers.

A review on fish-borne zoonotic parasites in Iran

BACKGROUND

Fish is a great nutritious food and provides quality protein and a variety of vitamins and minerals. This contributes significantly to the economy and food security in Iran. However, there are safety concerns related to the presence of zoonotic parasites.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study is, therefore, to review fish-borne zoonotic parasites in Iran.

METHODS

Keywords such as fish-borne, parasites, zoonotic, Iran, and some names of fish-borne zoonotic parasites were searched in databases including PubMed, Science Direct, Elsevier, SID, Magiran, Irandoc, Google Scholar and the World Health Organization.

RESULTS

The most common fish-borne parasites with zoonotic potential identified in reports in the literature were the protozoa Balantidium spp., Myxobolus spp. and Sarcosystis sp.; the trematodes Heterophyes heterophyes and Clinostomum complanatum; the cestodes Ligula intestinalis and Diphyllobothrium latum; the nematodes Pseudoterranova sp., Anisakis spp., Contracaecum spp., Raphidascaris spp., Eustrongylides spp. and Capillaria sp.; and the acanthocephal Corynosoma spp.

CONCLUSIONS

The potential risk factors for the transmission of fish-borne zoonotic parasites to humans are consumption of raw or undercooked infected fish, contact with contaminated water and contact with infected fish. There is a need for epidemiological surveillance of fish for parasites with zoonotic potential and of occurrence of infections in humans to better understand the public health significance and design prevention programs.

A century of parasitology in fisheries and aquaculture

Fish parasitological research associated with fisheries and aquaculture has expanded remarkably over the past century. The application of parasites as biological tags has been one of the fields in which fish parasitology has generated new insight into fish migration and stock assessments worldwide. It is a well-established discipline whose methodological issues are regularly reviewed and updated. Therefore, no concepts or case-studies will be repeated here; instead, we summarize some of the main recent findings and achievements of this methodology. These include the extension of its use in hosts other than bony fishes; the improvements in the selection of parasite tags; the recognition of the host traits affecting the use of parasite tags; and the increasingly recognized need for integrative, multidisciplinary studies combining parasites with classical methods and modern techniques, such as otolith microchemistry and genetics. Archaeological evidence points to the existence of parasitic problems associated with aquaculture activities more than a thousand years ago. However, the main surge of research within aquaculture parasitology occurred with the impressive development of aquaculture over the past century. Protozoan and metazoan parasites, causing disease in domesticated fish in confined environments, have attracted the interest of parasitologists and, due to their economic importance, funding was made available for basic and applied research. This has resulted in a profusion of basic knowledge about parasite biology, physiology, parasite-host interactions, life cycles and biochemistry. Due to the need for effective control methods, various solutions targeting host-parasite interactions (immune responses and host finding), genetics and pharmacological aspects have been in focus.

Ascaridoid parasites in European sardine throughout the annual cycle: Variability in parasitic load according to host stock features

In recent years, a drop in the condition of the European sardine has been observed. Although several causes have been attributed to this issue, as overfishing and climate change, little is known about the link between ascaridoid nematode parasitisation and fish status. In this study, sardines were obtained from four fishing grounds along the Mediterranean (Alboran, Northern Spain, Northern Adriatic, and Aegean), and one location in the Atlantic Ocean (Southern Portugal). After analysing individual fish body condition (by direct tissue fat content measurements and condition indices), and reproductive status (by a detailed gonadal examination) throughout the entire annual cycle, ascaridoids were recognised by combining naked eye and UV-press method along flesh, viscera, and gonads. Afterwards, sequence analysis of the rDNA internal transcribed spacers region (ITS) and the mtDNA cox2 gene were used to identify and characterise the different species of ascaridoids from the fish host in the localities throughout the seasons. The main species found along different areas was Hysterothylacium aduncum, present in the Northern Adriatic (prevalence of 7.6%, mean intensity 1.700), the Atlantic (7.5%, 3.889), and the Northern Spain (3.9%, 1.600). Moreover, few individuals of Anisakis simplex (s.s.) and A. pegreffii were observed in the Atlantic (1.7% and 0.8%, respectively), and the latter species was also found in the Adriatic stock (0.8%). All ascaridoid specimens were found in viscera. Obtained results seem to indicate that in stocks with medium sizes, small variations in length are related to parasite intensity. This study highlights the importance of seasonal parasitological analyses at stock level and, especially, in capital breeders, as relationships between condition and reproduction parameters and parasitism are conditioned by seasonality.

Ecology and effects of metazoan parasites of fish in transitional waters

Given the abundance, heterogeneity and ubiquity of parasitic organisms, understanding how they influence biodiversity, evolution, health and ecosystem functionality is crucial, especially currently when anthropogenic pressures are altering host–parasite balances. This review describes the features, roles and impacts of metazoan parasites of fish occurring in transitional waters (TW). These aquatic ecosystems are highly productive and widespread around the globe and represent most favourable theatres for parasitism given the availability of hosts (invertebrates, fishes and birds) and an increased probability of parasite transmission, especially of those having complex life cycles. Fascinating examples of how parasitism can influence different hierarchical levels of biological systems, from host individuals and populations to entire aquatic communities, through effects on food webs come from this kind of ecosystem. Edible fish of commercial value found in TW can harbour some parasite species, significantly reducing host health, marketability and food safety, with possible economic and public health consequences. Many TW are historically exploited by humans as sources of relevant ecosystem services, including fisheries and aquaculture, and they are highly vulnerable ecosystems. Alteration of TW can be revealed through the study of parasite communities, contributing, as bioindicators, for assessing environmental changes, health and restoration. Fish parasites can provide much information about TW, but this potential appears to be not fully exploited. More studies are necessary to quantify the ecological, economic and medical impacts fish parasites can have on these important ecosystems.

Anisakid parasites (Nematoda: Anisakidae) in 3 commercially important gadid fish species from the southern Barents Sea, with emphasis on key infection drivers and spatial distribution within the hosts

Northeast Arctic cod, saithe and haddock are among the most important fisheries resources in Europe, largely shipped to various continental markets. The present study aimed to map the presence and distribution of larvae of parasitic nematodes in the Anisakidae family which are of socioeconomic and public health concern. Fishes were sourced from commercial catches during winter or spring in the southern Barents Sea. Samples of fish were inspected for nematodes using the UV-press method while anisakid species identification relied on sequencing of the mtDNA cox2 gene. Anisakis simplex (s.s.) was the most prevalent and abundant anisakid recorded, occurring at high infection levels in the viscera and flesh of cod and saithe, while being less abundant in haddock. Contracaecum osculatum (s.l.) larvae, not found in the fish flesh, showed moderate-to-high prevalence in saithe, haddock and cod, respectively. Most Pseudoterranova spp. larvae occurred at low-to-moderate prevalence, and low abundance, in the viscera (Pseudoterranova bulbosa) and flesh (Pseudoterranova decipiens (s.s.) and Pseudoterranova krabbei) of cod, only 2 P. decipiens (s.s.) appeared in the flesh of saithe. Body length was the single most important host-related factor to predict overall abundance of anisakid larvae in the fish species. The spatial distribution of Anisakis larvae in the fish flesh showed much higher abundances in the belly flaps than in the dorsal fillet parts. Trimming of the flesh by removing the belly flaps would reduce larval presence in the fillets of these gadid fish species by 86–91%.

Contracaecum nematode parasites in hillstream loaches of the Western Ghats, India

Nematode parasites of the family Anisakidae infect definitive hosts, such as fish-eating birds and mammals, through primary intermediate hosts like copepods and secondary intermediate hosts like fishes. However, consumption of raw or undercooked fish can lead to nematode infection called anisakidosis in humans. We observed the presence of nematode infection in hillstream loaches of families Cobitidae and Nemacheilidae available for human consumption in the local markets in the northern parts of Western Ghats, India. Scanning electron micrograph and genetic identification employing mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit II, identified the nematode to the genus Contracaecum. Histology of infected host revealed the presence of the parasite in muscles. Antioxidant enzyme analysis of host liver suggested that infection leads to oxidative stress in the fish. We suspect that a gradual increase in parasite infection of the loaches in the last decade could be attributed to various anthropogenic stressors that are altering riverine habitats. Since loaches are consumed by tribal people who often prepare the fish without degutting and possibly undercooked, there is a potential threat of human infection.

Anisakidae parasites in frozen fish fillets intended for human consumption

INTRODUCTION

Anisakiasis is a human parasitic disease caused by the consumption of raw fish or shellfish containing larvae of the Anisakidae family. It is currently considered an emerging disease of public health interest.

OBJECTIVE

To identify the presence of larvae of the Anisakidae family in samples of frozen raw fish fillets intended for human consumption in markets in Medellín and its metropolitan area in Antioquia, Colombia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional study was carried out, in which larvae of the Anisakidae family were detected and identified in frozen raw fish fillets from three representative markets in Medellín and its metropolitan area. A total of 384 ready for consumption fillets were analyzed (197 sawfish, 137 salmon, 37 tuna, and 13 hake), using the pressing and ultraviolet light method. Taxonomic keys were used to identify the collected parasites and to establish its genus. Conventional PCR and Sanger sequencing was performed to determine the species.

RESULTS

Four larvae were found in 4 of the 384 (1.04%) fillets (CI95% 1.04 ± 1.01%). The species of fish in which the larvae were found was sawfish (Scomberomorus spp.) and the genus and species of the larvae was established as Anisakis pegreffii.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the study, the presence of Anisakis parasites in frozen raw fish fillets in the influence area is evident.

Infection process, viability and establishment of Anisakis simplex s.l. L3 in farmed fish; A histopathological study in gilthead seabream

Anisakis spp. (Nematoda, Anisakidae) are parasites known by their economic and health impacts, as their L3 larval stages infect a variety of fish species, many of them commercial species, sometimes causing zoonotic episodes due to consumption of raw or undercooked fish. The aim of this study is to determine the infection process and the potential impact of A. simplex s.l. L3 on gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.), one of the most important fish species in Mediterranean aquaculture, by periodic histological monitoring of the infection process. For this, fish were experimentally infected with A. simplex s.l. L3 and periodically analysed for L3 larvae, collecting samples at different time points (hours post ingestion, hpi): 3, 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 72, 96, 120, 144, 168 and 192, up to 6 months post infection (mpi). All samples were observed under a stereomicroscope and later fixed for histological examination. A. simplex s.l. L3 were only found on the visceral surface and mesenteric tissue, but never free or encapsulated in muscle. Chronological events were found to occur faster than those reported in previous studies. They were first observed 6 hpi in the coelomic cavity, being present up to 48 hpi. While the earliest evidence of fibrocytes surrounding A. simplex s.l. L3 larvae were observed at 18 hpi, complete spiral encapsulation occurred by 72 hpi. Alive parasites were observed up to 6 mpi. Although the infection of gilthead seabream by Anisakis spp. larvae is feasible, it seems unlikely, especially in aquaculture given the hygienically controlled feeding systems. In the event of infection, the transmission would be unlikely due to the poor condition in which specimens of Anisakis spp. are found. Furthermore, since no larvae were detected in the fish's muscle, human infection seems improbable.

Gene expression and allergenic potential of Pseudoterranova bulbosa L3 from different infection sites in North Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua)

The recent advances in molecular methods and data processing have facilitated research on anisakid nematodes. While most research efforts were made regarding the genus Anisakis, since this genus is held responsible for the majority of reported clinical signs, there is still a demand for data on the genus Pseudoterranova. Several case studies of severe invasive anisakidosis affecting various organs caused by species of the P. decipiens complex have been described. To better understand the way these parasites might infest their fish host, we examined whether parasite location within the fish host affects gene expression. A de novo assembly of the transcriptome of Pseudoterranova bulbosa, isolated from North Atlantic cod, was analysed for patterns of differential gene expression between samples taken from liver and viscera. We additionally searched for homologs to known nematode allergens, to give a first estimate of the potential allergenicity of P. bulbosa. There was a subtle difference in the gene expression of samples taken from liver and viscera. Seventy genes were differentially expressed, 32 genes were upregulated in parasites isolated from liver and 38 genes were upregulated in parasites from viscera. Homologs of five nematode allergens were identified among the genes expressed by P. bulbosa. Our transcriptome of P. bulbosa will be a valuable resource for further meta-analyses and resequencing projects.

Analysis of potential drivers of spatial and temporal changes in anisakid larvae infection levels in European hake, Merluccius merluccius (L.), from the North-East Atlantic fishing grounds

We analysed the spatial and temporal variability of Anisakis larvae infection in hake (Merluccius merluccius) from the North-East Atlantic from 1998 to 2020 and the potential drivers (i.e., environmental and host abundance) of such variation. The results showed that hake from separate sea areas in the North Atlantic have marked differences in temporal abundance levels. Hake larger than 60 cm were all parasitized in all ICES (International Council for the Exploration of the Sea) subareas 6, 7, and 8. The belly flaps were the most parasitized parts of the flesh, accounting for 92% of the total. Individuals of Anisakis simplex, Anisakis pegreffii, Anisakis spp. and a hybrid of Anisakis simplex × pegreffii were genetically identified, and Anisakis simplex as the most abundant (88-100%). An ecological niche model of Anisakis occurrence in fishes in the NE Atlantic was built to define the thermal optimum and environmental ranges for salinity, depth, chlorophyll concentration, and diffuse attenuation. The temporal variability of anisakid infection in fishes in the last two decades indicated an increase in the NE Atlantic at an annual rate of 31.7 nematodes per total number of specimens examined per year. This rise in infection levels could be triggered by the increase in intermediate host fish stocks, especially hake in the area.

Infection Rate in Seabasses Fed with Viscera Parasitised by Anisakid Larvae

PURPOSE

It has been suggested that the removal of infected viscera on board is responsible for the high prevalence of anisakid larvae present in wild fish species. The aim of this work is to assess the re-infection capacity of anisakid larvae in European seabasses, a natural host species for the parasite by feeding with pieces of parasitised hake liver under controlled experimental conditions.

METHODS

To prove this potential link between manipulation and re-infestation, 50 farmed seabasses free of anisakid nematodes were fed with fresh hake liver pieces naturally infested with anisakid larvae.

RESULTS

After digestion periods from 4 to 21 days, the seabasses showed a prevalence of Anisakis of 6%, and a low retention rate of 0.11 larvae/seabass after four days' digestion, and 0.0021 after 21 day digestion. Two nematodes were found in the intestine and in the visceral cavity, and 13 Anisakis were found partially digested in the stomach of one same individual after 4 day digestion. Results showed that only a small number of Anisakis ingested with the viscera were able to reinfect the seabasses, as most of the larvae seemed to be quickly digested or defecated.

CONCLUSION

it seems that the availability of larvae that could re-enter the life cycle and re-infect a fish after the removal and discarding the infected viscera on board could be much less important than commonly believed.

Anisakid Nematodes and Potential Risk of Human Anisakiasis through the Consumption of Hake, Merluccius spp., Sold Fresh in Spanish Supermarkets

Nematode parasite species belonging to the Anisakis simplex complex are the most important cause of human anisakiasis through the consumption of (mainly) undercooked, previously not frozen, or conveniently treated fish. In Spain, the consumption of hake has been recognized as an important source of this parasitosis. With the aim of shedding light on the risk factors that can influence the potential risk of human anisakiasis in Spain through the consumption of fresh hake sold by nationwide supermarket chains, a total of 536 small hake specimens belonging to the species Merluccius bilinearis caught off the Northeast American coasts and Merluccius merluccius caught in the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean waters was analysed. Anisakids morphologically identified as Anisakis type I were found as the most prevalent and the most abundant species and were considered the main potential cause of human anisakiasis. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors concerning the hake, such as its origin and season of capture, its size, as well as the days passed between its capture and consumption, should be taken into account to avoid this human parasitosis. It is essential that consumers have access to fish label information which should include, as regulated by the European Commission, traceability data.

Seafood safety and food-borne zoonoses from fish: Examining the risk of Anisakis in the Portuguese Population and Consumer Risk Perceptions of Fish Consumption

Parasitic nematodes of the genus Anisakis are the causative agent of anisakiosis, an important fish‐borne zoonosis. Humans are infected through consumption of raw or undercooked fish, contaminated with the parasite. Infection can result in both gastrointestinal and allergic symptoms. There are few reports of anisakiosis in Portugal, but evidence of Anisakis allergy exists, indicating that exposure is occurring in the population. The European Food Risk Assessment Fellowship Programme (EU‐FORA) work programme, entitled: ‘Food safety of fish and zoonoses: fish consumption and microbiological risk assessment and perception, from fisherman to final consumers in Portugal’ was hosted by the Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), in Porto, Portugal. It aimed to gather information on risk perception and attitudes in the Portuguese population to contamination of fish with Anisakis spp. and on their knowledge of methods to prevent infection. In addition, it aimed to examine the risk of anisakiosis in the Portuguese population.

Drug efficacy on zoonotic nematodes of the Anisakidae family - new metabolic data

In the Anisakidae family, there are nematodes, most of which are parasitic for important commercial fish species. Both public health risks and socio-economic problems are attributed to these parasites. Despite these concerns, knowledge of the metabolism of these parasites remains unknown. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to investigate the receptors of drugs and oxidative metabolic status of two Anisakidae species, Pseudoterranova decipiens (s. s.) and Contracaecum osculatum (s. s.), under the influence of anthelminthic drugs, ivermectin (IVM) and pyrantel (PYR), at different concentrations: 1.56, 3.125 and 6.25 μg mL⁻¹ of culture medium for 3, 6, 9, 12 and 72 h. The mRNA expressions of the γ-aminobutyric acid receptor, acetylcholine receptor subunits, adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporters and antioxidative enzymes were determined. The total antioxidant capacity and glutathione S-transferase activity were also examined. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first time that IVM and PYR have been tested against these parasitic nematodes.

Sensitivity of candling as routine method for the detection and recovery of ascaridoids in commercial fish fillets

Ascaridoids are one of the main parasitic hazards in commercial fish. Candling is the current industrial screening method whereby visible ascaridoid larvae are detected on a light table and manually removed. The aim of this study was to assess the sensitivity (Se) and negative predictive value (NPV) of this method. To make targeted recommendations to the fish industry, the Se was calculated per fish part, larval genus, and fish species. All fish parts (n = 615) were first candled, and larvae were collected, followed by enzymatic digestion to recover the remaining larvae. A fish part was considered positive if at least one larva was detected using candling and/or enzymatic digestion, with both methods combined as reference standard. The overall Se of candling was 31% (95% CI 23-41%) and NPV was 87% (95% CI 85-90%). The Se increased with higher numbers of larvae/100 g infected muscle. A low NPV was found for the belly flaps, therefore we either advise the removal or proper freezing of this part. Lastly, the Se and larval recovery was the highest for the darker and larger Pseudoterranova spp. larvae. Due to the low overall efficacy of candling, further assessment of its cost-benefit and impact on consumers' health risk should be conducted.

Evidence of IgE-Mediated Cross-Reactions between Anisakis simplex and Contracaecum osculatum Proteins

Fish consumers may develop allergic reactions following the ingestion of fish products containing nematode larvae within the genus Anisakis. Sensitized patients may cross-react with proteins from insects, mites and mollusks, leading to allergic reactions even in the absence of the offending food. Potential cross-reactivity in Anisakis-allergic patients with larval proteins from other zoonotic parasites present in freshwater and sea fish should be investigated due to an increasing occurrence in certain fish stocks, particularly Contracaecum osculatum. In this work, we evaluated IgE-cross reactions by in vivo (skin prick tests with parasites extracts) and in vitro methods (IgE-ELISA and IgE-immunoblot). In vivo skin prick tests (SPT) proved the reactivity of Anisakis-sensitized patients when exposed to C. osculatum antigens. Sera from Anisakis-sensitized patients confirmed the reaction with somatic antigens (SA) and excretory/secretory proteins (ES) from C. osculatum. Only anecdotal responses were obtained from other freshwater worm parasites. Consequently, it is suggested that Anisakis-sensitized humans, especially patients with high levels of specific anti-Anisakis antibodies, may react to C. osculatum proteins, possibly due to IgE-mediated cross-reactivity.

Occurrence and abundance of zoonotic nematodes in snapper Chrysophrys auratus, a popular table fish from Australian and New Zealand waters

In Australia and New Zealand (NZ), snapper Chrysophrys auratus is known for delicate mild flavoured flesh and is a favoured species to serve raw as sashimi or in sushi. The diet of snapper includes a variety of intermediate hosts of larval nematodes, and as a result, snapper has potential to become highly infected with zoonotic/non-zoonotic nematodes. The aims of this study were to survey nematodes in snapper from Australia and New Zealand waters and to identify nematode species using combined morphological and molecular methods. The zoonotic potential of nematodes identified in this study are discussed. A total of 112 snapper were purchased from the Sydney fish market, New South Wales, Australia. Fish were dissected and only the visceral content and digestive tract were examined for nematode infection. Parasites were initially identified by the microscopic method as four different types belonging to the families Anisakidae (Anisakis types I & III, and Terranova type II) and Cucullanidae (Dichelyne spp.). All Anisakidae nematodes were at infective stages. Species-level identification was actualised through sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS-1, 5.8S, ITS-2) regions. The Anisakis types I & III were confirmed as Anisakis pegreffii and A. brevispiculata, respectively of which A. pegreffii is considered globally as a zoonotic nematode. The specific identification of Terranova type II and Dichelyne spp. was not possible as no comparable sequence data were available in GenBank. The phylogenetic tree clustered Anisakis types I & III with A. pegreffii and A. brevispiculata, respectively; Terranova type II sequences as a separate clade with previously identified larval and adult Terranova and Pseudoterranova species. Based on phylogenetic analyses the present Cucullanid specimens were assigned herein as Dichelyne cf. pleuronectidis, and an unknown species Dichelyne sp. 1. This study represents the first host record globally for zoonotic Anisakid nematodes in this popularly consumed table fish and a new region record for D. cf. pleuronectidis and Dichelyne sp. 1. Further investigation is required, using more comprehensive parasite detection and recovery methods, to assess the health risk these nematodes may pose to human and fish health in Australia/NZ.

Negligible risk of zoonotic anisakid nematodes in farmed fish from European mariculture, 2016 to 2018

Background

The increasing demand for raw or undercooked fish products, supplied by both aquaculture and fisheries, raises concerns about the transmission risk to humans of zoonotic fish parasites. This has led to the current European Union (EU) Regulation No 1276/2011 amending Annex III of Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 and mandating a freezing treatment of such products. Zoonotic parasites, particularly anisakid larvae, have been well documented in wild fish. Data on their presence in European aquaculture products, however, are still scarce, except for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), where the zoonotic risk was assessed as negligible, exempting it from freezing treatment.

Aim

To evaluate the zoonotic Anisakidae parasite risk in European farmed marine fish other than Atlantic salmon.

Methods

From 2016 to 2018 an observational parasitological survey was undertaken on 6,549 farmed fish including 2,753 gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), 2,761 European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and 1,035 turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) from 14 farms in Italy, Spain and Greece. Furthermore, 200 rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) sea-caged in Denmark, as well as 352 seabream and 290 seabass imported in Italy and Spain from other countries were examined. Fish were subjected to visual inspection and candling. Fresh visceral organs/fillet samples were artificially digested or UV pressed and visually examined for zoonotic anisakid larvae.

Results

No zoonotic parasites were found in any of the fish investigated.

Conclusions

The risk linked to zoonotic Anisakidae in the examined fish species from European mariculture appears negligible. This study laid the groundwork for considerations to amend the current EU regulation.

Survival of metazoan parasites in fish: Putting into context the protective immune responses of teleost fish

Defence mechanisms of fish can be divided into specific and non-specific that act in concert and are often interdependent. Most fish in both wild and cultured populations are vulnerable to metazoan parasites. Endoparasitic helminths include several species of digeneans, cestodes, nematodes, and acanthocephalans. Although they may occur in large numbers, helminth infections rarely result in fish mortality. Conversely, some ectoparasites cause mass mortality in farmed fish. Given the importance of fish innate immunity, this review addresses non-specific defence mechanisms of fish against metazoan parasites, with emphasis on granulocyte responses involving mast cells, neutrophils, macrophages, rodlet cells, and mucous cells. Metazoan parasites are important disease agents that affect wild and farmed fish and can induce high economic loss and, as pathogen organisms, deserve considerable attention. The paper will provide our light and transmission electron microscopy data on metazoan parasites-fish innate immune and neuroendocrine systems. Insights about the structure and functions of the cell types listed above and a brief account of the effects and harms of each metazoan taxon to specific fish apparati/organs will be presented.

Effectiveness of Gutting Blue Whiting (Micromesistius poutassou, Risso, 1827), in Spanish Supermarkets as an Anisakidosis Safety Measure

Anisakidosis is a parasitic zoonotic disease which can cause gastroallergic reactions in humans. In 2010, the European Food Safety Agency estimated that approximately 20,000 cases of anisakiasis had been reported across the world, with Spain having the highest number of infections in Europe. The blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou, Risso, 1827) is one of the most widely fished species worldwide and represents around 25% of the white fish eaten in Spain. The Spanish Food Safety Authority requires obligatory evisceration of certain fish species before commercialization, but not for blue whiting. Nevertheless, some supermarkets carry this out themselves to prevent human infections and negative customer reactions deriving from the presence of ascaridoid larvae. To assess the effectiveness of eviscerations at supermarkets, a total of 320 blue whiting specimens were examined. The risk of larval migration from the visceral cavity to the musculature in gutted and ungutted fish was also assessed. Our results showed a total prevalence (25%) of ascaridoids in fish gutted at the supermarket, and a direct relationship was found between the presence of larvae in the muscle and time until evisceration. In ungutted fish, the standard length and weight were higher for infected than for non-infected fish. Also, massive infections had a higher prevalence in these larger specimens, in which the viability of larvae was also high. Larval viability was not found to be affected by a 24-h refrigeration period. Anisakis was the most prevalent genus identified in the fish examined. The results indicate that gutting at the supermarket is not an effective method for the total removal of ascaridoid larvae and that additional safety measures are advisable.

Immunohistopathological response against anisakid nematode larvae and a coccidian in Micromesistius poutassou from NE Atlantic waters

A survey on Anisakis simplex (sensu stricto (s.s.)) from blue whiting, Micromesistius poutassou, in the north-eastern Atlantic Ocean revealed the occurrence of high infection levels of third larval stages in visceral organs and flesh. Larvae were genetically identified with a multilocus approach as A. simplex (s.s.). Histochemical, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural observations were conducted on 30 M. poutassou specimens. Gonads, pyloric caeca and flesh harboured encapsulated larvae of A. simplex (s.s.) but no intense host reaction was encountered around the parasite in the above organs. In the liver, the most infected organ, the larvae co-occurred with the coccidian Goussia sp. Within the granuloma around the A. simplex (s.s.) larvae, two concentric layers were recognized, an inner mostly comprising electron-dense epithelioid cells and an outer layer made of less electron-dense epithelioid cells. Macrophages and macrophage aggregates (MAs) were abundant out of the granulomas, scattered in parenchyma, and inside the MAs, the presence of engulfed Goussia sp. was frequent. In liver tissue co-infected with Goussia sp. and A. simplex (s.s.), hepatocytes showed cytoplasmic rarefaction and acute cell swelling. Results suggest that the host-induced encapsulation of A. simplex (s.s.) larvae is a strategic compromise to minimize collateral tissue damage around the larval infection sites, to facilitate the survival of both parasite and host.

Effect of temperature, CO2 and O2 on motility and mobility of Anisakidae larvae

Anisakidae, marine nematodes, are underrecognized fish-borne zoonotic parasites. Studies on factors that could trigger parasites to actively migrate out of the fish are very limited. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of different environmental conditions (temperature, CO2 and O2) on larval motility (in situ movement) and mobility (migration) in vitro. Larvae were collected by candling or enzymatic digestion from infected fish, identified morphologically and confirmed molecularly. Individual larvae were transferred to a semi-solid Phosphate Buffered Saline agar, and subjected to different temperatures (6 ℃, 12 ℃, 22 ℃, 37 ℃) at air conditions. Moreover, different combinations of CO2 and O2 with N2 as filler were tested, at both 6 °C and 12 °C. Video recordings of larvae were translated into scores for larval motility and mobility. Results showed that temperature had significant influence on larval movements, with the highest motility and mobility observed at 22 ℃ for Anisakis spp. larvae and 37 ℃ for Pseudoterranova spp. larvae. During the first 10 min, the median migration of Anisakis spp. larvae was 10 cm at 22 ℃, and the median migration of Pseudoterranova spp. larvae was 3 cm at 37 ℃. Larval mobility was not significantly different under the different CO2 or O2 conditions at 6 °C and 12 ℃. It was concluded that temperature significantly facilitated larval movement with the optimum temperature being different for Anisakis spp. and Pseudoterranova spp., while CO2 and O2 did not on the short term. This should be further validated in parasite-infected/spiked fish fillets.

Intrinsic properties of anisakid nematode larvae as a potential tool for the detection in fish products

Anisakid nematode larvae (NL) in fish products comprise a risk to human health and, if visible, lead to the rejection of these products by consumers. Therefore, great efforts are being made for the identification of these anisakid larvae to estimate the potential consumer health risk as well as to develop effective detection methods in order to prevent the introduction of heavily infected fish products into the market. The tasks of national reference laboratories include the improvement of detection methods and to promote their further development. As a prerequisite for improved detection, it is important to understand the structural properties of anisakid NL and compounds produced during host-parasite interactions. This review provides an overview of the intrinsic properties of anisakid NL and reports the latest detection methods in published literature. First, in order to define the potentially interesting intrinsic properties of anisakid nematodes for their detection, anatomy and compounds involved in host-parasite interactions are summarised. These can be used for various detection approaches, such as in the medical field or for allergen detection in fish products. In addition, fluorescence characteristics and their use as both established and promising candidates for detection methods, especially in the field of optical sensing technologies, are presented. Finally, different detection and identification methods applied by the fish processing industries and by control laboratories are listed. The review intends to highlight trends and provide suggestions for the development of improved detection and identification methods of anisakid NL in fish products.

Absence of anisakis nematodes in smoked farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) products on sale in European countries

The increase of global demand of aquaculture products as compensation for the lowering of fishery sustainability has shown a parallel awareness by the consumers on the importance of the safety and quality of fish products. Among these, salmon industry has reached a leading position demonstrating the negligible risk of presence of zoonotic helminths such as anisakis nematodes in farmed salmon. Despite the massive production of data in literature on parasitological surveys carried out on fresh salmon, no data are published on processed farmed salmon such as smoked products. In 2016, 270 slices of smoked farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and 13 smoked slices from wild sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) have been analyzed by visual inspection and UV-press method searching for the presence of anisakid nematodes. No parasites were detected in samples from farmed Atlantic salmon, while 10 out of 13 from wild salmon were positive for Anisakis simplex s.s. larvae. This first survey on the possible presence of anisakid nematodes in processed smoked salmon confirms that this risk in farmed Atlantic salmon products has to be considered negligible.

High occurrence of Anisakidae at retail level in cod (Gadus morhua) belly flaps and the impact of extensive candling

The presence of Anisakidae at retail level, after the routine screening via candling, was investigated in cod, the most commonly consumed fish species in Belgium. A total of 780 pre-packed belly flap samples destined for one branch of retail shops were collected from a Belgian wholesale company. To recover all larvae, each sample was first candled and thereafter enzymatically digested. Larvae were morphologically identified to the genus level and a subset was additionally molecularly confirmed by amplification of the ITS fragment and HinfI/HhaI enzyme restriction. The PCR/RFLP profiles of Contracaecum spp. were determined and confirmed with sequencing by the European Reference Laboratory for Parasites (Istituto Superiore di Sanità). The positivity rate of Anisakidae in the individual cod samples was 18% [95%-CI: 15–21%], with a mean intensity of one larva [range: 1–6]. Belly flaps were sold packed primarily by two, with a one-in-three chance of buying an infected package. Pseudoterranova spp. infections (single infections) were most frequently detected (positivity rate 9% [95%-CI: 7–11]), closely followed by Anisakis spp. (7% [95%-CI: 6–9]). Co-infections of Pseudoterranova spp. and Anisakis spp. comprised 8% of the infections, with a positivity rate of 1% [95%-CI: 1–3%]. All belly flaps reportedly were candled prior to our sampling, nonetheless our results indicated that an additional candling screening before packaging would identify an extra third of the infections and larvae. In 19 of the 139 infected samples, all larvae were recovered by the additional candling, thereby removing the infection risk for consumers. In conclusion, this study shows that cod belly flaps infected with zoonotic parasites reach the Belgian consumer. Although a second candling step at retail level could be helpful in reducing the consumer risk, additional measures are needed since 66% of infections would still remain undetected.

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1/5 of the cod belly flaps at the Belgian retail level are infected with Anisakidae.

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Identified larvae were Pseudoterranova spp. (58%) and Anisakis spp. (41%).

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A second candling step recovered 31% of the larvae.

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A second candling step detects all larvae in 14% of the infected samples.

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Consumers' chance of buying an Anisakidae infected cod package in retail is 34%.

Helminth infections in fish in Vietnam: A systematic review

In Vietnam, fisheries play a key role in the national economy. Helminth infections in fish have a major impact on public health and sustainable fish production. A comprehensive summary of the recent knowledge on fish helminths is important to understand the distribution of parasites in the country, and to design effective control measures. Therefore, a systematic review was conducted, collecting available literature published between January 2004 and October 2020. A total of 108 eligible records were retrieved reporting 268 helminth species, among which are digeneans, monogeneans, cestodes, nematodes and acanthocephalans. Some helminths were identified with zoonotic potential, such as, the heterophyids, opisthorchiids, the nematodes Gnathostoma spinigerum, Anisakis sp. and Capillaria spp. and the cestode Hysterothylacium; and with highly pathogenic potential, such as, the monogeneans of Capsalidae, Diplectanidae and Gyrodactylidae, the nematodes Philometra and Camallanidae, the tapeworm Schyzocotyle acheilognathi, the acanthocephalans Neoechinorhynchus and Acanthocephalus. Overall, these studies only covered about nine percent of the more than 2400 fish species occurring in the waters of Vietnam. Considering the expansion of the aquaculture sector as a part of the national economic development strategy, it is important to expand the research to cover the helminth fauna of all fish species, to assess their potential zoonotic and fish health impacts.

World-wide prevalence of Anisakis larvae in fish and its relationship to human allergic anisakiasis: a systematic review

The infective stage of Anisakidae nematodes responsible for allergic reactions in humans is found in a variety of edible fish and cephalopods. The identification of geographical regions that are high risk for infected seafood may help prevent allergic reactions in humans. Despite an abundance of published literature which has identified anisakid larvae in an array of edible seafood as well as scattered reports of human allergic anisakiasis, the relationship between the two has not been fully explored. Therefore, a systematic spatio-temporal study was conducted to determine the prevalence of Anisakis spp. in fish from January 2000 to August 2020 firstly to explore the relationship between fish infection and cases of allergic anisakiasis and secondly to use fish infection data to map potential allergic anisakiasis 'hot spots'. A systematic literature search for original English text articles was conducted through search engines, Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Science Direct and Google Scholar. Out of 3228 articles which describe anisakid infection in fish, 264 were used for data extraction. Of 904 articles describing allergic anisakiasis, 37 were used for data extraction. A qualitative summary of the extracted data was performed using equal interval method (ArcMap software) in order to compare the global distribution of Anisakis-infected fish. Of the 152-identified fish hosts, five families were most commonly infected with Anisakis spp. These included Lophiidae (86.9%), Trichiuridae (77.05%), Zeidae (70.9%), Merlucciidae (67.8%) and Gadidae (56.8%). The hot spot areas for allergic anisakiasis were North and northeast of Atlantic Ocean, southwest of USA, west of Mexico, south of Chile, east of Argentina, Norway, UK and west of Iceland (confidence 99%). The highest rate of allergic anisakiasis was in Portugal and Norway with the prevalence rate of 18.45-22.50%. Allergologists should consider allergic anisakiasis as a public health issue particularly in high-risk countries where high prevalences in fish have been demonstrated.

Anisakis spp. Larvae in Deboned, in-Oil Fillets Made of Anchovies (Engraulis encrasicolus) and Sardines (Sardina pilchardus) Sold in EU Retailers

Simple Summary

Sardina pilchardus and Engraulis encrasicolus are largely consumed in Europe as fresh or ripened dishes. Their consumption may represent a public health risk in regard to Anisakis allergic reactions and anisakiasis. This study aimed to evaluate the presence of Anisakis spp. larvae in deboned, in-oil anchovy and sardine fillets marketed in the EU. Ninety semipreserved anchovy and sardine products were examined to evaluate the presence and viability of larvae and identify them. Only 30 nonviable anisakid larvae were found, indicating that processing technologies can influence their presence in final products. It is, however, important that visual inspection is performed only by trained people and that the sources of raw materials are considered in the production flow chart.

Abstract

Sardina pilchardus and Engraulis encrasicolus are considered the principal target species for commercial fishing in Europe and are widely consumed as semipreserved products. Although they are considered shelf-stable products, if treatment is not correctly applied, their consumption may represent a public health risk in regard to anisakiasis and allergic reactions. Little is known about the prevalence of Anisakis spp. in ripened products. This study aimed to evaluate the presence of Anisakis spp. larvae in deboned, in-oil anchovy and sardine fillets marketed in the EU to assess the influence of processing techniques on the prevalence of larvae. Ninety semipreserved anchovy and sardine products deriving from the Mediterranean Sea or Atlantic Ocean were collected from different EU retailers and examined using chloropeptic digestion to evaluate the presence of larvae and identify them. Thirty nonviable Anisakid larvae—A. pegreffii (30%) and A. simplex (70%)—were found. The frequency of larvae was higher in anchovies (28.8%). The low frequency of parasites found proved that processing technologies can influence the presence of larvae in final products, but it is important that visual inspection is performed only by trained people. The sources of raw materials should be considered in the production flow chart.

Physiological condition of Eastern Baltic cod, Gadus morhua, infected with the parasitic nematode Contracaecum osculatum

Establishing relationships between parasite infection and physiological condition of the host can be difficult and therefore are often neglected when describing factors causing population declines. Using the parasite-host system between the parasitic nematode Contracaecum osculatum and the Eastern Baltic cod Gadus morhua, we here shed new light on how parasite load may relate to the physiological condition of a transport host. The Eastern Baltic cod is in distress, with declining nutritional conditions, disappearance of the larger fish, high natural mortality and no signs of recovery of the population. During the latest decade, high infection levels with C. osculatum have been observed in fish in the central and southern parts of the Baltic Sea. We investigated the aerobic performance, nutritional condition, organ masses, and plasma and proximate body composition of wild naturally infected G. morhua in relation to infection density with C. osculatum. Fish with high infection densities of C. osculatum had (i) decreased nutritional condition, (ii) depressed energy turnover as evidenced by reduced standard metabolic rate, (iii) reduction in the digestive organ masses, and alongside (iv) changes in the plasma, body and liver composition, and fish energy source. The significantly reduced albumin to globulin ratio in highly infected G. morhua suggests that the fish suffer from a chronic liver disease. Furthermore, fish with high infection loads had the lowest Fulton's condition factor. Yet, it remains unknown whether our results steam from a direct effect of C. osculatum, or because G. morhua in an already compromised nutritional state are more susceptible towards the parasite. Nevertheless, impairment of the physiological condition can lead to reduced swimming performance, compromising foraging success while augmenting the risk of predation, potentially leading to an increase in the natural mortality of the host. We hence argue that fish-parasite interactions must not be neglected when implementing and refining strategies to rebuild deteriorating populations.

Parasites in the changing world - Ten timely examples from the Nordic-Baltic region

The world is changing, and parasites adapt. The Nordic-Baltic region in northern Europe - including the Nordic countries Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, and the Baltic States Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania - is facing new parasitological challenges due to changes in populations of parasites and their hosts and the spread of new parasites to the region due to climate change. Some changes can also be ascribed to increased awareness and detection. In this paper, we review and discuss a convenience selection of ten timely examples of recent observations that exemplify trends and challenges from different fields of parasitology, with particular focus on climate change and potential changes in epidemiology of pathogens in northern Europe. The examples illustrate how addressing parasitological challenges often requires both intersectoral and international collaboration, and how using both historical baseline data and modern methodologies are needed.

Anisakid nematode species identification in harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) from the North Sea, Baltic Sea and North Atlantic using RFLP analysis

Harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) are the only native cetacean species in the German North and Baltic Seas and the final host of Anisakis (A.) simplex, which infects their first and second gastric compartments and may cause chronic ulcerative gastritis. Anisakis simplex belongs to the family Anisakidae (Ascaridoidea, Rhabditida) as well as the phocine gastric nematode species Pseudoterranova (P.) decipiens and Contracaecum (C.) osculatum. These nematode species are the main causative agents for the zoonosis anisakidosis. The taxonomy of these genus with life cycles including crustaceans and commercially important fish is complex because of the formation of sibling species. Little is known about anisakid species infecting porpoises in the study area. Mature nematodes and larval stages are often identifiable only by molecular methods due to high morphological and genetic similarity. The restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) method is an alternative to sequencing and was applied to identify anisakid nematodes found in harbour porpoises from the North Sea, Baltic Sea and North Atlantic to species level for the first time. In the study areas, five gastric nematodes from different harbour porpoise hosts were selected to be investigated with restriction enzymes HinfI, RsaI and HaeIII, which were able to differentiate several anisakid nematode species by characteristic banding patterns. Anisakis simplex s. s. was the dominant species found in the North Sea and Baltic porpoises, identified by all three restriction enzymes. Additionally, a hybrid of A. simplex s. s. and A. pegreffii was determined by HinfI in the North Sea samples. Within the North Atlantic specimens, A. simplex s. s., P. decipiens s. s. and Hysterothylacium (H.) aduncum were identified by all enzymes. This demonstrates the value of the RFLP method and the chosen restriction enzymes for the species identification of a broad variety of anisakid nematodes affecting the health of marine mammals.

Parasitism in Gambusia affinis: Fitness Effects in an Incipient Matrotroph

Gambusia affinis (western mosquitofish) serves as a host for a variety of larval and adult parasites. Gambusia affinis is also an incipient matrotroph, exhibiting adjustments in post-fertilization provisioning to some offspring within a brood using recently acquired resources. Nutrient transfer to embryos is expected to limit the loss of embryo mass during development resulting in larger offspring. Since larger offspring are more likely to survive, maternal contributions are expected to increase fitness. The presence of parasites, particularly intestinal helminths, potentially reduces body condition and resources available for developing offspring, thereby reducing host fitness. The effects of parasitism on the fitness of G. affinis were investigated in the present study. Fish were collected from 3 sites monthly from June 2015 through August 2016. All helminth parasites were collected during necropsy and identified. Brood size and embryo developmental stage were recorded for each female fish. Additionally, 10 ova/embryos of each developmental stage from each female fish collected from May through August 2016 were haphazardly selected and individually weighed. From 429 female mosquitofish, 5,072 helminths were collected. Brood size varied among collection sites and was positively influenced by maternal body condition, the number of daylight hours, water temperature, and the intensity of both plerocercoid and adult Schyzocotyle acheilognathi. However, brood size was negatively related to the intensity of Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus cystacanth and an increasing number of days between collection and dissection. Embryo weight increased with the presence of either Camallanidae or Contracaecum multipapulatum, embryo developmental stage, and relative host density. These results indicate that some parasitic helminth species negatively affect the fitness of G. affinis, while some positively affect fitness, and that effect can vary with intensity.