Zein/soluble soybean polysaccharide composite nanoparticles for encapsulation and oral delivery of lutein

Effect of zein nanoparticles addition on anthocyanin and lutein dual-loaded nanocomposite hydrogels: Structure, physico-chemical and delivery properties

In this study, lutein-loaded zein nanoparticles (Lu-NPs) were firstly prepared using the antisolvent precipitation method, and the obtained nanoparticles had a spherical shape with an average hydrodynamic diameter of 78.13 nm, a monodispersed distribution and relatively high encapsulation efficiency of 89.11 %. Then, Lu-NPs were added to anthocyanin-loaded arabinoxylan/casein hydrogel (ACN-gel) to fabricate Lu-NPs incorporated nanocomposite hydrogels (Lu-NPs/ACN-gel), which emphasized on the effect of Lu-NPs addition amount (10 %, 20 % and 40 %) on the structure, physico-chemical and delivery properties of nanocomposite hydrogels. It was found that the 10 % or 20 % Lu-NPs addition could not obviously influence the microstructure and gel strength of Lu-NPs/ACN-gel. Meanwhile, hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding interactions were formed between Lu-NPs and the gel matrix. However, with increasing Lu-NPs addition amount to 40 %, the porosity of Lu-NPs/ACN-gel was significantly increased to 48.48 % and the collapsed appearance was observed, which might be due to the formation of Lu-NPs aggregates in the gel network structure. Moreover, 10 % or 20 %Lu-NPs/ACN-gels were found to greatly improve the light and thermal stability of anthocyanin and lutein, and exhibited colon-specific release behavior. These data suggested a possible utilization of Lu-NPs/ACN-gel in gel-related eye care foods.

Development and functional evaluation of curcumin-loaded zein-gum Arabic-flaxseed gum complex nanoparticles for anti-fatigue applications

In this study, zein-gum Arabic (GA)-flaxseed gum (FG) nanoparticles (ZGF) were prepared using the anti-solvent and electrostatic deposition methods to overcome the hydrophobicity and instability of curcumin (CUR). Additionally, the optimal mass ratio of GA to FG (4:1) and CUR to zein (1:40) was determined. Additionally, the initial concentration of the polysaccharide (0.04 %) was determined and the ZGF nanoparticles encapsulated with CUR (CUR-ZGF) were optimized. The formed CUR-ZGF nanoparticles were spherical, with a particle size of 188 nm and an embedding rate of 96.8 %. Furthermore, the CUR-ZGF nanoparticles showed excellent pH, thermal, storage, and salt stability. The encapsulate CUR exhibited antioxidant capacity and controlled release rate in the gastrointestinal digestive system in vitro. Animal experiments showed CUR-ZGF nanoparticles significantly enhanced exercise capacity and anti-fatigue effects. High-dose CUR-ZGF nanoparticles doubled exhaustion running time versus the model group, improving exercise endurance. Fatigue-related biochemical parameters (serum urea nitrogen, serum lactate, and creatine kinase) were significantly reduced, indicating rapid fatigue elimination. Meanwhile, significantly increased lactate dehydrogenase and fasting glucose levels suggested efficient energy replenishment to mitigate fatigue damage. These results indicate CUR-ZGF nanoparticles may be a promising natural anti-fatigue healthcare product in the future.

El-Feky Y, Mohammed AJ, M. Mohamed N, El-Telbany R, Zuhair Alamri Z, Jameel Melebary S, Alfaifi MY, I. Elbehairi SE, M. Noreddin A, B. Abdel‑Naim A, M. Alolayan E, El-Telbany DF. Terbinafine for prostate cancer: development of coated zein nanospheres for ameliorated pro-apoptosis in PC3 cells

AIM

The purpose of this study was to investigate comparatively the anticancer potential of Terbinafine loaded Dextran Sulphate coated Zein nanospheres against human prostate cancer PC3 cells to enhance the repurposing profile of terbinafine utilizing optimized nano-sized delivery systems.

MATERIALS & METHODS

The formula was fabricated using the thin film hydration technique. Particle size analysis, drug diffusion, and encapsulation efficiency were considered when evaluating the fabricated formula, which were developed using a Box-Behnken statistical design.

RESULTS

Due to the formula optimization, the mean particle size was 273.2 ± 1.98 nm, the zeta potential was -38.4 ± 2.77 mV, and the amount released after 36 h was 97.4 ± 5.7%. The formula exhibited significantly reduced IC50 in PC3 cells by around 14-fold. A higher cellular uptake was observed. The cell cycle assay results obtained suppression of the proliferation, especially in the G0/G1 and S phases. This pro-apoptotic pattern of the optimized formula was confirmed by the increased mRNA expression of CASP3 and P53 and reduced expression of CDK1, CDK7, and CDK9. Furthermore, a higher production of reactive oxygen species was achieved.

CONCLUSION

The optimized formula revealed enhanced pro-apoptosis in PC3 cells which support the repurposing profile of terbinafine toward prostate cancer.

Design and Characterization of Peptide-Based Self-Assembling Microgel for Encapsulation of Sesaminol

Sesaminol is a natural functional compound of sesame with low bioaccessibility due to its high crystallinity. Here, a peptide-based self-assembly microgel was constructed to encapsulate sesaminol, reducing its crystallinity and improving its bioaccessibility. In this contribution, the peptide AcNH-Leu-Tyr-Tyr-CONH2 (LYY) was shown to form a mesoporous three-dimensional (3D) microgel through microstructure characterization. Various characterization methods revealed that the LYY peptide self-assembled through β-folds and random coils, and the primary intermolecular interactions arose from hydrogen bonding and the π-π stacking effect. Subsequently, sesaminol was encapsulated within the microgel through co-assembly. The maximum encapsulation efficiency of sesaminol was 80.8 ± 0.9%, mainly in the form of nanoparticles encapsulated in microgel by morphology characterization. The XRD results indicated that sesaminol primarily existed in an amorphous state following encapsulation. The cumulative release indicated that sesaminol had a sustained release effect in the encapsulation system. Its bioaccessibility and antioxidant levels were increased. Molecular docking indicated that the main interactions between sesaminol and the self-assembled structure were hydrogen bonding and π-π interactions. Establishing sesaminol encapsulation provides valuable data and theoretical support for the research of sesaminol and the sesame processing industry.

Pickering emulsion stabilized by hollow Zein/SSPS nanoparticles loaded with Thymol: Formation, characterization, and application in fruit preservation

Using Pickering emulsion (PE) as the carrier of active compounds in bio-based coatings constitutes a highly promising research domain. This study focused on creating a food-grade, biocompatible, and antibacterial PE to coat fresh fruits and vegetables, extending their shelf life. Hollow zein/soluble soybean polysaccharide nanoparticles loaded with thymol (H-ZSH/T) were produced using NaHCO3 as a sacrificial template to stabilize PE. The results revealed that the prepared hollow zein-based nanoparticles had superior dispersibility and structure compared to solid nanoparticles, with an average particle size of 92.24-95.18 nm and polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.151-0.179. Thymol was successfully encapsulated through hydrogen bonding, electrostatic attraction, and hydrophobic interactions. The zein-based nanoparticles loaded with thymol showed notable antibacterial properties against E. coli and S. aureus, with a more substantial effect on E. coli. H-ZHS/T demonstrated the highest antibacterial efficacy by disrupting bacterial cell membranes. The prepared PE was an oil-in-water type; increasing the oil fraction improved stability and droplet size while reducing the creaming index. Rheological assessments indicated elastic gel-like characteristics, ensuring both stability and uniformity. The PE coating significantly slowed the loss of fruit hardness, inhibited microbial growth, and extended the shelf life of blueberries and fresh-cut cantaloupe. These findings demonstrated that H-ZHS/T-stabilized PE is an effective and eco-friendly food coating.

Ultrasound assisted complexation of soybean peptide aggregates and soluble soybean polysaccharide: pH optimization, structure characterization, and emulsifying behavior

This study aims to enhance the emulsifying properties of soybean peptide aggregates (SPA) by preparing SPA-soluble soybean polysaccharide (SSPS) composite particles at the assistance of ultrasound technique. The optimal pH for SPA and SSPS complexation was determined by measuring the charge and particle size of the composites. The effects of ultrasound power and duration on the physicochemical properties of the composite particles were assessed through measurements of particle size, zeta potential, contact angle, FTIR, and SEM. The influence of ultrasound duration on the emulsifying properties of the composite particles was evaluated by particle size, zeta potential, microstructure, rheology, and in vitro digestibility. The optimal pH for SPA and SSPS complexation was determined to be 4.0. Zeta potential and FTIR analyses indicated that ultrasound enhanced the electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding between SPA and SSPS. Emulsions stabilized with ultrasonicated composite particles exhibited reduced particle sizes, increased viscosity, improved viscoelastic properties, and better in vitro digestibility. The results suggest that moderate ultrasound treatment can strengthen the interactions between SPA and SSPS, thereby enhancing their emulsifying properties. This study offers valuable insights into enhancing the emulsifying performance of highly hydrophobic protein particles.

Fabrication of novel casein/oligochitosan nanocomplexes for lutein delivery: Enhanced stability, bioavailability, and antioxidant properties

This study aimed to prepare novel nanocomplexes for delivery of lutein using transglutaminase (TGase)-type glycation of casein. The effect of glycated casein nanoparticles on the environmental stability, bioavailability, and antioxidant properties of lutein was investigated. Glycated casein nanoparticles with uniform distribution and small particle size were successfully prepared by ultrasound technology. The structure analysis revealed intermolecular interactions between lutein and glycated casein, with the complexes having a spherical and stable structure. The fabricated nanoparticles exhibited a high encapsulation efficiency (91.89%) and loading capacity (3.06%) for lutein. TGase-type glycation of casein nanoparticles contributed to the strong thermal stability, pH stability, storage stability, and salt stability. Moreover, glycated casein/lutein nanoparticles exhibited resistance to gastric digestion, rapid intestinal release rate, increased lutein bioavailability, and antioxidant activity under simulated digestion. This study provides key support for the development of glycated casein-based nanoparticles as delivery systems and reinforcing stability of hydrophilic nutraceuticals.

Prolamin and prolamin-polysaccharide composite nanoparticles for oral drug and nutrient delivery systems: A review

Prolamin-based nanoparticles, particularly those composed of prolamin-polysaccharide composites, have garnered significant interest as oral delivery systems in recent research. This review provides a thorough analysis of the current advancements in these composite nanoparticles with prolamins derived from various cereals, including maize, wheat, sorghum, and millet, with a focus on their applications in oral drug delivery. It discusses the mechanisms by which these composites enhance nanoparticle performance, especially in terms of stability. The review also explores the differences among various prolamins and clarifies the reasons for their performance characteristics as encapsulants for nanoparticles. Additionally, it offers an in-depth examination of various preparation methods for these composite nanoparticles, such as the traditional anti-solvent method, pH-driven method, and several innovative techniques. The study highlights the physicochemical and encapsulation properties of these composite nanoparticles and underscores their novel applications, which hold promise for future use in the food and pharmaceutical sectors. The findings aim to support the integration of prolamin-polysaccharide composites into these industries, ultimately accelerating the development of new applications for these nanoparticles.

Preparation, characterization, stability and application of the H-type aggregates lutein/whey protein/chitosan nanoparticles

Natural lutein is liposoluble and has powerful antioxidant activity, which can be self-aggregated to form H-type aggregates in organic-water systems. However，its application is limited by poor solubility and high instability. Here, whey proteins/chitosan-coated H-type aggregates lutein nanoparticles (NPs) were fabricated via a bottom-up layer-by-layer self-assembly technique. The optimal conditions for the preparation of the NPs (173.3 nm) were determined by the Dynamic Light Scattering and UV-vis spectroscopy. Briefly, three proteins (WPI and WPC and BSA) were used to fabricate polysaccharide-protein nanocarriers to encapsulate the lutein. These spectroscopy studies indicated that chitosan and BSA formed hydrophobic microdomain by the intermolecular electrostatic attraction force with remarkable changes of secondary structure in protein. The morphology revealed that the NPs were nearly spherical. The EE of the NPs was ≥90.4 %, with a LC of up to 28.3 %. Lutein in NPs can be stabilized as H-type aggregates at different temperatures and pH-values. Additionally, the cytotoxicity test of the NPs on L929 and Caco-2 cells showed that NPs had low cytotoxicity in a limited concentration range. Results indicated that whey protein/chitosan-coated lutein nanoparticles significantly improved water dispersion and stability of lutein and its aggregates, thus broadening their application in nutrient delivery system.

Fabrication and characterization of curcumin-encapsulated composite nanoparticles based on soybean protein isolate hydrolysate/soybean polysaccharides: Interaction mechanism, stability and controlled release properties

This study developed a stable nanoparticle (CUR-SPIH/SSPS) using soybean protein isolate hydrolysate (SPIH) and soybean polysaccharides (SPSS) to protect curcumin (CUR) from degradation during storage and exposure to light and heat conditions, achieving controlled release. The SPIH to SPSS mass ratio of 5:1 gave the CUR-SPIH/SPSS nanoparticles with the highest CUR encapsulation efficiency (95.60 ± 3.00 %) and the strongest antioxidant capacity (90.26 ± 2.42 % and 66.78 ± 1.89 % for ABTS•+ and DPPH radical scavenging ability, respectively), and CUR was successfully encapsulated within the CUR-SPIH/SPSS as evidenced by X-ray diffraction. FTIR and fluorescence spectroscopy analysis confirmed that the interactions in CUR-SPIH/SPSS are primarily driven by electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions. Moreover, the CUR-SPIH/SPSS nanoparticles significantly enhanced CUR's thermal and UV light stability. The UV degradation kinetics showed that the half-life of CUR-SPIH/SPSS (247.55 min) was 1.61 times longer than that of free CUR (154.03 min). The release rate of CUR incorporated into CUR-SPIH/SPSS was significantly delayed during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. This study introduces an innovative nanoparticle strategy for the stable delivery of lipophilic compounds.

pH-driven fabrication of a caseinate-pectin polyelectrolyte complex as a promising carrier for lutein and zeaxanthin delivery: Microencapsulation, stability, and sustained release properties

In this study, caseinate-pectin polyelectrolyte complexes and co-solutions were successfully fabricated at pH 3.0 and 7.0, respectively, to encapsulate bioactive molecules. During the fabrication process, the effect of the sequence in which each component was added on lutein/zeaxanthin (Lut/Zx) complexation with sodium caseinate (NaCas) was investigated. The protective effect of the polyelectrolyte complex and co-solution for Lut/Zx in liquid formulations was compared with that of a binary system containing only caseinate and Lut/Zx. Compared with the binary system, the polyelectrolyte complex at pH 3.0 further enhanced the chemical stability of Lut/Zx during storage, whereas the co-solution at pH 7.0 did not exhibit this ability. Unexpectedly, NaCas-Lut/Zx - pectin (NC-L/Z-P) with a theoretically sandwich structure did not exhibit better protection than NaCas-pectin-Lut/Zx (NC-P-L/Z). Fluorescence quenching spectra revealed that the addition of NaCas to Lut/Zx and ultimately to pectin resulted in the formation of a sandwich structure, which was soon followed by structural rebalancing. Finally, freshly prepared NC-L/Z-P complexes were lyophilized to stabilize their sandwich structure, resulting in improved encapsulation and sustained-release properties compared with those of the dried NC-P-L/Z. These results suggest that protein-polysaccharide complexes, combined with timely dehydration, enhance the combination of Lut/Zx with caseinate, leading to heightened protective effects.

Curcumin-loaded zein nanoparticles: A quality by design approach for enhanced drug delivery and cytotoxicity against cancer cells

Zein, a maize protein, has been explored for constructing potential biomaterial due to its hydrophobic nature, self-assembly capability, and biocompatibility. In its nanoparticulate form, zein is a promising material for drug delivery applications, particularly in cancer treatment. Despite the importance of colloidal stability for effective drug delivery, systematic studies investigating the effect of various surface modifying agents (MAs) on the zein nanoparticles (ZNPs)-based formulations are limited. This study employs quality-by-design (QbD) approach to optimize curcumin-loaded ZNPs, enhancing colloidal stability, size, and drug-encapsulation efficiency using different MAs for potential cancer therapy. Gum arabic (GA) emerged as the optimal stabilizer, with GA-stabilized curcumin-loaded ZNPs (GA-Cur-ZNPs) achieving a particle size of 184.8 ± 2.85 nm, zeta potential of -23.4 ± 0.56 mV and 87.1 ±1.55 % drug encapsulation efficiency, along with excellent colloidal stability over two months. The optimal formulation also demonstrated sustained release of Cur over 72 h. GA-Cur-ZNPs demonstrated lower IC50 values and higher anti-proliferative effects on three different cancer cell lines compared to the free drug, while also exhibiting superior intracellular uptake. With negligible toxicity to human dermal fibroblast cells, the optimized Cur-GA-ZNPs show promise for safe and effective killing of cancer cells.

Preparation and Characterization Study of Zein-Sodium Caseinate Nanoparticle Delivery Systems Loaded with Allicin

Allicin, as a natural antibacterial active substance from plants, has great medical and health care value. However, due to its poor stability, its application in the field of food and medicine is limited. So, in this paper, allicin-zein-sodium caseinate composite nanoparticles (zein-Ali-SC) were prepared by antisolvent precipitation and electrostatic deposition. Through the analysis of the particle size, ζ-potential, encapsulation efficiency (EE), loading rate (LC) and microstructure, the optimum preparation conditions for composite nanoparticles were obtained. The mechanism of its formation was studied by fluorescence spectrum, Fourier infrared spectrum (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The stability study results showed that the particle size of composite nanoparticles was less than 200 nm and its PDI was less than 0.3 under different NaCl concentrations and heating conditions, showing good stability. When stored at 4 °C for 21 days, the retention rate of allicin reached 61.67%, which was 52.9% higher than that of free allicin. After freeze-drying and reheating, the nanoparticles showed good redispersibility; meanwhile, antioxidant experiments showed that, compared with free allicin, the nanoparticles had stronger scavenging ability of free radicals, which provided a new idea for improving the stability technology and bioavailability of bioactive compounds.

Zein/fucoidan-coated phytol nanoliposome: preparation, characterization, physicochemical stability, in vitro release, and antioxidant activity

BACKGROUND

To improve phytol bioavailability, a novel method of magnetic stirring and high-pressure homogenization (HPH) combination was used to prepare zein/fucoidan-coated phytol nanoliposomes (P-NL-ZF). The characterization, the simulated in vitro digestion, and the antioxidant activity of these phytol nanoliposomes from the different processes have been studied.

RESULTS

Based on the results of dynamic light scattering (DLS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) analysis, P-NL-ZF prepared through the combination of magnetic stirring and HPH exhibited superior encapsulation efficiency at 76.19% and demonstrated exceptional physicochemical stability under a series of conditions, including storage, pH, and ionic in comparison to single method. It was further confirmed that P-NL-ZF by magnetic stirring and HPH displayed a uniform distribution and regular shape through transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis showed that electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding were the primary driving forces for the formation of composite nanoliposomes. Additionally, an in vitro digestion study revealed that multilayer composite nanoliposomes displayed significant and favorable slow-release properties (58.21%) under gastrointestinal conditions compared with traditional nanoliposomes (82.36%) and free phytol (89.73%). The assessments of chemical and cell-based antioxidant activities demonstrated that the coating of zein/fucoidan on phytol nanoliposomes resulted in enhanced effectiveness in scavenging activity of ABTS free radical and hydroxyl radical and mitigating oxidative damage to HepG2 cells.

CONCLUSION

Based on our studies, the promising delivery carrier of zein/fucoidan-coated nanoliposomes is contributed to the encapsulation of hydrophobic natural products and enhancement of their biological activity. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Recent Advances in Efficient Lutein-Loaded Zein-Based Solid Nano-Delivery Systems: Establishment, Structural Characterization, and Functional Properties

Plant proteins have gained significant attention over animal proteins due to their low carbon footprint, balanced nutrition, and high sustainability. These attributes make plant protein nanocarriers promising for applications in drug delivery, nutraceuticals, functional foods, and other areas. Zein, a major by-product of corn starch processing, is inexpensive and widely available. Its unique self-assembly characteristics have led to its extensive use in various food and drug systems. Zein's functional tunability allows for excellent performance in loading and transporting bioactive substances. Lutein offers numerous bioactive functions, such as antioxidant and vision protection, but suffers from poor chemical stability and low bioavailability. Nano-embedding technology can construct various zein-loaded lutein nanodelivery systems to address these issues. This review provides an overview of recent advances in the construction of zein-loaded lutein nanosystems. It discusses the fundamental properties of these systems; systematically introduces preparation techniques, structural characterization, and functional properties; and analyzes and predicts the target-controlled release and bioaccessibility of zein-loaded lutein nanosystems. The interactions and synergistic effects between Zein and lutein in the nanocomplexes are examined to elucidate the formation mechanism and conformational relationship of zein-lutein nanoparticles. The physical and chemical properties of Zein are closely related to the molecular structure. Zein and its modified products can encapsulate and protect lutein through various methods, creating more stable and efficient zein-loaded lutein nanosystems. Additionally, embedding lutein in Zein and its derivatives enhances lutein's digestive stability, solubility, antioxidant properties, and overall bioavailability.

Delivery of Lutein by Using Modified Burdock Polysaccharide Aggregates: Preparation, Characterization, and In Vitro Release Properties

Novel self-assembled aggregates of stearic acid (SA)-modified burdock polysaccharide (BP) for loading lutein were constructed, and the release and absorption properties of lutein in the aggregates in simulated gastrointestinal fluid were investigated. Three different degrees of substitution (DS) of SA-BPs were used to embed lutein, resulting in the encapsulation efficiency exceeding 90%. The aggregates were uniformly spherical, with a particle size range of 227-341 nm. XRD analysis revealed that lutein was present in a non-crystalline state within the aggregates. FT-IR and FS analysis demonstrated that lutein was located in the hydrophobic domains of SA-BP. The highest bioavailability of lutein in these aggregates reached 4.36 times that in the unmodified samples. These aggregates were able to remain stable in gastric juice and enhance the release rate of lutein in intestinal fluid. The transport of lutein-loaded SA-BP aggregates in Caco-2 cells competed with P-glycoprotein inhibitors, mainly promoting the transmembrane absorption of lutein through caveolae (or lipid raft)-related and clathrin-dependent endocytosis pathways. The above results suggest that SA-BP aggregates have the potential to be promising carriers for the efficient delivery of hydrophobic lutein.

Design and Characterization of a Novel Core-Shell Nano Delivery System Based on Zein and Carboxymethylated Short-Chain Amylose for Encapsulation of Curcumin

Curcumin is a naturally occurring hydrophobic polyphenolic compound with a rapid metabolism, poor absorption, and low stability, which severely limits its bioavailability. Here, we employed a starch-protein-based nanoparticle approach to improve the curcumin bioavailability. This study focused on synthesizing nanoparticles with a zein "core" and a carboxymethylated short-chain amylose (CSA) "shell" through anti-solvent precipitation for delivering curcumin. The zein@CSA core-shell nanoparticles were extensively characterized for physicochemical properties, structural integrity, ionic stability, in vitro digestibility, and antioxidant activity. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy indicates nanoparticle formation through hydrogen-bonding, hydrophobic, and electrostatic interactions between zein and CSA. Zein@CSA core-shell nanoparticles exhibited enhanced stability in NaCl solution. At a zein-to-CSA ratio of 1:1.25, only 15.7% curcumin was released after 90 min of gastric digestion, and 66% was released in the intestine after 240 min, demonstrating a notable sustained release effect. Furthermore, these nanoparticles increased the scavenging capacity of the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH•) free radical compared to those composed solely of zein and were essentially nontoxic to Caco-2 cells. This research offers valuable insights into curcumin encapsulation and delivery using zein@CSA core-shell nanoparticles.

Exploring pectin-casein micelles as novel carriers for oral drug delivery of artesunate in the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus

The oral route of administration is considered the optimal choice for treating chronic diseases due to its convenience and non-invasiveness, which can help prevent physical and mental harm to patients undergoing long-term treatment. However, challenges such as safety, gastrointestinal stability, and bioavailability of oral drugs often limit their effectiveness. Natural biomacromolecule micelles, known for their safety, stability, biocompatibility, and diverse functions, have emerged as promising carriers for oral treatment of chronic diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) with fat-soluble drugs. This study introduces an innovative approach by developing an oral delivery system using chemically synthesized natural biomacromolecules to load artesunate for treating SLE. By synthesizing amphiphilic polymer micelles from pectin and casein through a carbodiimide reaction, a more stable structure is achieved. The hydrophobic core of these micelles encapsulates artesunate, resulting in the formation of an oral delivery system (PC-AS) with several advantages, including high drug loading and encapsulation efficiency, small particle size, negative potential, strong stability in the gastrointestinal tract, low toxicity and side effects, strong adhesion in the small intestine, and high bioavailability. These advantages facilitate efficient absorption of artesunate in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to improved bioavailability and effective alleviation of SLE-like symptoms in MRL/lpr mice. By utilizing chemically synthesized natural macromolecular micelles for delivering artesunate in the treatment of SLE, this study overcomes the oral barriers associated with the original drug and presents a novel solution for the long-term oral treatment of chronic diseases.

Lutein encapsulation into dual-layered starch/zein gels using 3D food printing: Improved storage stability and in vitro bioaccessibility

The ability of 3D printing to encapsulate, protect, and enhance lutein bioaccessibility was investigated under various printing conditions. A spiral-cube-shaped geometry was used to investigate the effects of printing parameters, namely zein concentration (Z; 20, 40, and 60 %) and printing speed (PS; 4, 8, 14, and 20 mm/s). Coaxial extrusion 3D printing was used with lutein-loaded zein as the internal flow material, and corn starch paste as the external flow material. The viscosities of the inks, microstructural properties, storage stability, and bioaccessibility of encapsulated lutein were determined. The sample printed with a zein concentration of 40 % at a printing speed of 14 mm/s (Z-40/PS-14) exhibited the best shape integrity. When lutein was entrapped in starch/zein gels (Z-40/PS-14), only 39 % of lutein degraded after 21 days at 25 °C, whereas 78 % degraded at the same time when crude lutein was studied. Similar improvements were also observed after storing at 50 °C for 21 days. Furthermore, after simulated digestion, the bioaccessibility of encapsulated lutein (9.8 %) was substantially higher than that of crude lutein (1.5 %). As a result, the developed delivery system using 3D printing could be an effective strategy for enhancing the chemical stability and bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds (BCs).

Preparation and characterization of vitamin E microcapsules stabilized by Zein with different polysaccharides

Vitamin E (VE) microencapsulation using a green surfactant emulsifier not only protects the active substance and is also environmentally friendly. In this study, we used alcohol ether glycoside as an emulsifier to prepare VE microcapsules using the biological macromolecule Zein and various polysaccharides. The resulting nano microcapsules exhibited a spherical structure, stable morphology, uniform size, and a >90% encapsulation efficiency. They also had good thermal stability and slow-release properties. Of these, xanthan gum/Zein-VE microcapsules were superior, with antioxidant properties up to 3.05-fold higher than untreated VE. We successfully developed VE nano microcapsules that meet eco-friendly and sustainable requirements, which may have applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Natural Biomolecule Ovomucin-Chitosan Oligosaccharide Self-Assembly Nanogel for Lutein Application Enhancement: Characterization, Environmental Stability and Bioavailability

As an essential nutrient, lutein (LUT) has the ability to aid in the prevention of eye diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. However, the application of LUT is largely restricted by its poor solubility and susceptibility to oxidative degradation. Thus, in this study, LUT-loaded nanogel (OVM-COS-LUT) was prepared by a self-assembly of ovomucin (OVM) and chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) to enhance the effective protection and bioavailability of LUT. The nanogel had excellent dispersion (PDI = 0.25) and an 89.96% LUT encapsulation rate. XRD crystal structure analysis confirmed that the encapsulated LUT maintained an amorphous morphology. In addition, the nanogel showed satisfactory stability with pH levels ranging from 2 to 9 and high ionic strengths (>100 mM). Even under long-term storage, the nanogel maintained an optimistic stabilization and protection capacity; its effective retention rates could reach 96.54%. In vitro, digestion simulation showed that the bioaccessibility and sustained release of OVM-COS-LUT nanogel was superior to that of free LUT. The nanogel provided significant antioxidant activity, and no significant harmful effects were detected in cytotoxicity analyses at higher concentrations. In summary, OVM-COS-LUT can be utilized as a potential safe oral and functional carrier for encapsulating LUT.

Nanoencapsulation and delivery of bioactive ingredients using zein nanocarriers: approaches, characterization, applications, and perspectives

Zein has garnered widespread attention as a versatile material for nanosized delivery systems due to its unique self-assembly properties, amphiphilicity, and biocompatibility characteristics. This review provides an overview of current approaches, characterizations, applications, and perspectives of nanoencapsulation and delivery of bioactive ingredients within zein-based nanocarriers. Various nanoencapsulation strategies for bioactive ingredients using various types of zein-based nanocarrier structures, including nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanoemulsions, and nanogels, are discussed in detail. Factors affecting the stability of zein nanocarriers and characterization methods of bioactive-loaded zein nanocarrier structures are highlighted. Additionally, current applications of zein nanocarriers loaded with bioactive ingredients are summarized. This review will serve as a guide for the selection of appropriate nanoencapsulation techniques within zein nanocarriers and a comprehensive understanding of zein-based nanocarriers for specific applications in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and agricultural industries.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-023-01489-6.

Multi-spectroscopies and molecular docking insights into the interaction mechanism and antioxidant activity of isoquercetin and zein nanoparticles

The purpose of this study was to compare and characterize the theoretical properties and interaction mechanisms of zein and isoquercetin (ISO) from experimental and theoretical perspectives. Zein nanoparticles with different ISO concentrations (ZINPs) were prepared by the antisolvent precipitation method. The experimental results indicated all particles appeared spherical. When the mass ratio of zein to ISO was 10:1, the encapsulation efficiency of ZINPs reached 88.19 % with an average diameter of 126.67 nm. The multispectral method and molecular docking results confirmed that hydrogen bonding and van der Waals force played a dominant role for the binding of ISO to zein, and the primary fluorescence quenching mechanism for zein by ISO was static quenching. Furthermore, ZINPs had greater solubility and antioxidant activity, as well as inhibited the release of ISO during simulated gastrointestinal digestion processes. This research contributes to the understanding of the non-covalent binding mechanism between zein and ISO, providing a theoretical basis for the construction of ISO active carriers.

Preparation of Lutein Nanoparticles by Glycosylation of Saccharides and Casein for Protecting Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a leading cause of visual impairment in the aging population, lacks effective treatment options due to a limited understanding of its pathogenesis. Lutein, with its strong antioxidant properties and ability to mitigate AMD by absorbing ultraviolet (UV) rays, faces challenges related to its stability and bioavailability in functional foods. In this study, we aimed to develop delivery systems using protein-saccharide conjugates to enhance lutein delivery and protect adult retinal pigment epithelial (ARPE-19) cells against sodium iodate (NaIO3)-induced damage. Various saccharides, including mannose, galactose, lactose, maltose, dextran, and maltodextrin, were conjugated to casein via the Maillard reaction for lutein delivery. The resulting lutein-loaded nanoparticles exhibited small size and spherical characteristics and demonstrated improved thermal stability and antioxidant capacity compared to free lutein. Notably, these nanoparticles were found to be nontoxic, as evidenced by reduced levels of cellular reactive oxygen species production (167.50 ± 3.81, 119.57 ± 3.45, 195.15 ± 1.41, 183.96 ± 3.11, 254.21 ± 3.97, 283.56 ± 7.27%) and inhibition of the mitochondrial membrane potential decrease (58.60 ± 0.29, 65.05 ± 2.91, 38.88 ± 1.81, 42.95 ± 1.39, 23.52 ± 1.04, 25.24 ± 0.08%) caused by NaIO3, providing protection against cellular damage and death. Collectively, our findings suggest that lutein-loaded nanoparticles synthesized via the Maillard reaction hold promise for enhanced solubility, oral bioavailability, and biological efficacy in the treatment of AMD.

Zein nanoparticles containing ceftazidime and tobramycin: antibacterial activity against Gram-negative bacteria

Aims: This work describes the encapsulation of ceftazidime and tobramycin in zein nanoparticles (ZNPs) and the characterization of their antibacterial and antibiofilm activities against Gram-negative bacteria. Materials & methods: ZNPs were synthesized by nanoprecipitation. Cytotoxicity was assessed by MTT assay and antibacterial and antibiofilm assays were performed by broth microdilution and violet crystal techniques. Results: ZNPs containing ceftazidime (CAZ-ZNPs) and tobramycin (TOB-ZNPs) showed drug encapsulation and thermal stability. Encapsulation of the drugs reduced their cytotoxicity 9-25-fold. Antibacterial activity, inhibition and eradication of biofilm by CAZ-ZNPs and TOB-ZNPs were observed. There was potentiation when CAZ-ZNPs and TOB-ZNPs were combined. Conclusion: CAZ-ZNPs and TOB-ZNPs present ideal physical characteristics for in vivo studies of antibacterial and antibiofilm activities.

Emerging Co-Assembled and Sustained Released Natural Medicinal Nanoparticles for Multitarget Therapy of Choroidal Neovascularization

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) disease has become a worldwide senile disease, and frequent intravitreal injection of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) is the mainstream treatment in the clinic, which is associated with sight-threatening complications. Herein, nintedanib, an inhibitor of angiogenesis, and lutein, a potent antioxidant, can co-assemble into nanoparticles through multiple noncovalent interactions. Interestingly, the co-assembled lutein/nintedanib nanoparticles (L/N NPs) exhibit significantly improved stability and achieve long-term sustained release of two drugs for at least two months in mice. Interestingly, in rabbit eyeball with a more complete barrier system, the L/N NPs still successfully distribute in the retina and choroid for a month. In the laser-induced mouse choroidal neovascularization model, the L/N NPs after a minimally invasive subconjunctival administration can successfully inhibit angiogenesis and achieve comparable and even better therapeutic results to that of standard intravitreal injection of anti-VEGF. Therefore, the subconjunctival injection of L/N NPs with long-term sustained drug release behavior represents a promising and innovative strategy for AMD treatment. Such minimally invasive administration together with the ability to effectively inhibit angiogenesis reduce inflammation and counteract oxidative stress and holds great potential for improving patient outcomes and quality of life in those suffering from this debilitating eye condition.

Zein-yeast carboxymethyl glucan particles formed by anti-solvent precipitation for encapsulating resveratrol

In the work, zein-yeast carboxymethyl glucan (ZY) particles were fabricated by a novel ultrasonic assisted anti-solvent precipitation (ASP) method, which was a good delivery system for resveratrol. The particle size and zeta-potential of ZY samples were detected by Zetasizer Pro analyzer, they gradually increased as the mass ratio of zein and yeast carboxymethyl glucan (YCG) changed from 10:1 to 10:5. The intermolecular interactions were investigated by zeta-potentiometric analyzer, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy. Electrostatic interaction, hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic effects between zein and YCG molecules were identified as the main driving forces in the formation of ZY particles. The optimized ZY (10:3) binary particles were used as delivery system for encapsulating and protecting resveratrol. They had high encapsulation efficiency (85.4 %) and loading capacity (6.1 %), and increased the retention rate of resveratrol by 2.10 and 1.21 folds after exposure to light and heat conditions, effectively protect resveratrol against light and thermal degradation. These particles also delayed the release of resveratrol in simulated gastrointestinal digestion, which might improve its oral bioavailability. In conclusion, ZY binary particles could be regarded as a useful and promising delivery vehicle, which might contribute to the application of hydrophobic bioactive ingredients in functional foods.

A curcumin oral delivery system based on sodium caseinate and carboxymethylpachymaran nanocomposites

The food industry has paid lots of attentions to curcumin because of its potential bioactive qualities. However, its use is severely constrained by its low bioavailability, stability and water solubility. Herein, we created sodium caseinate and carboxymethylpachymaran (CMP) nanoparticles (SMCNPs) that were loaded with curcumin. The composite nanoparticles were spherical, as characterized by SEM and TEM, the fluorescence spectroscopy, FTIR and XRD research revealed that hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interaction and electrostatic interaction were the main drivers behind the creation of the nanoparticles. The SMCNPs exhibited lower particle size, greater dispersion and higher encapsulation rate when the mass ratio of sodium caseinate to CMP was 3:5 (particle size of 166.8 nm, PDI of 0.15, and encapsulation efficiency of 88.07 %). The composite nanoparticles had good antioxidant activity, physical stability and sustained release effect on intestinal tract during the in vitro simulation experiments, successfully preventing the early release of curcumin into gastric fluid. Finally, cytotoxicity studies told that the prepared composite nanoparticles have good biocompatibility and can inhibit the growth of tumor cells (HT-29). In conclusion, using CMP and sodium caseinate as carriers in this study may open up a fresh, environmentally friendly, and long-lasting way to construct a bioactive material delivery system.

Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by Conjugated Zein-Soybean Polysaccharides Nanoparticles: Fabrication, Characterization and Functional Performance

This study aims to fabricate zein-based colloidal nanoparticles, which were used to stabilize Pickering emulsions, by conjugation with soybean polysaccharide (SSPS) through the Maillard reaction. The physicochemical properties of the conjugated particles as well as the physical and oxidative stability of the fabricated Pickering emulsion that utilized conjugated colloidal particles with the volumetric ratio of water and oil at 50:50 were investigated. The grafting degree of zein and SSPS was verified through examination of FT-IR and fluorescence. Moreover, the conjugated Zein/SSPS nanoparticles (ZSP) that were prepared after dry heating for 48-72 h exhibit excellent colloidal stability across a range of pH values (4.0-10.0). Further, the wettability of ZSP decreased based on a contact angle analysis of θ~87°. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) images indicated that ZSP particles were located around the oil droplets. Additionally, the ZSP effectively improved the oxidative stability of the Pickering emulsions, as demonstrated by a significant decrease in both peroxide value (PV) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). The results of this study demonstrate that ZSP represents a promising food-grade Pickering emulsifier, capable of not only stabilizing emulsions but also inhibiting their oil oxidation.

Amelioration of Acute Alcoholic Liver Injury via Attenuating Oxidative Damage and Modulating Inflammation by Means of Ursodeoxycholic Acid-Zein Nanoparticles

Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) has been broadly adopted for the clinical treatment of hepatic and biliary diseases; however, its poor water-solubility becomes an obstacle in wide applications. To overcome these challenges, herein, a two-tier UDCA-embedded system of zein nanoparticles (NPs) along with a polyelectrolyte complex was designed under facile conditions. Both the UDCA-zein NPs and their inclusion microcapsules showed a spherical shape with a uniform size. A typical wall plus capsule/core structure was formed in which UDCA-zein NPs distributed evenly in the interior. The UDCA inclusion microcapsules had an encapsulation rate of 67% and were released in a non-Fickian or anomalous transport manner. The bioavailability and efficacy of UDCA-zein NPs were assessed in vivo through the alcoholic liver disease (ALD) mouse model via intragastric administration. UDCA-zein NPs ameliorated the symptoms of ALD mice remarkably, which were mainly exerted through attenuation of antioxidant stress levels. Meanwhile, it notably upregulated the intestinal tight junction protein expression and improved and maintained the integrity of the mucosal barrier effectively. Collectively, with the improvement of bioavailability, the UDCA-zein NPs prominently alleviated the oxidative damage induced by alcohol, modulating the inflammation so as to restore ALD. It is anticipated that UDCA-zein NPs have great therapeutic potential as sustained-nanovesicles in ALD treatment.

Astaxanthin nanoparticles ameliorate dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis by alleviating oxidative stress, regulating intestinal flora, and protecting the intestinal barrier

This study aimed to develop a novel astaxanthin nanoparticle using gum arabic (GA) and whey protein powder enriched with milk fat globule membranes (MFGM-WPI) as carriers and to investigate its effect and alleviation mechanism on colitis in mice. We demonstrated that MFGM-GA-astaxanthin could improve the bioaccessibility of astaxanthin and cope with oxidative stress more effectively in a Caco-2 cell model. In vivo studies demonstrated that MFGM-GA-astaxanthin alleviated colitis symptoms and repaired intestinal barrier function by increasing the expression of mucin 2, occludin, and zonula occludens-1. This was attributed to the alleviating effect of MFGM-GA-astaxanthin on oxidative stress. Moreover, MFGM-GA-astaxanthin restored the abnormalities of flora caused by dextran sulfate sodium, including Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, Ruminococcus, and Shigella. This study provides a basis for the therapeutic effect of astaxanthin nanoparticles on colon diseases.

Soy Protein Isolate-Chitosan Nanoparticle-Stabilized Pickering Emulsions: Stability and In Vitro Digestion for DHA

The purpose of the study was to investigate the stability and oral delivery of DHA-encapsulated Pickering emulsions stabilized by soy protein isolate-chitosan (SPI-CS) nanoparticles (SPI-CS Pickering emulsions) under various conditions and in the simulated gastrointestinal (GIT) model. The stability of DHA was characterized by the retention rate under storage, ionic strength, and thermal conditions. The oral delivery efficiency was characterized by the retention and release rate of DHA in the GIT model and cell viability and uptake in the Caco-2 model. The results showed that the content of DHA was above 90% in various conditions. The retention rate of DHA in Pickering emulsions containing various nanoparticle concentrations (1.5 and 3.5%) decreased to 80%, while passing through the mouth to the stomach, and DHA was released 26% in 1.5% Pickering emulsions, which was faster than that of 3.5% in the small intestine. After digestion, DHA Pickering emulsions proved to be nontoxic and effectively absorbed by cells. These findings helped to develop a novel delivery system for DHA.

Synergetic-effect-enhanced electrochemiluminescence of zein-protected Au-Ag bimetallic nanoclusters for CA15-3 detection

In this work, a sandwich-type electrochemiluminescence (ECL) system was constructed for the detection of CA15-3. Gold-silver bimetallic nanoclusters (Au-Ag BNCs) with zein as a protective ligand were synthesized, and the excellent ECL performance of this material was demonstrated for the first time. Zein carrying a variety of groups that ligated with Au-Ag BNCs, forming a protective shell of zein, effectively prevented clusters from aggregating or growing into larger nanoparticles. The synergistic effect of the bimetal promotes the ECL emission, making this nanoscale material an ideal ECL probe. GO-PANI, which effectively promoting the production of sulfate radicals of the co-reactant and significantly increasing the ECL strength, was a good sensing platform for antibody immobilization. Consequently, we constructed an ECL sensor with GO-PANI as the sensing platform and Au-Ag BNCs@zein as the ECL probe, with a detection range of 0.001-100 U mL-1 and a detection limit of 0.0003 U mL-1, provided a strong support for the sensor for future CA15-3 detection applications.

Lutein–stachyose (LS) amphiphilic oligosaccharide derivatives improve the oral bioavailability of lutein

A new amphiphilic oligosaccharide derivative, based on lutein modification onto the OH position of stachyose with facile and mild esterification, was prepared and used to improve the oral bioavailability of lutein. The structures of lutein-stachyose derivative (LS) were confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and hydrogen-1 nuclear magnetic resonance, indicating that one stachyose is connected to one lutein through succinic acid. The critical micelle concentration of LS was approximately 6.86 ± 0.24 mg/mL, corresponding to the free lutein concentration of approximately 2.96 mg/mL. LS has better digestive stability and free radical scavenging ability, and it could inhibit the degradation of lutein in the gastrointestinal tract. Importantly, LS is nontoxic to cells and zebrafish embryos. In terms of oral bioavailability in rats, the AUC_0-12h values of LS were 2.26 times higher than those of free lutein. Therefore, stachyose modification is a promising strategy for improving the oral bioavailability of fat-soluble lutein.

Laccase-Induced Gelation of Sugar Beet Pectin-Curcumin Nanocomplexes Enhanced by Genipin Crosslinking

Research on the use of polysaccharides as hydrophobic bioactive carriers instead of proteins is still scarce. Sugar beet pectin (SBP) contains a small amount of protein and is a potential carrier for loading curcumin. In this work, SBP encapsulation, genipin crosslinking, and laccase-induced gelation were used to develop novel jelly food and improve the stability of curcumin without the incorporation of oil. By mixing the SBP solution (40 mg/mL) with curcumin powder (25 mg/mL SBP solution), an SBP-curcumin complex (SBP-Cur) was fabricated with a loading amount of 32 mg/g SBP, and the solubility of curcumin improved 116,000-fold. Fluorescence spectroscopy revealed that hydrophobic interactions drove the complexation of curcumin and SBP. Crosslinked by genipin (10 mM), SBP-Cur showed a dark blue color, and the gel strength of laccase-catalyzed gels was enhanced. Heating and UV radiation tests suggested that the genipin crosslinking and gelation strategies substantially improved the stability of curcumin. Because of the unique UV-blocking capacity of blue pigment, crosslinked samples retained 20% more curcumin than control samples. With the enhanced stability of curcumin, the crosslinked SBP-curcumin complexes could be a functional food ingredient used in functional drinks, baked food, and jelly food.

Purification and characterization of a chicory polysaccharide and its application in stabilizing genistein for cancer therapy

Genistein is an isoflavone with chemopreventive and therapeutic effects on various types of cancers. Apparently, in contrast to the advantages of multi-target therapy, the poor water solubility of this molecule is a major obstacle to its clinical application. In this work, zein/chicory polysaccharide nanoparticles (G-zein-P NPs) were prepared by pH-induced antisolvent precipitation method for the encapsulation of genistein. Firstly, an acidic polysaccharide (CIP70-2) with a molecular weight of 66.7 kDa was identified from the roots of chicory (Cichorium intybus). This natural macromolecule was identified as a plant pectin, for which the structure included RG-I (rhamnogalacturonan I) and HG (homogalacturonan) regions. Using this polysaccharide, G-zein-P NPs were prepared, in which the water solubility of genistein was improved by encapsulation. The encapsulation efficiency and loading efficiency of genistein by composite nanoparticles reached 99.0 % and 6.96 %, respectively. In vitro tumor inhibition experiments showed that the inhibitory effect of G-zein-P NPs on HepG2 cells was twice that of unencapsulated genistein. Moreover, the significant inhibition of tumor development and metastasis by G-zein-P NPs was observed in zebrafish xenograft models. The results suggested that zein/chicory polysaccharide nanoparticles may be a promising delivery carrier for genistein application in cancer prevention and therapy.

Protein-polysaccharide nanoconjugates: Potential tools for delivery of plant-derived nutraceuticals

Protein-polysaccharide nanoconjugates are covalently interactive networks that are currently the subject of intense research owing to their emerging applications in the food nanotechnology field. Due to their biocompatibility and biodegradability properties, they have played a significant role as wall materials for the formation of various nanostructures to encapsulate nutraceuticals. The food-grade protein-polysaccharide nanoconjugates would be employed to enhance the delivery and stability of nutraceuticals for their real use in the food industry. The most common edible polysaccharides (cellulose, chitosan, pectin, starch, carrageenan, fucoidan, mannan, glucomannan, and arabic gum) and proteins (silk fibroin, collagen, gelatin, soy protein, corn zein, and wheat gluten) have been used as potential building blocks in nano-encapsulation systems because of their excellent physicochemical properties. This article broadens the discussion of food-grade proteins and polysaccharides as nano-encapsulation biomaterials and their fabrication methods, along with a review of the applications of protein-polysaccharide nanoconjugates in the delivery of plant-derived nutraceuticals.

Co-encapsulation of curcumin and quercetin with zein/HP-β-CD conjugates to enhance environmental resistance and antioxidant activity

In this study, composite nanoparticles consisting of zein and hydroxypropyl beta-cyclodextrin were prepared using a combined antisolvent co-precipitation/electrostatic interaction method. The effects of calcium ion concentration on the stability of the composite nanoparticles containing both curcumin and quercetin were investigated. Moreover, the stability and bioactivity of the quercetin and curcumin were characterized before and after encapsulation. Fluorescence spectroscopy, Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction analyses indicated that electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions were the main driving forces for the formation of the composite nanoparticles. The addition of calcium ions promoted crosslinking of the proteins and affected the stability of the protein-cyclodextrin composite particles through electrostatic screening and binding effects. The addition of calcium ions to the composite particles improved the encapsulation efficiency, antioxidant activity, and stability of the curcumin and quercetin. However, there was an optimum calcium ion concentration (2.0 mM) that provided the best encapsulation and protective effects on the nutraceuticals. The calcium crosslinked composite particles were shown to maintain good stability under different pH and simulated gastrointestinal digestion conditions. These results suggest that zein-cyclodextrin composite nanoparticles may be useful plant-based colloidal delivery systems for hydrophobic bio-active agents.

The mechanism, biopolymers and active compounds for the production of nanoparticles by anti-solvent precipitation: A review

The anti-solvent precipitation method has been investigated to produce biopolymeric nanoparticles in recent years. Biopolymeric nanoparticles have better water solubility and stability when compared with unmodified biopolymers. This review article focuses on the analysis of the state of the art available in the last ten years about the production mechanism and biopolymer type, as well as the used of these nanomaterials to encapsulate biological compounds, and the potential applications of biopolymeric nanoparticles in food sector. The revised literature revealed the importance to understand the anti-solvent precipitation mechanism since biopolymer and solvent types, as well as anti-solvent and surfactants used, can alter the biopolymeric nanoparticles properties. In general, these nanoparticles have been produced using polysaccharides and proteins as biopolymers, especially starch, chitosan and zein. Finally, it was identified that those biopolymers produced by anti-solvent precipitation were used to stabilize essential oils, plant extracts, pigments, and nutraceutical compounds, promoting their application in functional foods.

Investigating of zein-gum arabic-tea polyphenols ternary complex nanoparticles for luteolin encapsulation: Fabrication, characterization, and functional performance

Luteolin has extensive biological effects, but its low water-solubility and oral bioavailability have restricted its application. In this study, we successfully prepared new zein-gum arabic (GA)-tea polyphenols (TP) ternary complex nanoparticles (ZGTL) as a delivery system to encapsulate luteolin using an anti-solvent precipitation method. Consequently, ZGTL nanoparticles showed negatively charged smooth spherical structures with smaller particle size and higher encapsulation ability. X-ray diffraction revealed the amorphous state of luteolin in the nanoparticles. Hydrophobic, electrostatic, and hydrogen bonding interactions contributed to the formation and stability of ZGTL nanoparticles, as indicated by fluorescence and Fourier transform infrared spectra analyses. The inclusion of TP improved the physicochemical stability and luteolin retention rate of ZGTL nanoparticles by forming more compact nanostructures under different environmental conditions, including pH, salt ion concentration, temperature, and storage. Additionally, ZGTL nanoparticles exhibited stronger antioxidant activity and better sustainable release capacity under simulated gastrointestinal conditions due to TP incorporation. These findings demonstrate that ZGT complex nanoparticles have potential applications as an effective delivery system for encapsulating bioactive substances in food and medicine fields.

Efficient encapsulation of fat-soluble food-derived biofunctional substances (curcumin as an example) in dual-modified starch-based nanoparticles containing large conjugated systems

Acid-ethanol hydrolysis and subsequent cinnamic acid (CA) esterification were employed to prepare a series of dual-modified starches efficiently loaded with curcumin (Cur) utilizing large conjugation systems provided by CA. Structures of the dual-modified starches were confirmed by IR and NMR, and their physicochemical properties were characterized by SEM, XRD and TGA. The nanoparticles fabricated from the dual-modified starch have perfect spherical shape (250.7-448.5 nm, polydispersity index <0.3), excellent biosafety (no hematotoxicity, no cytotoxicity, no mutagenicity) and high loading of Cur (up to 26.7 % loading). By XPS analysis, this high loading is believed to be supported by the synergistic effect of hydrogen bonding (provided by hydroxyl groups) and π-π interactions (provided by large conjugation system). In addition, the encapsulation of dual-modified starch nanoparticles effectively enhanced the water solubility (18-fold) and physical stability (6-8-fold) of free Cur. In vitro gastrointestinal release showed that Cur-encapsulated dual-modified starch nanoparticles were released more preferably than free Cur and that the Korsmeyer-Peppas model was the most suitable release model. These studies suggest that dual-modified starches containing large conjugation systems would be a better alternative for encapsulating fat-soluble food-derived biofunctional substances in functional food and pharmaceutical applications.

Fabrication and characterization of self-assembled whey protein isolate/short linear glucan core-shell nanoparticles for sustained release of curcumin

The aim of this research was to prepare a bistratal nanocomplex with a high loading capacity (LC) and harsh environment stability for controlled release of curcumin (Cur) in gastrointestinal conditions. Whey protein isolate (WPI)/short linear glucan (SLG) core-shell nanoparticles were fabricated by self-assembly for the delivery of Cur. The results showed that Cur@WPI@SLG nanoparticles had a relatively high LC (12.89 %) and small particle size (89.4 nm). The nanocomplex remained relatively stable in extreme pH conditions (2-4 and 8-10), high temperatures (60-70 °C), and ionic strength (<400 mM). Core-shell nanostructures facilitated the sustained release of Cur in simulated gastrointestinal conditions. In addition, the nanocomplex had little cytotoxicity at high concentrations, yet significantly enhanced the DPPH scavenging activity and reducing power of Cur. This delivery system will significantly improve the sustained release effect of Cur and broaden the application of hydrophobic nutrients in foods.

Investigation and Characterization of Pickering Emulsion Stabilized by Alkali-Treated Zein (AZ)/Sodium Alginate (SA) Composite Particles

Pickering emulsions stabilized by food-grade colloidal particles have attracted increasing attention in recent years due to their "surfactant-free" nature. In this study, the alkali-treated zein (AZ) was prepared via restricted alkali deamidation and then combined with sodium alginate (SA) in different ratios to obtain AZ/SA composite particles (ZS), which were used to stabilize Pickering emulsion. The degree of deamidation (DD) and degree of hydrolysis (DH) of AZ were 12.74% and 6.58% respectively, indicating the deamidation occurred mainly in glutamine on the side chain of the protein. After the treatment with alkali, AZ particle size decreased significantly. Moreover, the particle size of ZS with different ratios was all less than 80 nm. when the AZ/SA ratio was 2:1(Z2S1) and 3:1(Z3S1), the three-phase contact angle (θ_o/w) were close to 90°, which was favorable for stabilizing the Pickering emulsion. Furthermore, at a high oil phase fraction (75%), Z3S1-stabilized Pickering emulsions showed the best long-term storage stability within 60 days. Confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) observations showed that the water-oil interface was wrapped by a dense layer of Z3S1 particles with non-agglomeration between independent oil droplets. At constant particle concentration, the apparent viscosity of the Pickering emulsions stabilized by Z3S1 gradually decreased with increasing oil phase fraction, and the oil-droplet size and the Turbiscan stability index (TSI) also gradually decreased, exhibiting solid-like behavior. This study provides new ideas for the fabrication of food-grade Pickering emulsions and will extend the future applications of zein-based Pickering emulsions as bioactive ingredient delivery systems.

Nanoencapsulation Motivates the High Inhibitive Ability of Fucoxanthin on H2O2-Induced Human Hepatocyte Cell Line (L02) Apoptosis via Regulating Lipid Metabolism Homeostasis

This study reports an encapsulation system for fucoxanthin (FX) through simple affinity binding with gelatin (GE) and then coating with chitosan oligosaccharides (COS). The effects of FX before and after encapsulation on the human hepatocyte cell line (L02) were investigated. FX-GE and FX-GE-COS nanocomplexes exhibited a spherical shape with diameters of 209 ± 6 to 210 ± 8 nm. FX-GE-COS nanocomplexes were found to perform the best with the highest encapsulation efficiency (EE, 83.88 ± 4.39%), improved FX stability, and enhanced cellular uptake on the nanoscale. The cytotoxicity and cell mitochondrial damage of H₂O₂ exposure to L02 cells decreased with the increase of free-FX and FX-GE-COS nanocomplexes. FX-GE-COS nanocomplexes' intervention decreased the intracellular ROS and inhibited the apoptosis of L02 cells that was induced by H₂O₂ exposure in a concentration-dependent manner. Lipidomic analysis revealed that FX-GE-COS nanocomplexes could regulate the lipid metabolism disturbed by H₂O₂ and protected the mitochondrial function of L02 cells. These results suggested that nanoencapsulation enhanced the antioxidant activity of FX to L02 cells, and the constructed FX-GE-COS nanocomplexes have the potential to be an antioxidant nutritional dietary supplement.

Interactions of soy protein isolate with common and waxy corn starches and their effects on acid-induced cold gelation properties of complexes

Soy protein isolate (SPI) was mixed with different concentrations of common starch (CS) and waxy starch (WS) from corn. The interactions of SPI with CS or WS and their effects on the acid-induced cold gelation properties of complexes were investigated. Compared with WS, SPI could bind to CS more strongly and formed a tighter SPI-CS non-covalent complex, which resulted in the increased β-sheet and a more ordered secondary structure. The gel strength, water holding capacity (WHC), viscoelasticity, hydrophobic interactions and thermal stability of SPI-CS complex gels were enhanced as increasing CS concentration, and the complex with 2% of CS had the best gelation properties. Although adding WS reduced the gel strength, rheological properties and hydrophobic interactions of SPI-WS complex gels, it improved the WHC and thermal stability of the complex gels. Therefore, CS had a broader effect on improving acid-induced cold gelation properties of SPI than WS.

Cold plasma treatment with alginate oligosaccharide improves the digestive stability and bioavailability of nutrient-delivered particles: An in vitro INFOGEST gastrointestinal study

To improve the stability and bioavailability of the delivered hydrophobic nutrients, the zein-based delivery system was modified by alginate oligosaccharide (AOS), cold plasma (CP) treatments, and synergistically. The digestive behavior of each was investigated in an INFOGEST static in vitro digestion model. The results showed that AOS and CP treatments and their synergistic effects improved the dispersion and stability of the delivery system, leading to a more concentrated particle size distribution and higher particle surface charge. Both CP treatments and AOS increased the release rate of Curcumin (Cur) at small intestine (11.8 % to 20.5 % and 11.8 % to 24.64 %, respectively), and the synergistic effect was higher (11.8 % to 43.84 %). The wall material modified showed a higher encapsulation efficiency of Cur (52.83 % to 85.17 %). Cur release rate measurements showed that the wall material modified could have a positive effect on the slow release of Cur. SDS-page electrophoresis revealed that the slow release was due to the enhanced resistance of wall material to digestive fluids. Thus, treatment with AOS and CP treatments, and the synergism are suitable for modifying zein-based delivery systems for the encapsulation, stabilization, and slow release of hydrophobic nutrients during digestion in the field of functional foods.

Zein nanoparticles for drug delivery: Preparation methods and biological applications

Zein, a vegetable protein extracted from corn (Zea mays L.), forms a gastro-resistant and mucoadhesive polymer that is cheap and easy to obtain and facilitates the encapsulation of bioactives with hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and amphiphilic properties. The methods used for synthesizing these nanoparticles include antisolvent precipitation/nanoprecipitation, pH-driven, electrospraying, and solvent emulsification-evaporation methods. Each method has its advantages in the preparation of nanocarriers, nevertheless, all of them enable the production of zein nanoparticles that are stable and resistant to environmental factors, with different biological activities required in the cosmetic, food, and pharmaceutical industries. Therefore, zein nanoparticles are promising nanocarriers that can encapsulate various bioactives with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, and antidiabetic properties. This article reviews the principal methods for obtaining zein nanoparticles containing bioactives, the advantages and characteristics of each method, as well as the main biological applications of nanotechnology-based formulations.

Nanolignin-based high internal phase emulsions for efficient protection of curcumin against UV degradation

As an emulsifier, lignin exhibits excellent UV resistance on drug-loaded emulsion systems for drug delivery. However, due to the structural variation and complexity of lignins from various origins, their UV shielding performance varies with the techniques for lignin extraction, which impacts properties and the protection efficiency of lignin-based HIPEs (high internal phase emulsions). In this work, lignin nanoparticles, prepared from three lignin preparations of Eucalyptus, were used in HIPEs delivery systems to protect curcumin from degradation by UV radiation. Structures of the lignin preparations were characterized using 2D HSQC (heteronuclear single-quantum coherence) NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), ³¹P NMR, and GPC (gel permeation chromatography). The residual curcumin level after 36 h UV exposure in the nanolignin-based HIPEs was over 72 %, much higher than that (< 10 % after 24 h UV exposure) in the oil phase without lignin, indicating that the nanolignin-based HIPEs with enhanced UV shielding ability protect curcumin better. Of the three lignin preparations, AL (alkali lignin), with the lowest molecular weight, highest contents of phenolic hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, and highest S/G ratio, displayed the best anti-UV radiation ability and the most uniform nanoparticle size.

Reducing disulfide bonds as a robust strategy to facilitate the self-assembly of cod protein fabricating potential active ingredients-nanocarrier

In this study, a novel method was developed to encapsulate hydrophobic compounds by self-assembly of cod protein (CP) triggered by breaking disulfide bonds. Curcumin (Cur), a representative lipid-soluble polyphenol, was selected as a model to evaluate the potential of CP nanoparticles as novel and accessible nanocarriers. Results showed that the protein structure gradually unfolded with increasing dithiothreitol (DTT) concentration, indicating that S-S cleavage was conducive to forming a looser structure. The resultant unfolded CP exposed more hydrophobic sites, facilitating its interaction with hydrophobic compounds. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) of formed CP-Cur nanoparticles was relatively high, reaching 99.09%, 98.8%, and 89.77% when the mass ratios of CP to Cur were 20:1, 10:1, and 5:1 (w/v), respectively. The hydrophobic interaction, weak van der Waals, and hydrogen bond were the forces contributing to the formation of CP-Cur nanoparticles, whereas the hydrophobic interaction played a crucial role. The CP-Cur complex exhibited increased stability and a homogeneous-stable structural phase. Thus, this research not only proposed a novel and simple encapsulation method of hydrophobic bioactive compounds but also provided a theoretical reference for the application of reductants in food or pharmacy system.