Regulation strategy, bioactivity, and physical property of plant and microbial polysaccharides based on molecular weight

Effect of the degree of methyl esterification on the physicochemical properties and hypoglycaemic potential of pectin

Pectins with degrees of methyl esterification (DM) ranging from 6 % to 96 % were prepared using alkali hydrolysis and acidified methanol for assessing their physicochemical properties and hypoglycaemic potential. Results showed that (1) pectin viscosity was jointly regulated by molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, and DM; (2) pectin with a DM of 96 % exhibited the highest thermal degradation peak temperature (282.17 °C), with the fastest and most complete degradation; and (3) pectin with a DM of 54 % showed the best inhibitory effects on α-amylase and α-glucosidase, with half-maximal inhibitory concentrations of 7.96 and 5.92 mg/mL, respectively. Moreover, pectin with a higher DM tended to exhibit noncompetitive-dominated inhibition, whereas pectin with a lower DM tended to show competitive-dominated inhibition. This study highlights the key role of DM in pectin properties and provides theoretical support for its applications.

Two Mycopolysaccharides from Hirsutella sinensis mycelia: Structural characterization and dual antioxidant-cardioprotective functions

Cordyceps sinensis, a precious traditional Chinese herb, exhibits diverse polysaccharide structures and functions across strains. This study screened Hirsutella sinensis 02-3 and successfully extracted two mycopolysaccharides (fungal polysaccharides): ISP-AII (MW = 4.70 kDa) and ISP-BII (MW = 75.42 kDa). Chemical and monosaccharide composition analyses showed that ISP-AII comprised glucose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, and mannose (molar ratio 58.39:2.63:1.21:1.03:0.99), while ISP-BII contained additional fucose and exhibited a molar ratio of 57.82:1.07:1.06:0.39:0.37:0.32 for glucose, xylose, galactose, arabinose, fucose, and mannose, respectively. Techniques such as the Congo red test, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) were employed to characterize their structural features, suggesting both ISP-AII and ISP-BII were →4)-α-D-Glcp-(1 → main backbone. Functionally, ISP-BII had the highest 2,2-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging rate of 61.7 %, and ISP-AII scavenged 56.12 % of hydroxyl radicals. Both also showed high reducing power and reactive oxygen species (ROS) - scavenging ability. Moreover, they protected cardiomyocytes from apoptosis by regulating key factors in the Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase/Protein Kinase B (PI3K/AKT) and mitochondrial BAX/Bcl-2/Caspase-3 apoptotic signaling pathways, and exerted antioxidant effects via the Keap1/Nrf2/ARE pathway. These results offer new insights into the cardioprotective functions of Cordyceps polysaccharides, and their potential applications in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries.

Melastoma dodecandrum polysaccharide alleviates allergic rhinitis in mice through modulating NLRP3 and IL-17 axis

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a prevalent nasal disorder characterized by chronic inflammation and hypersensitivity, with limited effective treatments. Melastoma dodecandrum polysaccharide (MDP), derived from a medicinal herb, exhibits anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, making it a potential therapeutic candidate for AR. This study evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of MDP in AR mice and explored its underlying mechanisms. An ovalbumin (OVA)-induced AR mouse model was established, with MDP administered via gavage or inhalation. MDP reduced sneezing and nasal scratching in AR mice. Treatment alleviated nasal mucosa thickness, goblet cell hyperplasia, and cellular disarray, as assessed by H&E and Alcian blue staining. MDP decreased serum IgE, IL-17, and IL-1β levels, as measured by ELISA, and reduced the proportion of Th17 cells, analyzed by flow cytometry. In nasal mucosa, MDP downregulated the expression of NLRP3, GSDMD, and IL-17A proteins, and reduced the mRNA levels of NLRP3, IL-17, IL-1β, and IL-18, as determined by immunohistochemistry and qRT-PCR. MDP also mitigated tissue cell death, as shown by TUNEL staining. In vitro, MDP suppressed NLRP3 inflammasome activation and pyroptosis in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) treated with LPS and nigericin. These effects were confirmed by western blot, qRT-PCR, and immunofluorescence, along with pyroptosis assessment and scanning electron microscopy, which revealed reduced pyroptosis and membrane damage. In conclusion, MDP effectively alleviates AR symptoms in mice, with its therapeutic effects involving the modulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and the IL-17 signaling pathway, highlighting its clinical potential for AR management.

Structural characterization and immunomodulatory activity of a polysaccharide produced by chaetomium globosum CGMCC 6882

Efficient utilization of cellulose resources is of great significance to environmental protection and to solve the crisis of global energy shortage. In the present work, a polysaccharide (CGP-TS) was successfully produced by Chaetomium globosum CGMCC 6882 from waste tobacco stalk via submerged fermentation. Chemical composition analysis showed that the carbohydrate and protein contents in CGP-TS were 92.55% ± 3.16% and 4.73% ± 1.04%, respectively. Structural characterization indicated that CGP-TS was not pectin and composed of rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose and xylose in a molar ratio of 22.2166: 9.8269: 36.2455: 3.3111: 0.416, and its molecular weight was 613.235 kDa. In vitro bioactivity and potential application investigation showed that antioxidant activities of CGP-TS against DPPH, ABTS, hydroxyl and superoxide radicals were positively correlated to its concentration from 0.5 mg/mL to 2.5 mg/mL. Meanwhile, CGP-TS exhibited immunomodulatory activity via enhancing the phagocytic activity and promoting the cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and NO) release of RAW 264.7 macrophages.

In vitro digestion and fermentation characteristics of Agrocybe cylindracea polysaccharides and their interaction with the gut microbiota

Agrocybe cylindracea polysaccharides (ACP) are bioactive macromolecules with potential prebiotic properties, yet their digestive stability and microbiota-modulating mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to systematically evaluate the in vitro digestion and fermentation characteristics of ACP and its interaction with the gut microbiota. The average molecular weight of ACP was determined to be 2.39 × 105 Da, and its primary monosaccharides were glucose (53.93 ± 0.65 %) and galactose (27.36 ± 0.17 %), with a significant content of 1,3-Glc linkages. During colonic fermentation, ACP was selectively utilized by gut bacteria, leading to a significant pH reduction and increased production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), particularly acetate, propionate, and butyrate (total SCFAs: 48.7 mM at 24 h). Furthermore, ACP modulated the composition of gut microbiota by enhancing the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Paraprevotella (400-fold increase) and Bacteroides (3.6-fold increase), while suppressing opportunistic pathogens like Fusobacterium and Escherichia. The correlation analysis conducted between SCFAs and gut microbiota indicated the prebiotic potential of ACP, particularly in enriching SCFA-producing bacteria, including Clostridium_sensu_stricto, Gemmiger, Paraprevotella, and Bacteroides. These findings highlight ACP as a structurally stable polysaccharide capable of modulating gut microbiota composition and metabolic activity, supporting its application in functional foods targeting gut health.

Structure characterization and protective effect against UVB irradiation of polysaccharides isolated from the peach gums

Peach gum polysaccharides (PGPs) have attracted increasing attention for their potential biological properties and application in the food and cosmetic industries. This study aimed to investigate the structural characteristics and anti-photoaging activity of PGPs. The purification of PGPs resulted in two polysaccharides (PGP-1 and PGP-2). Results showed that PGP-1 and PGP-2 had a molecular weight of 4515.31 kDa and 15.02 kDa, respectively. Their structures were elucidated via GC-MS and NMR spectrum and proved to be an arabinogalactan. In addition, PGP-1 and PGP-2 do not have mucous-membrane irritation on chicken embryo CAM. Mainly, PGP-1 (1.5 mg/mL) significantly inhibits the expressions of MMPs (MMP-1, MMP-3, and MMP-12) in the UVB-induced human immortalized epidermal cells (HaCaT), indicating that PGP-1 could reduce collagen loss caused by UVB irradiation. PGP-1 also can inhibit cell senescence and apoptosis by reducing p16, p21, and p53 protein expressions. Based on these findings, our data suggested that PGPs may be used to develop effective natural anti-photoaging ingredients to promote skin health.

Physicochemical properties and cosmetic benefits of polysaccharide fractions from Zizania latifolia precipitated by different ethanol concentrations

Four polysaccharide fractions (designated as ZLPF-60, ZLPF-70, ZLPF-80, and ZLPF-90), extracted from the swollen culms of Zizania latifolia, were obtained by precipitation with varying ethanol concentrations (60, 70, 80, and 90 %, v/v). Their physicochemical properties and in vitro cosmetic benefits, including antioxidant activity, moisture absorption capacity, moisturizing efficacy, and whitening effect, were investigated. The results demonstrated that, with increasing ethanol concentration, the combined content of uronic acids and sulfates, zeta potential, and average molecular weight (Mw) decreased, while the particle size initially increased and then decreased. These fractions were identified as heteropolysaccharides composed of rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, xylose, mannose, galacturonic acid, and glucuronic acid in different proportions. FT-IR analysis confirmed these fractions as naturally sulfate-containing polysaccharides, and SEM revealed their diverse surface morphologies. Moreover, these fractions exhibited scavenging activities against DPPH and hydroxyl radicals, as well as ferric ion-reducing power. Among them, ZLPF-70 showed the strongest activity, followed by ZLPF-60. The moisture absorption properties of these fractions were superior to sodium alginate, and their moisturizing capabilities surpassed glycerol, particularly for ZLPF-60 and ZLPF-70. Notably, ZLPF-60 outperformed ZLPF-70 in inhibiting tyrosinase, especially tyrosinase diphenolase, achieving an inhibitory effect comparable to that of phenylethyl resorcinol. Both ZLPF-60 and ZLPF-70 demonstrated distinct cosmetic benefits. Furthermore, correlation analysis revealed that the negative charge density, Mw, and the high abundance of arabinose and galactose were the primary contributors to the observed cosmetic benefits.

Plant endophytic fungal polysaccharides and their activities: A review

Endophytic fungi, essential constituents of plant microecosystems, have attracted considerable scientific interest due to their remarkable biodiversity, ecological adaptability, and capacity to synthesize a wide range of bioactive metabolites. Among these, polysaccharides produced by endophytic fungi represent a promising yet insufficiently investigated class of macromolecules with significant pharmacological and biotechnological applications. However, research on these polysaccharides remains constrained by limited exploration. This review systematically consolidates current advances in the classification, extraction, purification, structural elucidation, and biological functions of endophytic fungal polysaccharides (EFPs), while also examining their interactions with host plants. The potential of polysaccharide-producing endophytic fungi remains largely underexplored. Furthermore, inherent polysaccharide complexity, combined with technical limitations, has confined most studies to extracellular polysaccharides, leaving comprehensive structural analyses scarce. EFPs demonstrate antioxidant, antibacterial, immunomodulatory, and antitumor activities, and contribute substantially to the symbiotic dynamics between fungi and host plants, yet systematic activity profiling is insufficient. This review proposes establishing a targeted resource development framework to enhance the diversity of polysaccharide compounds and advocates for the integration of conventional and advanced methodologies to advance pharmacological investigations and functional analyses of EFPs, thereby offering strategic insights for future applications and facilitating deeper exploration and utilization.

Polysaccharides isolated from shufeng jiedu capsules by cross-flow ultrafiltration show anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and zebrafish inflammatory models

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Shufeng Jiedu Capsules (SFJDC) is a traditional Chinese patent medicine comprising eight traditional Chinese medicines (TCM). SFJDC is known for its anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects and is mainly used in clinics to treat upper respiratory tract infections. Currently, studies on the active ingredients of the SFJDC all focus on small-molecule compounds. In contrast, bio-macromolecules, such as the anti-inflammatory activities of polysaccharides in SFJDC, have not been studied, and the composition of the polysaccharides in SFJDC is also unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to isolate active polysaccharides from Shufeng Jiedu capsules and determine their structural properties and anti-inflammatory activities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The polysaccharides with different molecular weights were prepared by organic solvent extraction, alcohol precipitation, dialysis, and cross-flow ultrafiltration. The structural characterization of polysaccharides was clarified by high-performance size exclusion chromatography (HPGPC), ion chromatography (IC), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) assay were used to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of polysaccharides on Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. The in vivo study was employed on the CuSO4-induced and LPS-stimulated zebrafish inflammatory models, and the survival analysis, observation of neutrophil migration, hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining, and qRT-PCR assays were used to investigate the in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of polysaccharides.

RESULTS

The crude polysaccharides SFJDC-CP were obtained from the mixed aqueous extract of SFJDC with a yield of 38.72 %. Both SFJDC and SFJDC-CP dose-dependently inhibited the secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-1β in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, and SFJDC-CP was more effective at a lower dosage. SFJDC-CP was further separated into three fractions, SFJDC-CP1-CP3, by cross-flow ultrafiltration apparatus with nominal molecular weight cut-offs of 100 kDa, 50 kDa, and 10 kDa membrane cassettes, and the yields were approximately 58.19 %, 10.88 %, and 30.94 %, respectively. The MWs of the SFJDC-CP and its SFJDC-CP1-CP3 were 35.7 kDa, 149.1 kDa, 34.5 kDa, and 15.1 kDa, respectively. The four polysaccharides were composed of rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, and galacturonic acid in different molar ratios. Non-toxic concentrations of the four polysaccharides ranged from 12.5 to 200 μg/mL. The four polysaccharides significantly reduced the mRNA expression levels and release of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α (P < 0.0001) in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Polysaccharides also decreased inflammatory cell infiltration and neutrophil migration (P < 0.05 or P < 0.001) in both CuSO4-induced and LPS-microinjected zebrafish inflammatory models. Additionally, they effectively inhibited the mRNA levels of IL-6 and TNF-α in LPS-infected zebrafish (P < 0.01 or P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Polysaccharides isolated from Shufeng Jiedu capsules have demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and zebrafish inflammatory models. This study provided preliminary evidence that polysaccharides are one of the main anti-inflammatory ingredients of Shufeng Jiedu capsules. Additionally, it may provide valuable perspectives for investigating polysaccharides in other TCM formulations, particularly those obtained through aqueous extraction methods.

Antiallergic activities of polysaccharides derived from Coptis chinensis

To assess the effects and underlying mechanisms of Coptis chinensis, a traditional Chinese herb known for its antiallergic properties, crude polysaccharides (CP1) were extracted via water extraction, and homopolysaccharides were purified by column chromatography. This study analyzed the sugar and protein content, molecular weight distribution, monosaccharide composition, and functional groups of C. chinensis polysaccharides and evaluated their antiallergic effects in mice sensitized to ovalbumin (OVA). The results showed that the purified homopolysaccharide (CP2-3-1, 138.78 kDa, primarily composed of glucose) was more effective than CP1 in alleviating allergic symptoms. CP2-3-1 treatment led to improvements in anaphylactic scores, diarrhea rates, rectal temperatures, jejunum structure, and levels of immunoglobulin E (IgE), mouse mast cell protease-1 (mMcep1), and interleukin-4 (IL-4) antibodies in mouse serum, which were similar to those in the phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) control group. In addition, CP2-3-1 treatment significantly increased the richness and diversity of the gut microbiota in OVA-sensitized mice, restoring core microbiota to near-PBS levels, including key phyla (Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes) and important families (Lachnospiraceae, Lactobacillaceae, Rikenellaceae, and Muribaculaceae). This research confirms the antiallergic effects of polysaccharides from C. chinensis and highlights the potential for developing new food allergy therapies based on C. chinensis homopolysaccharides.

Molecular weight determination by Chromatography and Viscometry: A case study using novel polysaccharide of Eupatorium adenophorum L

Molecular weight analysis of natural polysaccharides is necessary for diverse nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, biological, chemical and other industrial applications. The present study focuses on the determination of the molecular weight of polysaccharide from Eupatorium adenophorum using HP-GPC and Viscometry independently, apart from the chemical composition of constituent monosaccharides. The novel polysaccharide was isolated from leaves of the species, followed by purification using repetitive precipitation, centrifugation, dialysis and chromatographic purification to obtain the polysaccharide in 0.62 ± 0.08 % yield. To analyze monosaccharides constituting polysaccharide, it was hydrolyzed, followed by reduction of hydrolysates and derivatization to corresponding alditol acetates by acetylation. Weight average and number average molecular weights were determined by chromatography (HPGPC) with the help of known MW dextran standards. The viscosity average molecular weight was determined by intrinsic viscosity measurement using the Ubbelohde dilution viscometer and applying the Mark-Houwink equation. GC-MS/FID analysis indicated the presence of l-arabinose, d-xylose, d-mannose, d-glucose and d-galactose as the constituent monosaccharides in 1.61:1.00:0.25:5.89:3.24 M ratios. The different molecular weights were determined to be 4.05 × 105 Da (MW), 2.28 × 105 Da (MN) and 3.59 × 105 Da (Mƞ). The polysaccharide has a polydisperse nature with PDI value of 1.793. Such prudent studies are useful for third-world countries and undergraduate laboratories requiring the guided molecular weight-based screening for diverse applications, but do not have HPGPC in the laboratory. Results indicate that a simple glass Ubbelohde Dilution Viscometer fulfils the goal of molecular weight determination. The molecular weight and monosaccharide composition of E. adenophorum leaf polysaccharide have been reported for the first time.

Structural characterization of galactomannan sulfated modification products with different molecular weight fractions and their in vitro anti-lung cancer activities

The degradation of polysaccharides and the introduction of surface functional groups have been shown to significantly enhance the solubility and bioactivity of polysaccharides. This study aimed to compare the structural characteristics of three galactomannans with varying molecular weights (GMG0, GMG1, and GMG2) and their sulfated derivatives (S-GMG0-P, S-GMG1-P, and S-GMG2-P; P = 1-4), and to assess their potential anticancer effects on the A549 lung cancer cell line. The results indicated that a reduction in molecular weight facilitated the sulfation modification process, with the sulfated polysaccharides exhibiting higher molecular weights and more dynamic solution conformations. In vitro antitumor assays revealed that S-GMG0-4 exhibited the most potent antiproliferative effect compared to both the three polysaccharides and other sulfated derivatives. Furthermore, S-GMG0-4 and S-GMG1-4 significantly induced apoptosis in A549 cells and triggered G1-phase cell cycle arrest. The anticancer mechanisms of S-GMG0-4 and S-GMG1-4 were linked to the modulation of key apoptosis- and cell cycle-related genes, including p53, caspase 9, and Bcl-2. Additionally, both S-GMG0-4 and S-GMG1-4 effectively inhibited A549 cell migration. These findings provide a solid foundation for further exploration of sulfated galactomannans as promising candidates for the development of novel anticancer therapies.

Methane Valorization to Antioxidant Polysaccharides by Methanotrophic Bacteria

Bioconversion of methane into functional polysaccharides presents a promising strategy for mitigating methane-induced greenhouse gas emissions and addressing the limitations of plant-derived polysaccharide and sugar-based microbial polysaccharides production. In this study, the novel methane-derived polysaccharide (MePS) was obtained from a newly isolated methanotrophic bacterium Alkalicoccus glycogenes WONF2802. Structural characterization found that MePS is a branched-chain glucan with a weight-average molecular weight of 283.2 kDa. Additionally, MePS exhibited considerable antioxidant capacities in both in vitro biochemical assays and the H2O2-induced oxidative stress cell model. This work establishes a potential pathway for polysaccharide production, reducing reliance on plant and sugar-based feedstocks, while offering a new strategy for methane emission reduction.

Machine learning-based biological process optimization for low molecular weight welan gum production

This study focuses on optimizing the fermentation process for the production of low molecular weight welan gum (LMW-WG) using Sphingomonas sp. ATCC 31555 with glycerol as the sole carbon source. A series of single-factor experiments were conducted to identify six key influencing factors. The fermentation conditions were then modeled and optimized using a backpropagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN) in conjunction with particle swarm optimization (PSO). Under optimized conditions (glycerol 22.6 g/L, beef extract 4.3 g/L, KH₂PO₄ 3.8 g/L, MgSO₄ 0.3 g/L, CaSO₄ 0.5 g/L, and 10 % inoculation), a yield of 16.28 ± 2.58 g/L of LMW-WG was achieved. Kinetic modeling and metabolic pathway analysis further elucidated the critical roles of carbon and nitrogen metabolism in LMW-WG biosynthesis. The results indicate the superiority of the ANN-PSO approach in optimizing multivariable nonlinear systems, providing scientific evidence and technical support for the efficient production of LMW-WG, with significant potential for industrial applications.

Exploring Tetrastigma hemsleyanum polysaccharides: A recent advance in preparation, structural features, bioactivities, and potential application prospects

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg (T. hemsleyanum) is a traditional Chinese herb recognized as a 'plant antibiotic' due to its multiple beneficial effects on the human body. As a valuable plant, its wild resources are on the verge of extinction. Fortunately, advancements in artificial cultivation over the past two decades have led to an increase in high-quality plant resources. Consequently, research on this herb has been gaining popularity. Polysaccharides are an important component of T. hemsleyanum and have received extensive attention from scholars due to their various biological activities. Currently, various extraction and purification methods have been developed to isolate T. hemsleyanum polysaccharides (THPs). These polysaccharides have demonstrated significant effects in experiments, including antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, immune regulation, metabolic-regulatory, and thermoregulatory effects. Furthermore, they possess broad application potential in fields such as food, medicine, and cosmetic industries. Unfortunately, a comprehensive review of the literature on THPs is currently lacking, which poses challenges for future research endeavors. This work aims to summarize the latest progress in the extraction, purification, structural characterization, biological activities, and applications of THPs across fields comprehensively from the past to the present, analyze the shortcomings of recent research, and discuss potential applications and future research directions.

Diversity, mechanism and structure-activity relationships of marine anticoagulant-active polysaccharides: A review

Thrombosis is a major complication of cardiovascular disease that can lead to fatal myocardial infarction, acute ischemic stroke and venous thromboembolism, posing a significant threat to human health and even life. Recent research showed that polysaccharides from marine organisms, including marine plants and marine animals, exhibit excellent anticoagulant activity. However, different marine anticoagulant-active polysaccharides (MAPs) exhibit significant differences in both the structure and anticoagulant activity. This review systematically summarizes the diversity and structure of MAPs from the last 30 years. We compared the anticoagulant activity and drug development potential of MAPs from different organisms including red algae, green algae, brown algae, marine fish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers, etc., and analyzed the structure-activity relationships of some MAPs with specific structures. In addition, we also discuss the current challenges and future perspectives of MAPs for the development of novel anticoagulant drugs. This review not only offers a comprehensive understanding of the diversity of marine anticoagulant polysaccharides but also provides valuable reference and guidance for the development of novel anticoagulant drugs in the future.

Structural characterization and combined immunomodulatory activity of fermented Chinese yam polysaccharides with probiotics

In this study, Lactobacillus plantarum M616 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae CICC 32883 were used in modifying Chinese yam polysaccharides (CYPs) through fermentation. The carbohydrate content of microbe-fermented CYP (CYP-LS) was 78.49 % ± 1.64 %, versus the 71.03 % ± 2.75 % carbon content of unfermented CYP (CYP-NF). However, CYP-LS had a lower protein content (6.01 % ± 0.08 %) than CYP-NF (8.24 % ± 0.19 %). The molar ratios among rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, and mannose were respectively 0.493:0.6695:0.9738:0.7655:12.4365 for CYP-NF and 0.2849:0.182:0.5684:1.4069:3.7227 for CYP-LS. Molecular weight and polydispersity decreased respectively from 124.774 kDa (CYP-NF) to 34.111 kDa (CYP-LS) to and from 6.58 (CYP-NF) to 5.176 (CYP-LS). Moreover, CYP-LS had better immunomodulatory activity than CYP-NF, regulating superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, malondialdehyde, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, interleukin-10, and transforming growth factor-β in a RAW 264.7 cell model. A combination of CYP-LS and probiotics (Lactobacillus helveticus HH-LPH17, Lactobacillus johnsonii LBJ 456® and Lactobacillus acidophilus HH-LA26) showed enhanced immune activity.

Prospects of Ganoderma polysaccharides: Structural features, structure-function relationships, and quality evaluation

Polysaccharides, the primary bioactive compounds found in Ganoderma, are responsible for a multitude of biological activities. The bioactivity of Ganoderma polysaccharides (GPs) closely correlates to their physicochemical properties. Consequently, the accurate characterization and quantification of GPs are essential for the quality control of these compounds. Regrettably, the complex structural features of GPs have limited research on the relationships between their structures and bioactivities. In addition, a lack of appropriate quality assessment methods has impeded the regulation and application of GPs and related products. Therefore, it is essential to conduct extensive studies to develop reliable for quality control methods based on their pharmacological activities. This review aims to comprehensively and systematically outline the structural features, structure-activity relationships and quality control methods of GPs, thereby supporting their potential value in pharmaceuticals and functional foods. The insights presented in this review will significantly contribute to the research and potential applications of GPs.

Structural determination, immunomodulatory activity, and antitumor activity of a low-molecular-weight polysaccharide extracted from Lepista sordida

In this study, the isolation and purification of Lepista sordida polysaccharides (LS-P) were conducted, followed by an in-depth investigation of structural features and biological functions. The findings demonstrated that the backbone of LS-P comprised (1 → 6)-Glcp, (1 → 4)-D-Galp, (1 → 4)-D-Glcp, (1 → 6)-Galp, and (1 → 4,6)-Glcp, with the side chains primarily composed of terminal →2)-α-D-Glcp. The ratio of glucose to galactose was 8: 5. LS-P's weight-average molecular weight (Mw) was 13,135 Da, and it possessed a pyranose structure. In vitro immunomodulatory activity results demonstrated that LS-P could promote the proliferation of lymphocytes (B-Raji, T-Jurkat) and macrophages (RAW264.7). Additionally, LS-P significantly increased the levels of IL-1β and TNF-α produced by RAW264.7 cells. In vitro antitumor activity results indicate that LS-P could inhibit gastric cancer cell (MFC) proliferation, cause F-actin breakage, and disrupt MFC cells' backbone structure. The key findings of this study demonstrate that LS-P exhibits low molecular weight and excellent water solubility. The (1 → 4)- and (1 → 6)-linked glycosidic bonds were confirmed as the structural basis for LS-P's immunomodulatory and antitumor activities. Based on these characteristics, developing LS-P-based medications or functional foods could enhance the bioavailability and nutritional value of polysaccharides. Overall, these results provide valuable scientific evidence for developing and applying polysaccharide resources from L. sordida.

Advances in polysaccharide-based antibacterial materials

Microbial contamination is a major threat to the public health and a primary cause of food spoilage, leading to significant economic losses worldwide. Various materials have been used to combat microbes, including inorganic materials, metals and polymers. Among these, natural polymers have attracted much attention in both academic and industrial research due to their abundance, renewability, biocompatibility, biodegradability and ease of processing. Polysaccharides, such as cellulose and chitosan (chitin), are a crucial category of natural polymers. However, most polysaccharides lack inherent antibacterial activity, limiting their applications in fields like antibacterial packaging and wound dressing etc. Therefore, it is crucial to increase their antibacterial property to expand their application as green antibacterial materials. Various methods, including blending, grafting and in-situ synthesis, have been used to fabricate polysaccharide-based antibacterial materials. This review highlights the major advancements and potential of novel polysaccharide-based antibacterial materials, primarily used in antibacterial food packaging or wound dressings. Moreover, the future prospects and challenges of polysaccharide-based antibacterial materials and the incorporated antimicrobial compounds are also discussed.

Innovative submerged directed fermentation: Producing high molecular weight polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum

Polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum (GLPs) exhibit unique bioactivity, but traditional cultivation yields low quantities and unstable quality, limiting their research and application. This study highlights how submerged fermentation processes enable the directed acquisition of structurally defined high molecular weight (MW) bioactive intracellular polysaccharides (IPS). The results showed that inoculation amount and fermentation scales had a significant effect on the content of high MW IPS. In the fermentor, by lowering the initial glucose concentration combined with fed-batch fermentation, the high MW IPS content was improved. The monosaccharide composition indicated that the high MW IPS obtained from different fermentation scales exhibited stability. This polysaccharide, which is a β-glucan with a β-1,3-Glcp backbone and β-1-Glcp attached at the O-6 position, demonstrated immunostimulatory effects in vitro. Overall, the consistent quality of GLPs during submerged fermentation underscores the feasibility of industrial-scale production, presenting a significant advancement over traditional cultivation methods and promising for biotechnological applications.

Improved Production and Rheological Properties of Exopolysaccharides by Co-Overexpression of β-1,3-Glucan Synthase and UDP-Glucose Pyrophosphorylase Genes in Ganoderma lingzhi

The β-1,3-glucan synthase gene 2 (gls2) from the biosynthetic pathway of polysaccharides was cloned and overexpressed in G. lingzhi. The content of intracellular polysaccharides in the gls2 overexpression strain was 22.96 mg/100 mg of dry weight, 20% higher than that in the wild-type (WT) strain. The effect of co-overexpression of gls2, UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase gene (ugp), and gls on polysaccharide biosynthesis was also investigated in G. lingzhi. The production of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) in the G2-U-G transformants was 62% higher than that in the WT strain. Moreover, EPS from G2-U-G transformants had a higher molecular weight and glucose levels (6.3 × 103 kDa and 89.19%) than those from the WT strain (4.8 × 103 kDa and 78.15%), respectively. Furthermore, they showed higher viscosity, greater thixotropy, and a stronger gel network than EPS from the WT strain. Overall, this study contributes to the efficient production, development, and application of Ganoderma exopolysaccharides.

Dynamic high-pressure microfluidization for the extraction and processing of polysaccharides: a focus on some foods and by-products

Dynamic high-pressure microfluidization (DHPM) is an emerging treatment technology and has been widely used for the recovery of natural polysaccharides. The aim of the present contribution is to discuss the DHPM-assisted extraction and processing of polysaccharides from some foods and by-products by reviewing the instrument and working principle, procedures, key parameters, and effects of DHPM on the structures, food properties, and bioactivities of resulting polysaccharides. It was found that a DHPM instrument with Z-type chamber is preferable for extracting polysaccharides, and a DHPM with Y-type chamber is applicable for processing polysaccharides. The solid-to-liquid ratio (or concentration), pressure, and number of passes are the key parameters influencing the outcome of DHPM extraction and processing. The DHPM under suitable conditions is conducive to boosting the extraction yields of polysaccharides, enriching the carbohydrates and uronic acids in polysaccharides, lowering the protein impurities, and transforming insoluble dietary fibers into soluble ones. In most cases, DHPM treatment improved the food properties of polysaccharides via decreasing viscosity, molecular weight, and particle size, as well as losing the surface morphology. More importantly, DHPM is a mild treatment technique that barely affects the chain backbones of polysaccharides. DHPM-assisted extraction and processing endowed polysaccharides with enhanced antioxidant, hypolipidemic, and hypoglycemic activities, exhibiting potential for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. In addition, DHPM-treated polysaccharides exerted certain potential in whitening cosmetics via inhibiting tyrosinase. In conclusion, DHPM is a mild, efficient, and green technology to recover and modify polysaccharides from natural resources, especially foods and by-products. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Carboxymethyl polysaccharides from Poria cocos (Schw.) wolf: Structure, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, tumor cell proliferation inhibition and antioxidant activity

This study comprehensively explores the relationship between the structure of carboxymethyl-pachymaran (CMP) and its diverse biological activities, including immunomodulation, anti-inflammatory effects, tumor cell proliferation inhibition, and antioxidant activity. By adjusting preparation parameters, highly purified CMP samples with varying degrees of substitution (DS) and molecular weights (Mw) were successfully obtained. The results indicate that CMP, composed primarily of β-D-glucan, exhibits different levels of activity depending on its structural characteristics. In terms of immunomodulation, CMP with medium Mw demonstrates the strongest activity, while CMP with a high DS promotes nitric oxide (NO) synthesis most effectively, and a moderate DS supports optimal tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) synthesis. For anti-inflammatory activity, CMP with a moderate DS effectively inhibits NO production, while a low DS is most effective against TNF-α inhibition. Larger Mw consistently enhances the inhibitory effects on NO and TNF-α synthesis. Dectin-1 is identified as one of the receptors mediating CMP's immunomodulatory effects. Furthermore, CMP with a moderate DS and high Mw exhibit superior performance in inhibiting HepG-2 cell proliferation and scavenging DPPH free radicals, respectively. This study enriches understanding of β-glucan's structure-activity relationship and lays a theoretical foundation for its medical and healthcare applications.

Purification, structural characterization, and in vitro immunomodulatory activity of a low-molecular-weight polysaccharide from cultivated Chinese cordyceps

Cultivated Chinese cordyceps, an optimal substitute for the endangered wild resource, has recently been produced on a large scale. This work sought to explore the structural features and immunomodulatory activity of a novel low-molecular-weight polysaccharide (CSP1a, 15.7 kDa) isolated from cultivated Chinese cordyceps. CSP1a was prepared with a multi-step process that encompassed hot water extraction, alcohol precipitation, and column chromatographic purification. The monosaccharide composition, infrared spectroscopy, methylation, and nuclear magnetic resonance results revealed that CSP1a was highly branched (with a branching degree of 49.21 %) and primarily constituted of galactose (30.60 %), glucose (12.87 %) and mannose (56.53 %), comprising 13 distinct types of glycosidic linkage fragments. The main chain of CSP1a consisted of different mannose residues, with several exposed β-d-Galf-(1→ residues in various side chains. The results from scanning electron microscopy and Congo red analyses revealed that CSP1a possessed a reticulated porous chain conformation, which enhanced its bioavailability and demonstrated its potential as a carrier. In vitro immunological investigations demonstrated that CSP1a significantly promoted splenic lymphocyte proliferation. Additionally, CSP1a increased RAW264.7 cell proliferation, improved phagocytic capacity, and stimulated the secretion of nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in a dose-dependent manner. Collectively, CSP1a, a novel low-molecular-weight polysaccharide galactoglucomannan with a high branching degree and reticulated porous chain conformation, was isolated for the first time from cultivated Chinese cordyceps and showed promise as a potential immunomodulator or drug carrier. These findings contribute to elucidating the polysaccharide material basis for the immune activity of Chinese cordyceps and promote its industrial development as a functional food product.

Ultrasonic/compound enzyme extraction, comparative characterisation and biological activity of Lonicera macranthoides polysaccharides

This study investigates two extraction methods-ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and compound enzyme extraction (CE)-for the isolation of Lonicera macranthoides polysaccharides (LMP) and evaluates their physicochemical properties, bioactivity, and therapeutic potential. The optimization of extraction conditions was performed using single-factor experiments and response surface methodology. The yield of LMP from UAE was optimized to 8.02 % ± 0.12 %, while the yield from CE was 10.03 % ± 0.32 %. Both polysaccharide extracts were characterized in terms of chemical composition, monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, thermal stability, and functional group analysis. Notably, UAE-LMP exhibited superior antioxidant, hypolipidemic, nitrite scavenging, and anti-tumor activities compared to CE-LMP. The ultrasound-assisted method enhanced the stability and bioactivity of LMP, with improved water- and oil-holding capacities and the integrity of the active groups. Our findings demonstrate that the extraction method significantly influences the structural and functional properties of LMP, suggesting that UAE may be a more effective approach for extracting bioactive polysaccharides with potential applications in medicine and nutrition.

Extraction, purification, structural characterization, and bioactivities of Radix Aconiti Lateralis Preparata (Fuzi) polysaccharides: A review

Radix Aconiti Lateralis Preparata (Fuzi) polysaccharide (FZP) is a key bioactive macromolecule derived from the root of Aconitum carmichaeli Debx. FZP has a variety of biological activities, including immunomodulatory, anti-tumor, anti-depressant, organ-protective, hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, and other activities. The biological activities of polysaccharides are closely related to their structures, and different extraction and purification methods will yield different polysaccharide structures. In this review, we summarized the advancements in FZP research, including extraction techniques, biological activities, and mechanism to provide basic reference for developing and applying as therapeutic agents and functional foods. At the same time, the shortcomings of FZP research are discussed in depth, and the potential development prospects and future research direction are prospected.

Extraction, purification, structural characterization, and biological activity of polysaccharides from Aralia: A review

Aralia Linn. Plants (ALPs) is a member of the Araliaceae family, a genus of more than thirty species, some plants of Aralia Linn are commonly used as herbal medicines. ALPs is commonly utilized for relieving the symptoms of neurasthenia, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. The principal extraction approaches of polysaccharides of ALPs (AEP) encompass water extraction, ultrasonic-assisted, compound enzyme and microwave-assisted. Various extraction approaches and extraction conditions will affect the extraction rate and purity of the AEP. AEP is mainly composed of arabinose (Ara), galactose (Gal), rhamnose (Rha), xylose (Xyl) and so on with different proportions of monosaccharides. AEP is one of the principal active components of ALPs, which has a variety of biological activities. Studies have shown that activities of AEP are anti-tumor, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, anti-radiation, and hypoglycemic. One of the anti-tumor mechanisms of AEP is mitochondrial apoptosis pathway, and its regulatory process is described in detail. This review mainly summarizes the researches on extraction, separation, structural characterization and pharmacological activities of some AEP both the latest local and international in recent years. It lays a foundation for clinical safety application and the broadening of the application scope.

A self-fixing xanthan gum hydrogel membrane with ROS scavenging capability for the prevention of postoperative abdominal adhesion

Postoperative abdominal adhesions are a common complication of surgery and are caused by inflammation, tissue damage, and hypoxia. To address this issue, we prepared a SC-Xg hydrogel membrane by crosslinking xanthan gum (Xg) and sodium citrate (SC) through a dehydration condensation reaction with a crosslinking density of 39.4 %. Moreover, the mechanical performance of the SC-Xg hydrogel membrane could be enhanced by adjusting the concentration of SC. The 1.2-SC-Xg hydrogel membrane exhibited the highest stress resistance. The SC-Xg hydrogel membrane retains the excellent self-fixing ability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability of Xg while incorporating the antioxidant properties of SC. In vitro and in vivo experiments confirmed that the SC-Xg hydrogel membrane can completely cover irregular surgical sites and act as the most effective barrier against adhesions, fully exerting both physical and biological effects. Furthermore, molecular mechanism studies revealed that the hydrogel membrane primarily activated the Nrf2 signaling pathway in a concentration-dependent manner, enabling the SC-Xg hydrogel membrane to suppress postoperative oxidative stress reactions (ROS), reduce inflammation levels of IL-6 and TNF-α, reduce fibrosis, and effectively prevent the formation of abdominal adhesions. In conclusion, the SC-Xg hydrogel membrane represents a promising strategy for preventing postoperative abdominal adhesions.

Preparation methods, structural features, biological activities and potential applications of Ophiopogon japonicus polysaccharides: An updated review

Ophiopogon japonicus (O. japonicus) has a history of thousands of years as herbal medicine and nutritional food in China. Polysaccharides are one of the main bioactive components of O. japonicus. Various extraction methods and purification techniques have been employed to obtain O. japonicus polysaccharides (OJPs). Nevertheless, the structural characteristics of OJPs remain incompletely understood and require further investigation through the integration of advanced analytical techniques to uncover potential structure-activity relationships. Moreover, OJPs exhibit a variety of biological activities, such as regulating gut microbiota, providing cardiovascular protection, lowering blood glucose, and combating obesity. These diverse pharmacological effects make OJPs highly promising for widespread application in industries such as pharmaceuticals and food. Therefore, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of OJPs, covering their preparation methods, structural features, bioactivity, and structure-activity relationships. Here also emphasizes the significant promise of medicine and functional foods fields and advocating for their integration into clinical and industrial processes.

Synthesis of chitosan/PVA/copper oxide nanocomposite using Anacardium occidentale extract and evaluating its antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities

Nanotechnology has witnessed remarkable advancements in recent years, capturing considerable attention in diverse biomedical applications. Using the green precipitation method, this study aims to synthesize and characterize chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol-copper oxide nanocomposites (CS/PVA/CuONCs) using Anacardium occidentale plant fruit extract. The CS/PVA/CuONCs were further evaluated in antioxidant, antibacterial and biological activities. In our study results, UV-Vis spectrum analysis of CS/PVA/CuONCs revealed a peak at 430 nm. FTIR analyses confirmed the presence of different functional groups, while the XRD study confirmed the crystalline structure of the synthesized nanocomposites. FESEM-EDAX analysis demonstrated that the CS/PVA/CuONCs exhibited a spherical and rod-like shape, with an average particle size of 48.6 to 96.2 nm. Notably, CS/PVA/CuONCs exhibited higher antioxidant activity, as evidenced by their ABTS activity (83.79 ± 1.57%) and SOD activity (86.17 ± 1.28%). In antibacterial assays, CS/PVA/CuONCs demonstrated inhibition in Escherichia coli at 20.52 ± 0.85 mm and Bacillus subtilis at 19.64 ± 0.87 mm, displaying a zone of inhibition. The CS/PVA/CuONCs exhibited excellent anti-inflammatory potency against COX-1 (67.10 ± 0.58%) and COX-2 (76.39 ± 0.65%). The antidiabetic assay revealed excellent α-amylase inhibition (80.25 ± 1.29%) and α-glucosidase inhibition (84.74 ± 1.42%) activities. Anti-cholinergic activity of AChE was 65.35 ± 0.98% and BuChE was 82.46 ± 1.15% are observed. CS/PVA/CuONCs was shown to have strong cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cell lines. It also had the highest cell viability inhibition, at 13.66 ± 0.58%. The hemolysis activity was found to be 5.38 ± 0.34%. Overall, the study demonstrated that CS/PVA/CuONCs possess remarkably excellent biological activities.

Effects of microbial fermentation on the anti-inflammatory activity of Chinese yam polysaccharides

In this study, Chinese yam polysaccharides (CYPs) were fermented using Lactobacillus plantarum M616, and changes in the chemical composition, structure, and anti-inflammatory activity of CYPs before and after fermentation were investigated. The carbohydrate content of L. plantarum M616-fermented CYP (CYP-LP) increased from 71.03% ± 2.75 to 76.28% ± 2.37%, whereas protein and polyphenol content were almost unaffected compared with those of the unfermented CYP (CYP-NF). The monosaccharide composition of CYP-NF included rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, and mannose in a molar ratio of 0.493:0.6695:0.9738:0.7655:12.4365. CYP-LP had the same monosaccharides as CYP-NF, but the molar ratio was 0.3237:0.3457:0.8278:2.5541:10.4995. Meanwhile, the molecular weight and polydispersity of CYP-LP, respectively, increased from 124.774 kDa and 6.58 (CYP-NF) to 376.628 kDa and 17.928, indicating a low homogeneity. In vitro antioxidant analysis showed that L. plantarum M616 fermentation had varying effects on CYP-LP against DPPH, ABTS, hydroxyl, and superoxide radicals. However, CYP-LP had superior anti-inflammatory activity to CYP-NF and is more effective in regulating superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6 release in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages. This study suggested that CYP-LP is a potential anti-inflammatory ingredient in drugs and functional food.

Acid-assisted polysaccharides extracted from Asparagus cochinchinensis protect against Alzheimer's disease by regulating the microbiota-gut-brain axis

In this study, an acid-assisted extraction strategy was used to extract a novel polysaccharide (ACP) from Asparagus cochinchinensis, after which this polysaccharide was purified and subjected to extensive characterization. ACP was determined to have an average molecular weight of 15,580 Da in structural characterization studies, and it was found to primarily consist of glucose, galactose, L-fucose, and fructose at an 82.14:12.23:2.61:2.49 ratio. Trace amounts of xylose, arabinose, and rhamnose were also detected in ACP preparations at a 0.48:0.04:0.02 ratio. GC-MS analyses identified eight different sugar linkages within ACP, including Glcp-(1→, →2)-Glcp-(1→, →6)-Glcp-(1→, →4)-Glcp-(1→, →3, 4)-Glcp-(1→, →2,4) -Galp-(1→, →4,6)-Galp-(1→, and →3,4,6)-Galp-(1 → linkages present at 23.70:1.30:3.55:50.77:6.91:1.10:11.50:1.18 molar percent ratios. One-dimensional NMR, two-dimensional NMR, and methylation analyses ultimately revealed that the polysaccharide is mainly composed of →4)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → and a small amount→4,6)-α-D-Galp-(1 → and →3,4)-α-D-Glcp-(1 → and so on. Branched chain is mainly composed of α-D-Glcp-(1 → 4)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → connected to the sugar residues α-D-Glcp-(1 → 4)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → O-4 position or sugar residues of α-D-Glcp-(1 → 4)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → O-3 position. ACP treatment in SAMP8 mice was associated with reductions in oxidative stress and brain pathology together with enhanced cognitive function. ACP treated SAMP8 mice also presented with increases in Bacteroidota abundance and reduced Firmicutes, Patescibacteria, Actinobacteriota, and Campilobacterota abundance. Thus, ACP can prevent Alzheimer's disease by modulating the microbe-gut-brain axis.

Progress in the preparation, structure and bio-functionality of Dictyophora indusiata polysaccharides: A review

Dictyophora indusiata (D. indusiata) is an elegant fungus known as the "mushroom queen" because of its rich nutritional value and resemblance to dancers wearing clean white dresses. Due to the harsh growth environment, the yield of D. indusiata is relatively low. Polysaccharides are the most abundant component among them and it is valued for its unique physiological function. Multiple extraction and purification methods have been used to separate and purify polysaccharides from D. indusiata. These polysaccharides have demonstrated strong biological activities in vitro and in vivo, including anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour, immunomodulatory, antioxidant and anti-hyperlipidemic effects. In addition, D. indusiata polysaccharides have shown promising potential for development and application in the areas of food, healthcare products, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. Recent advances in the extraction, purification, structural characterization, biological activities and application prospects of D. indusiata polysaccharides were summarized. This review may enrich the knowledge about bioactive polysaccharides from D. indusiata and provide a theoretical basis. Due to diverse potential health-promoting properties of D. indusiata polysaccharides, further development for their application in functional foods and pharmaceuticals is expected.

Photoelectrocatalytic degradation of hyaluronic acid and regulation effects of its degradation products on gut microbiota in vitro

Hyaluronic acid (HA) has multiple biological activities which are closely related to its molecular weight. In the present study, the photoelectrocatalytic method was established for HA degradation and the influences of bias potentials, H2O2 additions and reaction times on the degradation results were investigated to optimize the reaction condition. Moreover, a series of analysis methods, such as FT-IR and NMR were used to analyze chemical compositions of the degradation products, revealing that photoelectrocatalytic degradation did not damage the structural blocks of HA obviously. Then 11 oligosaccharides with polymerization degrees from 2 to 8 in the degradation products were identified by mass spectroscopy and their reducing ends were all GlcA or AraA. In addition, in the photoelectrocatalytic degradation of HA, ·OH were identified as the most influential among the produced free radicals, and it could be proposed that ·OH specifically targeted the anomeric carbon of GlcA, resulting in the disaggregation of polysaccharides chain. Furthermore, the results of in vitro fermentation with fecal microbiota demonstrated that HA and its degradation products regulated microbiota structure discriminately, indicating their possible different outcomes as nutritional supplements and agents.

A mini review of polysaccharides from Zanthoxylum bungeanum maxim: Their extraction, purification, structural characteristics, bioactivity and potential applications

Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim (Z. bungeanum), commonly known as Sichuan pepper or Chinese prickly ash, is a deciduous shrub in the Rutaceae family, with a lengthy history of use as a food ingredient and traditional medicine in China. Z. bungeanum polysaccharides (ZBPs) represent one of the crucial bioactive components of Z. bungeanum, garnering global attention due to their potential medicinal value, culinary significance, and promising application prospects. The principal methods for extracting ZBPs are hot water extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, enzyme-assisted extraction and microbial fermentation extraction. However, the structural characteristics of ZBPs remain ambiguous, necessitating further exploration and elucidation of the structure-activity relationship using the advanced analytical techniques. In addition, ZBPs demonstrate diverse bioactivities, including antioxidant activity, neuroprotective effect, antibacterial activity, and the anti-fatigue effect, positioning them as promising candidates for various therapeutic and health-promoting applications. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the extraction, purification, structural characteristics, bioactivities, and potential applications of ZBPs, emphasizing the significant promise of ZBPs as valuable natural compounds with a range of bioactivities, supporting their further exploitation and application in various fields of industries and therapeutics.

Star anise (Illicium verum Hook. F.) polysaccharides: Potential therapeutic management for obesity, hypertension, and diabetes

This study explores the extraction of polysaccharides from star anise (Illicium verum Hook. f.) with its anti-obesity, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and antioxidant properties. The aim is to optimize the extraction conditions of star anise polysaccharides (SAP) utilizing propane alcohols-based deep eutectic solvents and microwave-assisted methods. The optimized conditions resulted in an extraction yield of 5.14%. The characteristics of acidic pectin-like SAP, including high viscosity (44.86 mPa s), high oil-holding capacity (14.39%), a high degree of esterification (72.53%), gel-like properties, highly amorphous, a high galacturonic acid concentration, and a highly branching size polysaccharide structure, significantly contribute to their potent inhibition of pancreatic lipase (86.67%), angiotensin-converting enzyme (73.47%), and α-glucosidase (82.33%) activities as well as to their antioxidant properties of azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS, 34.94%) and ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP, 0.56 mM FeSO4). Therefore, SAP could be used as a potential therapeutic agent for obesity, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus management.

Advances in the study of polysaccharides from Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bge.: A review

Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bge. (AA), a traditional Chinese medicine, is used clinically to treat inflammation, diabetes, osteoporosis, and tumors. Polysaccharides are the most abundant components in AA, and have antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, anti-osteoporosis, and laxative effects. It is necessary to conduct a comprehensive analysis on the structure and pharmacological activity of the polysaccharides from AA (PAAs). This review systematically summarizes the structural characteristics of PAAs, including the monosaccharide compositions, molecular weights, and backbone structures. We discuss the relationship between the structure and pharmacological activities of PAAs. The chemical modification methods of PAAs, including zinc chelation, carboxymethylation, and sulfation, are then reviewed. This review may offer new insights for research on the PAAs and polysaccharides with similar structures.

Ultrasound-assisted extraction and antioxidant activity of polysaccharides from Tenebrio molitor

Tenebrio molitor, which is rich in various nutrients, and its polysaccharides, as significant bioactive substances, exhibit strong antioxidant effects. This study utilized defatted T. molitor as raw material and employed an ultrasound-assisted extraction method. The factors considered include extraction temperature, time, ultrasound power, and liquid-to-feed ratio, with the yield of T. molitor polysaccharides as the response value. Based on single-factor experiments and response surface methodology, the optimal extraction parameters for T. molitor polysaccharides were determined. Following purification, protein removal, and dialysis to eliminate impurities, the structure of the extracted polysaccharides was preliminarily investigated using infrared spectroscopy. Their antioxidant activities were explored by measuring their DPPH·, OH·, and ABTS+· radical scavenging abilities and Fe3+ reducing power. The results indicated that the optimal conditions for ultrasound-assisted extraction were an extraction temperature of 75 °C, an extraction time of 150 min, an ultrasound power of 270 W, and a liquid-to-feed ratio of 15:1 mL/g, yielding a polysaccharide extraction rate of 9.513%. Infrared spectroscopy analysis revealed the presence of pyranose sugars with main functional groups including C-O, C=O, and O-H. Antioxidant activity tests showed that within a certain concentration range, the higher the polysaccharide concentration, the stronger its radical scavenging abilities. Compared with Vitamin C(Vc), the polysaccharides had stronger scavenging abilities for DPPH· and OH·, some scavenging ability for ABTS+·, and Fe3+ reduction ability, and corresponding to IC50 values of 0.9625, 9.1909, and 235.69 mg/mL respectively. The Fe3+ reducing power reached a maximum absorbance of 0.38899 at a concentration of 1.6 mg/mL. T. molitor polysaccharides demonstrate promising antioxidant activity and potential as functional ingredients in food, health products, and pharmaceuticals, providing new technical references for the development and utilization of T. molitor resources.

Strong binding between nanoplastic and bacterial proteins facilitates protein corona formation and reduces nanoplastics toxicity

The interaction and combination of nanoplastics with microorganisms, enzymes, plant proteins, and other substances have garnered considerable attention in current research. This study specifically examined the interaction and biological effects of NPs and proteins. The findings indicated that the presence of externally wrapped proteins alters the original morphology and surface roughness of nanoplastics, leading to the formation of unevenly distributed coronas on the surface. This confirms that nanoplastics can interact with proteins to form protein coronas. The study characterized the adsorption behavior of bacterial proteins on unmodified, amino-modified, and carboxyl-modified nanoplastics using Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models, showing that the adsorption process of the three nanoplastics on bacterial proteins was mainly controlled by chemisorption. Fluorescence spectroscopy revealed a higher binding affinity of unmodified nanoplastics. Nearly 40 % of the proteins in the protein corona of unmodified NPs are involved in metabolite production and electron transport processes. Nearly 50 % of the proteins in the protein corona of amino-modified NPs are involved in cellular metabolic processes, followed by enzymes that carry out redox reactions. The protein corona of carboxyl-modified NPs has the highest number of proteins involved in metabolic pathways, followed by proteins involved in energy-electron transfer. The formation of protein coronas on NPs with different surface modifications can reduce the toxicity of nanoplastics to bacteria to a certain extent compared to pure nanoplastics, especially amino-modified NPs, which show a significant increase in bacterial survival. The formation of protein coronas on NPs leads to varying degrees of decrease in bacterial ROS and MDA generation, with amino-modified NPs showing the most reduction; SOD and CAT exhibit varying degrees of increase and decrease. These findings not only advance our understanding of the biological impacts of NPs but also provide a basis for future in-depth investigations into the pathways of NP contamination in real environments.

Preparation and characterization of Tobacco polysaccharides and its modulation on hyperlipidemia in high-fat-diet-induced mice

This study aimed to investigate the structural properties of tobacco polysaccharide (TP) and its mechanism of modulating hyperlipidemia in high-fat diet-induced mice. The structural properties of TP were characterized by FT-IR, 1HNMR, SEM, AFM and thermogravimetric analysis. And the regulatory mechanism of TP on lipid metabolism was investigated in hyperlipidemia mice. These results showed that TP had a high composition of reducing monosaccharide and the glycosidic bond type was α-glycosidic bond. The intervention by TP resulted in a significant reduction of body weight and improvement in lipid accumulation. And the modulation mechanism by which TP ameliorated the abnormalities of lipid metabolism was associated with the expression levels of lipid metabolism-related genes and serum exosomes miRNA-128-3p, as well as the modulation of structure and abundance of the gut microbiota in mice. In addition, TP treatment significantly increased the content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in mice feces. The results of molecular docking and dual-luciferase assay exhibited a good interaction between propionic acid and PPAR-α, and it was hypothesized that the interaction might further ameliorate the hyperlipidemia. Therefore, TP can regulate the expression levels of lipid metabolism-related genes through miRNAs from serum exosomes and SCFAs from gut microbiota.

Utilization of electron beam irradiation pretreatment for the extraction of pectic polysaccharides from Diaphragma juglandis fructus: Structural, physicochemical, and functional properties

The effects of electron beam irradiation (EBI) pretreatment on the alkaline extraction of pectic polysaccharides from Diaphragma juglandis fructus (DJF) are highly dependent on the irradiation dosage. Comprehensive characterizations encompassing physicochemical, structural, and functional properties were conducted on crude pectic polysaccharide extract from DJF subjected to various EBI doses. EBI pretreatment significantly increased the yields of crude pectic polysaccharides extract (increasing by 41.89 %), also facilitating the extraction of uronic acid, RG-I structure, and protein content, despite causing a decrease in total sugar content. EBI pretreatment induced the degradation of pectin, resulting in decreased molecular weight, particle size, crystallinity, viscosity, thermal stability, and water holding capacity, while enhancing solubility and oil holding capacity. Variations in physicochemical and structural properties induced by different EBI doses influenced the functional activities of DJF pectic polysaccharides. Low-dose EBI (at 5 kGy) pretreatment markedly improved the emulsifying activity/stability (increasing by 20.82/74.10 %) and ABTS/DPPH radical scavenging activity (increasing by 27.91/12.40 %), whereas high-dose EBI pretreatment (50 kGy) greatly enhanced foaming capacity/stability (increasing by 259.99/175.56 %). These findings provide a novel regulatory strategy for the functional activity of pectic polysaccharides.

Glycomolecules: from "sweet immunity" to "sweet biostimulation"?

Climate changes and environmental contaminants are daunting challenges that require an urgent change from current agricultural practices to sustainable agriculture. Biostimulants are natural solutions that adhere to the principles of organic farming and are believed to have low impacts on the environment and human health. Further, they may contribute to reducing the use of chemical inputs while maintaining productivity in adverse environments. Biostimulants are generally defined as formulated substances and microorganisms showing benefits for plant growth, yield, rhizosphere function, nutrient-use efficiency, quality of harvested products, or abiotic stress tolerance. These biosolutions are categorized in different subclasses. Several of them are enriched in glycomolecules and their oligomers. However, very few studies have considered them as active molecules in biostimulation and as a subclass on their own. Herein, we describe the structure and the functions of complex polysaccharides, glycoproteins, and glycolipids in relation to plant defense or biostimulation. We also discuss the parallels between sugar-enhanced plant defense and biostimulation with glycomolecules and introduce the concept of sweet biostimulation or glycostimulation.

Structural characterization, antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities of a polysaccharide from a traditional Chinese rice wine, Guangdong Hakka Huangjiu

Hakka Huangjiu, a traditional Chinese rice wine, boasts a rich history and is known for its immunomodulatory, antibacterial, anti-aging and anti-fatigue effects. However, there is limited research on the primary active components and molecular mechanism of the bioactivity of Hakka Huangjiu. To address this gap, this study assessed the structural characteristics, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities of the polysaccharide-1 of Guangdong Hakka Huangjiu (HP1). Structural analysis revealed that HP1 had a low molecular weight polysaccharide of 5550 Da, primarily consisting of glucose (93.2 %), with smaller amounts of xylose, mannuronic acid and galactose. Methylation and NMR analysis suggested that the main glycosidic linkages present in HP1 are α-D-Glcp-(1→, →4)-α-D-Glcp-(1 → and →6) -α-D-Glcp-(1→. Furthermore, HP1 exhibited dose-dependent DPPH·, ABTS+ and OH· scavenging activity. HP1 exhibited significant protection of HepG2 cells from H2O2 damage. Additionally, HP1 induced the release of NO, TNF-α, IL-6 and iNOS in RAW264.7 cells. HP1 treatment significantly increased mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, COX-2, IL-1β and TGF-β1. These results suggested that polysaccharides HP1 may have potential as a novel natural antioxidant and immunomodulatory product for use in nutraceuticals and functional foods.

Recent advances in Artemisia argyi Levl. et Vant. polysaccharides: Extractions, purifications, structural characteristics, pharmacological activities, and existing and potential applications

Artemisia argyi Levl. et Vant. (A. argyi) is an important member of Asteraceae (Compositae) family, which has good medicinal potential and edible value. Phytochemical studies have shown that the A. argyi has a variety of bioactive components, mainly including polysaccharides, flavonoids, alkaloids, and volatile oil. More and more evidences show that A. argyi polysaccharide is a kind of representative pharmacological and biological active macromolecules, which has a variety of pharmacological activities in vitro and in vivo, such as estrogen-like effect, anti-bacterial, anti-tumor, anti-oxidant and immune regulation effect. As far as we know, there are few comprehensively reviews on A. argyi polysaccharide. This review aims to comprehensively and systematically review the research progress on the extractions and purifications, structural characteristics, pharmacological activities, structure-activity relationships, existing and potential applications of A. argyi polysaccharides in the past 12 years, in order to support their therapeutic potential and health functions. Finally, prospects were made for the further development and utilization of A. argyi polysaccharides in four fields: food, medicine, packaging materials, and daily chemicals.

Review of the recent advances in polysaccharides from Ficus carica: Extraction, purification, structural characteristics, bioactivities and potential applications

Ficus carica (F. carica), commonly referred to as the fig tree, has received considerable attention due to its delectable and nutritious fruits. F. carica polysaccharides (FPs) are one of the key bioactive constituents of F. carica, demonstrating various biological activities such as antioxidative, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor effects, among others. Nevertheless, the extraction and purification techniques for FPs still require innovations to address their structural characteristics in order to elucidate the intricate mechanisms affecting their biological activities. Given this, the current review systematically summarizes the recent advancements in FPs, covering extraction, purification, structural characteristics, bioactivities, structure-activity relationships (SARs), current applications, challenges and future prospects. The composition of FPs predominantly includes Glu, Gal, and Rha, with a broad molecular weight distribution (ranging from 21.9 kDa to 6890 kDa). The SARs analysis suggests that the bioactivities of FPs are closely linked to their monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, uronic acid content, and configuration characteristics, underscoring the significant role of FPs in driving the development of novel bioactive compounds in the health, food, and medical sectors. In conclusion, this review would contribute the valuable research insights and provide the updated information to foster the advancement of FPs for diverse therapeutic and industrial applications.

Extraction, structural-activity relationships, bioactivities, and application prospects of pine pollen polysaccharides as ingredients for functional products: A review

Pine pollen, a nutrient-rich pollen, is composed of significant amounts of protein, vitamins, and carbohydrates, featuring various functional groups. Pine pollen polysaccharide (PPP), a key bioactive component of pine pollen, exhibits a range of pharmacological activities, including anti-tumor, liver-protective, lipid-lowering, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, antiviral, and antibacterial properties. While numerous extraction and purification techniques have successfully isolated and characterized PPPs, understanding of their structure-activity relationships, safety profiles, and practical applications remains limited. This hampers their full potential in utilization and development. In this article, we present a comprehensive overview of the extraction, purification, structure characteristics, structural-activity relationships, biological activities, and pharmaceutical applications of PPPs derived from various sources, including Pinus massoniana Lamb, Pinus tabuliformis Carr, and related species. This review aims to provide extensive knowledge and insights for future research and the application of PPPs as therapeutic agents and versatile biomaterials.

Effect of Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua polysaccharides on gluten structure, in vitro digestion and shelf-life of fresh wet noodle

This study aimed to investigate the effects of raw Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua polysaccharides (RPCPs) and "zhi" P. cyrtonema Hua polysaccharides (ZPCPs) on the gluten structure, in vitro digestion, and shelf life of fresh wet noodles (FWN). The results demonstrated that incorporating PCPs improved the cooking and sensory qualities of FWN. Moreover, the shelf life of FWN was extended by 6 days with 1.5 % RPCPs (w/w) compared with the control FWN. Furthermore, incorporating 1.5 % ZPCPs led to a 1.2- and 0.2-fold increase in the disulfide bond and α-helix content, respectively, compared with the control FWN. This resulted in enhanced gluten structure, improved springiness and viscidity, and reduced cooking loss by 14.47 %-52.19 %. The scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed that the starch particles were entrapped by PCPs, leading to higher gelatinization temperature and lower setback value of FWN, thereby reducing the starch digestion ratio to 55.50 %. In summary, the findings suggested that FWN containing PCPs can extend shelf life, improve taste, and slow starch digestion staple.

Unraveling the web of defense: the crucial role of polysaccharides in immunity

The great potential of polysaccharides in immunological regulation has recently been highlighted in pharmacological and clinical studies. Polysaccharides can trigger immunostimulatory responses through molecular identification, intra- and intercellular communication via direct or indirect interactions with the immune system. Various immunostimulatory polysaccharides or their derivative compounds interacts at cellular level to boost the immune system, including arabinogalactans, fucoidans, mannans, xylans, galactans, hyaluronans, fructans, pectin and arabinogalactans, etc. These natural polysaccharides are derived from various plants, animals and microbes. A unique structural diversity has been identified in polysaccharides, while monosaccharides and glucosidic bonds mainly confer diverse biological activities. These natural polysaccharides improve antioxidant capacity, reduce the production of pro-inflammatory mediators, strengthen the intestinal barrier, influence the composition of intestinal microbial populations and promote the synthesis of short-chain fatty acids. These natural polysaccharides are also known to reduce excessive inflammatory responses. It is crucial to develop polysaccharide-based immunomodulators that could be used to prevent or treat certain diseases. This review highlights the structural features, immunomodulatory properties, underlying immunomodulatory mechanisms of naturally occurring polysaccharides, and activities related to immune effects by elucidating a complex relationship between polysaccharides and immunity. In addition, the future of these molecules as potential immunomodulatory components that could transform pharmaceutical applications at clinical level will also be highlighted.

Review of polysaccharides from Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.: Extraction, purification, structural characteristics, health benefits, structural-activity relationships and applications

Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (C. morifolium), as a traditional ornamental plant, it has multiple values, including edible, economic, nutritional and even medicinal values, which is used as herbal medicine and a new food resource in the world. Polysaccharides are one of the main bioactive components in C. morifolium, which have various health benefits such as improving functional constipation, improving colitis, anti-glycosylation, antioxidant, anti-angiogenesis, immunomodulation, prebiotic, and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. This paper describes the extraction, purification, structural characteristics, health benefits, structural-activity relationships, applications, and analyses the shortcomings of the major relevant studies exist on C. morifolium polysaccharides. In addition, the potential mechanisms of the health benefits of C. morifolium polysaccharides were summarized. This study can provide reference and direction for further research and development of C. morifolium polysaccharides.