Urinary Bladder Lesions in Bovine Enzootic Haematuria

Ultrasensitive detection and quantification of bovine Deltapapillomavirus in the semen of healthy horses

BPV1, BPV2, BPV13, and BPV14 are all genotypes of bovine delta papillomaviruses (δPV), of which the first three cause infections in horses and are associated with equine sarcoids. However, BPV14 infection has never been reported in equine species. In this study, we examined 58 fresh and thawed commercial semen samples from healthy stallions. In 34 (58.6%), bovine δPV DNA was detected and quantified using droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR). Real time quantitative PCR (qPCR) was able to identify bovine δPV DNA in 5 samples (8.6%). Of the BPV-infected semen samples, 15 were positive for BPV2 (~ 44.1%) on ddPCR and 4 (~ 11.7%) on qPCR; 12 (~ 35.3%) for BPV14 on ddPCR and 1 (~ 3%) by qPCR; 4 (~ 11.7%) for BPV1 on ddPCR, whereas qPCR failed to reveal this infection; 3 (~ 8.8%) for BPV13 on ddPCR; and BPV13 infection was not detected by qPCR. Our study showed for the first time that BPV14 is an additional infectious agent potentially responsible for infection in horses, as its transcripts were detected and quantified in some semen samples. Large-scale BPV14 screening is necessary to provide substantial data on the molecular epidemiology for a better understanding of the geographical divergence of BPV14 prevalence in different areas and how widespread BPV14 is among equids.

Toxic Plants and Their Impact on Livestock Health and Economic Losses: A Comprehensive Review

Plants are important components in sustaining the life of humans and animals, balancing ecosystems, providing animal feed and edible food for human consumption, and serving as sources of traditional and modern medicine. However, plants can be harmful to both animals and humans when ingested, leading to poisoning regardless of the quantity consumed. This presents significant risks to livestock health and can impede economic growth. In several developing countries, including Ethiopia, traditional communities have depended on medicinal plants for treating livestock and human diseases. The incidences of livestock poisoning from medicinal and poisonous plants are due to the misuse and lack of dosage standardization. Therefore, this paper aimed to review toxic plants and their effects on livestock health and associated economic losses. Toxic plants contain secondary metabolites that serve as a defense mechanism against predators. The most common secondary metabolites of toxic plants that affect livestock health and the economy include alkaloids (Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, and Boraginaceae), cyanides (Sorghum spp. and grass spp.), nitrates (Pennisetum purpureum roots, Amaranthus, nightshades, Solanum spp. Chenopodium spp., and weed spp.), oxalates (Poaecea, Amaranthaceae, and Polygonaceae), and glycosides (Pteridium aquiline). The most common effects of toxic plants on livestock health include teratogenic and abortifacient (Locoweeds, Lupines, Poison Hemlock, and Veratrum), hepatoxicity (Crotalaria, Lantana camara, Xanthium, and Senecio), photosensitization (L. camara, Alternanthera philoxeroides, Brachiaria brizantha, and Heracleum sphondylium), and impairing respiratory and circulatory systems (nitrite and cyanide toxic). Toxic plants lead to substantial economic losses, both direct and indirect. Direct losses stem from livestock deaths, abortions, decreased milk quality, and reduced skin and hide production, while indirect losses are associated with the costs of treatment and management of affected animals. Overall, toxic plants negatively impact livestock health and production, resulting in significant economic repercussions. Therefore, it is crucial to prioritize the identification of the most prevalent toxic plants, isolate secondary metabolites, conduct toxicity tests, standardize dosages, and develop effective strategies for managing both the toxic plants and their associated toxicity.

Molecular findings and virological assessment of bladder papillomavirus infection in cattle

Bovine and ovine papillomaviruses (BPVs - OaPVs) are infectious agents that have an important role in bladder carcinogenesis of cattle. In an attempt to better understand territorial prevalence of papillomavirus genotypes and gain insights into their molecular pathway(s), a virological assessment of papillomavirus infection was performed on 52 bladder tumors in cattle using droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR), an improved version of conventional PCR. ddPCR detected and quantified BPV DNA and mRNAs in all tumor samples, showing that these viruses play a determinant role in bovine bladder carcinogenesis. OaPV DNA and mRNA were detected and quantified in 45 bladder tumors. BPV14, BPV13, BPV2, OaPV2, OaPV1, and OaPV3 were the genotypes most closely related to bladder tumors. ddPCR quantified BPV1 and OaPV4 DNA and their transcripts less frequently. Western blot analysis revealed a significant overexpression of the phosphorylated platelet derived growth factor β receptor (PDGFβR) as well as the transcription factor E2F3, which modulate cell cycle progression in urothelial neoplasia. Furthermore, significant overexpression of calpain1, a Cys protease, was observed in bladder tumors related to BPVs alone and in BPV and OaPV coinfection. Calpain1 has been shown to play a role in producing free transcription factors of the E2F family, and molecular findings suggest that calpain family members work cooperatively to mutually regulate their protease activities in cattle bladder tumors. Altogether, these results showed territorial prevalence of BPV and OaPV genotypes and suggested that PDGFβR and the calpain system appeared to be molecular partners of both BPVs and OaPVs.

Prolonged detection of BPV2 in urine and blood of papillomatosis-affected cattle not grazing bracken fern

BPV-2 infection can cause bladder infections in cattle that, when associated with bracken fern consumption, can progress to cancerous bladder tumors and also present as bovine enzootic hematuria (BEH). This study aimed to evaluate the prolonged natural BPV-2 infection in the blood and urine of cattle, excluding bracken fern consumption. Thirteen Girolando papillomatosis-affected cattle with no bracken fern contact history were monitored for 20 months. Blood, urine, and wart samples were collected for BPV-2 detection and clinical laboratory analyses. All animals showed the presence of BPV-2 in papillomas and blood, and 92.85% showed BPV-2 in urine, suggesting viral dissemination in the urinary tract. Despite all animals being infected with BPV-2, none showed BEH signs during the study. Thus, it was observed that BPV-2 infection alone didn't induce BEH over 20 months, implying a complex interaction with environmental factors or genetic predisposition. This underlines bracken fern consumption's critical role in urinary bladder carcinogenesis. The study underscores BEH's pathogenesis complexity, advocating longitudinal studies to comprehend BPV-2's role fully.

Ultrasonographic findings in the bladder of cattle at different stages of evolution of bovine enzootic hematuria in Brazil

Despite the diagnostic capacity of ultrasonography (US) in cases of bovine enzootic hematuria (BEH), it has been underused in the medical clinic for ruminants. Studies comparing ultrasound findings in healthy animals (HA) with subclinical (SCH) and clinical (CH) BEH are scarce in the literature. As a result, the present work aims to describe the US findings of cattle at different stages of BEH evolution, evaluating the diagnostic capacity and precocity of the technique. The study was carried out on five rural properties in the municipalities of Rio Preto and Bom Jardim de Minas - MG, Brazil, using 46 dairy cattle, females over 18 months of age, evaluated and classified as G1/CH, G2/SCH and G3/HA, according to history, clinical examination and urinalysis, with subsequent ultrasound analysis of the bladder. The mean bladder wall thickness was 36.50 mm in G1/CH, 33.53 mm in G2/SCH and 37.93 mm in G3/HA. Irregular walls were observed in 53.33 % (8/15) of G1/CH, 27 0.78 % (5/18) of G2/SCH and 38.46 % (5/13) of G3/HA. Loss of the architecture of the urothelium layers was observed in 53.33 % (8/15) of G1/CH, 33.33 % (6/18) of G2/SCH and 38.46 % (5/13) of G3/HA. Multifocal and Grade I lesion were the most common. Ultrasonography allowed the identification of lesions in 38.46 % of animals that did not present hematuria and in 33.33 % of animals that presented occult blood and proved to be an efficient technique for detecting pre-clinical cases of BEH, allowing easy identification. and early onset of BEH cases.

Determination of ptaquiloside in ten species of Pteris in northwestern Argentina

The toxic effect of ferns of the genus of Pteris in bovines is caused by ptaquiloside, the main carcinogenic toxin. In this study, ten species of Pteris fern in different phenologic stages and plant conditions were collected in northwest Argentina. The phytochemical analysis showed the presence of Pt in the recent collected samples (adults and young plants) but not in the herbarium specimens. The results show a great variation of Pt concentration that depends on the phenologic stage, plant condition, and collection site. Pt was measured in 6-4326 μg/g concentration, with a mean concentration of 644 μg/g. No Pt was detected in eight species of Pteris collected from herbarium samples; such results may be a false negative. It is important to notice that analysis of herbarium samples for Pt may not be a reliable method to determine its presence. It is important to further understand the potential toxicity caused by these ferns because of their effect on animals, public health, and the environment.

Cross-species oncogenomics offers insight into human muscle-invasive bladder cancer

BACKGROUND

In humans, muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) is highly aggressive and associated with a poor prognosis. With a high mutation load and large number of altered genes, strategies to delineate key driver events are necessary. Dogs and cats develop urothelial carcinoma (UC) with histological and clinical similarities to human MIBC. Cattle that graze on bracken fern also develop UC, associated with exposure to the carcinogen ptaquiloside. These species may represent relevant animal models of spontaneous and carcinogen-induced UC that can provide insight into human MIBC.

RESULTS

Whole-exome sequencing of domestic canine (n = 87) and feline (n = 23) UC, and comparative analysis with human MIBC reveals a lower mutation rate in animal cases and the absence of APOBEC mutational signatures. A convergence of driver genes (ARID1A, KDM6A, TP53, FAT1, and NRAS) is discovered, along with common focally amplified and deleted genes involved in regulation of the cell cycle and chromatin remodelling. We identify mismatch repair deficiency in a subset of canine and feline UCs with biallelic inactivation of MSH2. Bovine UC (n = 8) is distinctly different; we identify novel mutational signatures which are recapitulated in vitro in human urinary bladder UC cells treated with bracken fern extracts or purified ptaquiloside.

CONCLUSION

Canine and feline urinary bladder UC represent relevant models of MIBC in humans, and cross-species analysis can identify evolutionarily conserved driver genes. We characterize mutational signatures in bovine UC associated with bracken fern and ptaquiloside exposure, a human-linked cancer exposure. Our work demonstrates the relevance of cross-species comparative analysis in understanding both human and animal UC.

Possible etiological association of ovine papillomaviruses with bladder tumors in cattle

INTRODUCTION

Bladder tumors of cattle are very uncommon accounting from 0.1% to 0.01% of all bovine malignancies. Bladder tumors are common in cattle grazing on bracken fern-infested pasturelands. Bovine papillomaviruses have a crucial role in tumors of bovine urinary bladder.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the potential association of ovine papillomavirus (OaPV) infection with bladder carcinogenesis of cattle.

METHODS

Droplet digital PCR was used to detect and quantify the nucleic acids of OaPVs in bladder tumors of cattle that were collected at public and private slaughterhouses.

RESULTS

OaPV DNA and RNA were detected and quantified in 10 bladder tumors of cattle that were tested negative for bovine papillomaviruses. The most prevalent genotypes were OaPV1 and OaPV2. OaPV4 was rarely observed. Furthermore, we detected a significant overexpression and hyperphosphorylation of pRb and a significant overexpression and activation of the calpain-1 as well as a significant overexpression of E2F3 and of phosphorylated (activated) PDGFβR in neoplastic bladders in comparison with healthy bladders, which suggests that E2F3 and PDGFβR may play an important role in OaPV-mediated molecular pathways that lead to bladder carcinogenesis.

CONCLUSION

In all tumors, OaPV RNA could explain the causality of the disease of the urinary bladder. Therefore, persistent infections by OaPVs could be involved in bladder carcinogenesis. Our data showed that there is a possible etiologic association of OaPVs with bladder tumors of cattle.

Molecular Markers in Urinary Bladder Cancer: Applications for Diagnosis, Prognosis and Therapy

Cancer of the urinary bladder is a neoplasm with considerable importance in veterinary medicine, given its high incidence in several domestic animal species and its life-threatening character. Bladder cancer in companion animals shows a complex and still poorly understood biopathology, and this lack of knowledge has limited therapeutic progress over the years. Even so, important advances concerning the identification of tumour markers with clinical applications at the diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic levels have recently been made, for example, the identification of pathological BRAF mutations. Those advances are now facilitating the introduction of targeted therapies. The present review will address such advances, focusing on small animal oncology and providing the reader with an update on this field. When appropriate, comparisons will be drawn with bladder cancer in human patients, as well as with experimental models of the disease.

Role of BAG3 in bovine Deltapapillomavirus-mediated autophagy

Bovine Deltapapillomavirus genus (δPV), comprises four members that are highly pathogenic and are frequently associated with bladder tumors of adult cattle and water buffaloes. In particular, bovine δPV-2 and δPV-13 are commonly found in urinary bladder tumors in adult large ruminants reared fully or partially on hilly/mountain pasturelands rich in bracken fern (Pteridium spp.) as the urinary bladder of the herbivores is the specific target for bracken genotoxins such as ptaquiloside (PT). PT is a sesquiterpenoid responsible for alkylation of adenine of codon 61 of gene H-Ras, which results in Glutamine 61 substitution that is essential for guanosine triphosphate (GTP) hydrolysis. Glutamine substitution at position 61 impairs the intrinsic GTPase activity. Therefore, active GTP-bound conformations (Ras-GTP) accumulate in cells, thereby causing abnormal cell proliferation and differentiation. The aim of the present study is to stress how bovine δPVs upregulate different forms of selective autophagy, of which BAG3 is a key player. BAG3 plays a central role in autophagy and acts as a multifunctional hub for an interaction network at the cytosolic and mitochondrial level. BAG3 is a functional partner of bovine δPV E5 oncoprotein and forms a complex with molecular chaperones Hsc70/Hsp70/Hsp8B and with cochaperone CHIP. BAG3 interacts with Synpo2. It is believed that this interaction has a crucial role for autophagosome (mitophagosome) formation. Furthermore, in urothelial cells infected by bovine δPVs, BAG3 interacts with parkin and some receptors such as BNIP3/FUNDC1, which suggests that BAG3 is involved in both parkin-dependent and -independent mitophagy that appear upregulate in bladder carcinogenesis of cattle induced by bovine δPVs. Surprisingly, BAG3 interacts also with ERAS, a protein encoded by the ERas gene, a novel member of the RAS family. Unlike in humans, the ERas gene is a functional gene in the cells of adult cattle, and it appears to play a role in bovine BAG3-mediated selective autophagy, including mitophagy observed in urothelial cells spontaneously infected with bovine papillomavirus.

Pteridium spp. and Bovine Papillomavirus: Partners in Cancer

Bovine papillomavirus (BPV) are a cause for global concern due to their wide distribution and the wide range of benign and malignant diseases they are able to induce. Those lesions include cutaneous and upper digestive papillomas, multiple histological types of urinary bladder cancers—most often associated with BPV1 and BPV2—and squamous cell carcinomas of the upper digestive system, associated with BPV4. Clinical, epidemiological and experimental evidence shows that exposure to bracken fern (Pteridium spp.) and other related ferns plays an important role in allowing viral persistence and promoting the malignant transformation of early viral lesions. This carcinogenic potential has been attributed to bracken illudane glycoside compounds with immune suppressive and mutagenic properties, such as ptaquiloside. This review addresses the role of BPV in tumorigenesis and its interactions with bracken illudane glycosides. Current data indicates that inactivation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells by bracken fern illudanes plays a significant role in allowing viral persistence and lesion progression, while BPV drives unchecked cell proliferation and allows the accumulation of genetic damage caused by chemical mutagens. Despite limited progress in controlling bracken infestation in pasturelands, bracken toxins remain a threat to animal health. The number of recognized BPV types has steadily increased over the years and now reaches 24 genotypes with different pathogenic properties. It remains essential to widen the available knowledge concerning BPV and its synergistic interactions with bracken chemical carcinogens, in order to achieve satisfactory control of the livestock losses they induce worldwide.

Inverted urothelial papilloma in a cat

A 12-year-old neutered female cat was referred with clinical signs referable to lower urinary tract disease. Clinical examination revealed a tense, painful urinary bladder, and proximal urethral thickening. Endoscopic studies showed a pedunculated mass with polypoid projections. Multiple full-thickness mucosal biopsies were obtained, and the mass was almost completely excised. The neoplasm was confined to the mucosa and consisted of epithelial cells arranged in anastomosing trabeculae and nests, growing downward into the lamina propria. Neoplastic cells showed minimal atypia and low mitotic activity. Histological findings were consistent with inverted urothelial papilloma. Feline papillomavirus DNA was not amplified from biopsies. One year later, the cat had no urological signs, and urinary bladder was normal at ultrasound. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of a case of inverted urothelial papilloma in a cat and is a differential diagnosis for low-grade urothelial carcinoma and other lesions with inverted growth pattern.

Association Between BoLA-DRB3.2 Polymorphism and Bovine Papillomavirus Infection for Bladder Tumor Risk in Podolica Cattle

Blood samples from 260 unrelated cattle (132 animals affected by papillomavirus-associated bladder tumors and 128 healthy) were genotyped using the classic polymerase chain reaction/restriction fragment length polymorphism method to screen MHC class II bovine leukocyte antigen-DRB3. 2 polymorphism. The DRB3^*22 allele was significantly (p ≤ 0.01) detected in healthy cattle, thus appearing to have a negative association (protective effect) with virus infection of the urinary bladder known to represent a bladder tumor risk for cattle living free at pasture. Considering the two sequence alleles identified in animals carrying DRB3^*22, DRB3^*011:01 allele from samples of animals harboring the unexpressed bovine papillomaviruses (BPV)-2 E5 gene was characterized by amino acid residues believed to have a protective effect against BPV infection such as arginine at position 71 (R⁷¹) in pocket 4, histidine at position 11 (H¹¹) in pocket 6, and both glutamine at position 9 (Q⁹) and serine at position 57 (S⁵⁷) in pocket 9 of the antigen-binding groove. The DRB3^*011:02v allele from affected animals was characterized by amino acids believed to be susceptibility residues such as lysine (K⁷¹), tyrosine (Y¹¹), glutamic acid (E⁹), and aspartic acid (D⁵⁷) in these pockets. These results suggest that animals harboring the DRB3^*011:01 allele may have a lower risk of BPV infection and, consequently, a reduced risk of bladder tumors.

Hemorrhagic diathesis in cattle due to consumption of Adiantopsis chlorophylla (Swartz) Fée (Pteridaceae)

An outbreak of acute febrile syndrome associated with coagulopathy and severe pancytopenia occurred in cattle grazing in paddocks with high infestation by Adiantopsis chlorophylla. The administration of the plant to a calf reproduced the same signs and lesions seen in spontaneous cases. Similar syndromes are caused by ptaquiloside from bracken fern. Traces of the ptaquiloside-like molecule caudatoside were detected together with 0.03-0.24 mg/g of it's degradation product pterosin A, in dry fronds of the plant. In conclusion, A. chlorophylla is a cause of hemorrhagic diathesis in cattle.

Fate of ptaquiloside-A bracken fern toxin-In cattle

Ptaquiloside is a natural toxin present in bracken ferns (Pteridium sp.). Cattle ingesting bracken may develop bladder tumours and excrete genotoxins in meat and milk. However, the fate of ptaquiloside in cattle and the link between ptaquiloside and cattle carcinogenesis is unresolved. Here, we present the toxicokinetic profile of ptaquiloside in plasma and urine after intravenous administration of ptaquiloside and after oral administration of bracken. Administered intravenously ptaquiloside, revealed a volume of distribution of 1.3 L kg-1 with a mean residence-time of 4 hours. A large fraction of ptaquiloside was converted to non-toxic pterosin B in the blood stream. Both ptaquiloside and pterosin B were excreted in urine (up to 41% of the dose). Oral administration of ptaquiloside via bracken extract or dried ferns did not result in observations of ptaquiloside in body fluids, indicating deglycosolidation in the rumen. Pterosin B was detected in both plasma and urine after oral administration. Hence, transport of carcinogenic ptaquiloside metabolites over the rumen membrane is indicated. Pterosin B recovered from urine counted for 7% of the dose given intravenously. Heifers exposed to bracken for 7 days (2 mg ptaquiloside kg-1) developed preneoplastic lesions in the urinary bladder most likely caused by genotoxic ptaquiloside metabolites.

Chaperone-assisted selective autophagy in healthy and papillomavirus-associated neoplastic urothelium of cattle

Chaperone-assisted selective autophagy (CASA) is a newly-described selective tension-induced macroautophagy pathway mediated by Bag3 that is believed to be essential for mechanotransduction in skeletal muscle and to be an important regulator of the immune system. We investigated CASA machinery both in healthy and in fifteen papillomavirus-associated neoplastic bovine urothelium. The components of CASA complex, that comprises the molecular chaperones HspA8/Hsc70 and Hsp8B/Hsp22 and the cochaperones Bag3 and STUB1/CHIP, were studied by molecular, microscopic and submicroscopic investigations. CASA complex was found to be constitutively expressed in healthy bovine urothelium; its expression increased in urothelial cancers of cattle, namely thirteen papillary carcinomas and two papillary urothelial neoplasm of low malignant potential (PUNLMPs). We suggest that basal levels of CASA are important in the healthy urothelium which interfaces with the community of urinary microbiota thus representing an important epithelial cell-autonomous mechanism of antibacterial defense. Co-immunoprecipitation studies using an antibody against bovine papillomavirus E5 protein revealed that the oncoprotein co-localized with CASA complex in urothelial cancer cells. This suggests that infection by BPV E5 could influence cell behaviour by interfering with basal autophagy processes although this study did not conclusively show that this interaction increased the expression of CASA proteins. In neoplastic urothelium, CASA could be involved in regulating fundamental cellular processes such adhesion, migration, and proliferation and so might influence the biological behaviour of urothelial tumors in cattle.

Equine idiopathic hemorrhagic cystitis: Clinical features and comparison with bladder neoplasia

BACKGROUND

A new syndrome of hematuria in horses has been documented.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

Hemorrhagic cystitis is a novel cause of stranguria and hematuria in horses. This syndrome may be difficult to differentiate from bladder neoplasia because they share several clinical features.

ANIMALS

Eleven horses with idiopathic hemorrhagic cystitis and 7 horses with bladder neoplasia.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study.

RESULTS

Hemorrhagic cystitis was detected on cystoscopy of affected horses, with hemorrhagic and thickened apical bladder mucosa. Clinical signs and endoscopic appearance of the bladder resolved within 3-8 weeks. Histopathology of bladder mucosal biopsy specimens featured neutrophilic and hemorrhagic cystitis. Histopathology was suggestive of dysplasia or neoplasia in 3 horses with hemorrhagic cystitis, yet the horses experienced complete resolution, suggesting that small biopsy specimens obtained by endoscopy can be difficult to interpret. Horses with bladder neoplasia had lower hematocrits, were older, more likely to be female, and more likely to have a mass detected on ultrasonographic examination of the bladder than horses with hemorrhagic cystitis syndrome.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Hemorrhagic cystitis represents a novel differential diagnosis for horses with hematuria, and is associated with a favorable prognosis. Although histopathology may suggest a neoplastic process, affected horses should be monitored cystoscopically, because complete resolution of hemorrhagic cystitis occurs. The cause of this disease is unknown, and warrants investigation.

An Update on Canine, Feline and Bovine Papillomaviruses

Over recent years, a growing number of papillomaviruses have been identified, which cause a wide range of lesions in domestic and wild animals. Papillomavirus-induced lesions may have a great impact on animal health, and some diseases observed in farm animals are associated with significant economic losses. This concise review brings together recent advancements on animal papillomavirus research, providing the scientific community and veterinary practitioners with an update on this rapidly evolving field. Among others, bovine, canine and feline papillomaviruses (BPV, CPV and FcaPV) are most extensively discussed, in view of the recent discovery of new viral types and their worldwide importance for animal health. Feline papillomaviruses 2 is an emerging, highly prevalent pathogen in domestic cats, associated with a subset of malignant skin lesions. Aspects related to cross-species infection by BPV and its environmental co-factors are also addressed. Animal papillomaviruses are also fascinating models for studying molecular and cell biology and have recently inspired some major breakthroughs. Overall, it is clear that additional, international and systematic efforts are needed to clarify which lesions are caused by which viral types and to develop experimental models for studying animal papillomavirus.

Lavado vesical de bovinos com hematúria enzoótica: padronização de técnica de colheita, obtenção de amostras e avaliação citopatológica

RESUMO A hematúria enzoótica bovina é uma doença crônica que causa neoplasias na bexiga, e o exame citopatológico poderia auxiliar no diagnóstico precoce. Objetivou-se padronizar a técnica de colheita, obtenção de amostras e avaliação citopatológica do lavado vesical de bovinos com hematúria enzoótica bovina. Foram utilizadas 10 vacas, adultas, distribuídas em dois grupos. No grupo A foi recuperado todo o líquido vesical infundido, no grupo B foi recuperado apenas o último lavado. Os lavados foram submetidos à avaliação citopatológica. Apesar do volume final de líquido vesical ter sido maior no grupo A, em relação ao número de células, não houve diferença significativa (p > 0,05) entre os grupos. A quantidade de células inflamatórias e células epiteliais obtidas por amostra revelou que nos dois grupos todos os animais apresentavam mais células inflamatórias do que epiteliais, entretanto, não houve diferença entre o tipo de colheita realizada. As células epiteliais foram encontradas em 60% dos casos e as alterações morfológicas observadas foram discretas, não sendo possível classificar nenhuma amostra como hiperplásica ou neoplásica. Os dados deste estudo permitiram concluir que o exame citopatológico do lavado vesical de bovinos pode auxiliar no diagnóstico da hematúria enzoótica bovina e que os dois métodos de colheita empregados mostraram-se adequados para obtenção de amostras viáveis. A avaliação citopatológica permitiu a identificação de lesões não neoplásicas predominantemente inflamatórias. Acredita-se que a utilização de técnicas moleculares com biomarcadores em amostras citológicas seria importante para detectar precocemente lesões pré-neoplásicas ou neoplásicas nesses animais.

Mincle, an Innate Immune Receptor, Is Expressed in Urothelial Cancer Cells of Papillomavirus-Associated Urothelial Tumors of Cattle

BACKGROUND

Mincle, macrophage-inducible C-type lectin, is a member of C-type lectin receptors. It plays an important role in anti-mycobacterial and anti-fungal immunity. Furthermore it senses dead cells through its primary ligand SAP130.

MATERIALS AND FINDINGS

We examined ten urothelial tumors of the urinary bladder of cattle. Eight of them expressed E5 cDNA of bovine papillomaviruses type 2 (BPV-2) and type 13 (BPV-13) that belong to Deltapapillomavirus genus. Two of them were not examined for detection of E5 cDNA. Mincle expression appeared to occur in urothelial neoplastic cells only. No mincle expression was detected in urothelial cells from healthy cattle. Mincle expression was characterized by a membranous pattern in papillary urothelial cancers; isolated and/or clustered urothelial cells showing a strong cytoplasmic immunoreactivity were primarily seen in invasive urothelial cancers.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study about the expression of mincle in veterinary oncology and the first report which describes the expression of functional mincle receptor in neoplastic cells in medical literature. As it has been shown that urothelial cancer cells have the ability to function as antigen-presenting cells (APCs), it is conceivable that mincle expression is involved in the presentation of cancer cell antigens to cells of the immune system. Furthermore, since expression of mincle contributes to the control of Mycobacterium bovis BCG infection, this study has exciting clinical implications in comparative medicine keeping in mind that Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) immunotherapy is currently the most effective treatment of non-muscle invasive bladder cancer in man. Mincle expression in urothelial tumor cells warrants further study to better understand the role, if any, of this receptor in bladder cancer. Future studies will provide insights in the role of mincle receptor of urothelial cancer cells in antitumor immunotherapy.

Detection and quantification of bovine papillomavirus type 2 in urinary bladders and lymph nodes in cases of Bovine Enzootic Hematuria from the endemic region of Azores

Bovine Enzootic Hematuria (BEH) is a disease with a severe impact on production indexes and characterized by the development of bovine urinary bladder tumors, particularly in the Azores archipelago. The purpose of this study was to investigate and quantify BPV2 tissue distribution in bovine urinary bladder tumors, normal bladders, and iliac lymph nodes of cattle from the Azores. A real-time PCR system targeting the L1 gene was developed and allowed for the specific detection of the virus. BPV2 DNA was detected in a large proportion of the samples tested, both from neoplastic and healthy tissues, indicating that this virus is very prevalent in the bovine population of the Azores. Moreover, all types of tissues tested were positive, confirming a wide viral distribution within the infected animal. Bovine cutaneous papillomas sampled from Portuguese mainland dairy cattle were used as controls. Viral load ranged between 2.2×10(4) copies/cell in the skin papillomas, and 0.0002 copies/cell in the urinary bladders tumors from the Azores. This is the first report presenting quantitative data on BPV2 infection in bovine urinary bladder lesions from the Azores. This approach will provide a useful tool to evaluate the role of BPV2 not only in the pathogenesis BEH but also in cell transformation mechanisms.

Hematuria and urinary bladder lesions compatible with bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) intoxication in captive fallow deer (Dama dama)

Hemangiosarcoma, hemangioma, transitional cell carcinoma, and chronic cystitis were diagnosed in the urinary bladder of six captive fallow deer (Dama dama). Hematuria and thin body condition were observed in the advanced cases. These findings were compatible with chronic enzootic hematuria and were suspected to have been induced by chronic ingestion of bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) present on the premises. These lesions were similar to those described in bovine enzootic hematuria in cattle. Hemangiosarcoma metastases, hydronephrosis, and renal carcinoma were also associated in some cases. This is the first report of hemangioma, hemangiosarcoma, transitional cell carcinoma, and renal carcinoma of the urinary bladder in fallow deer and the first indication of bracken fern intoxication in deer.

Ptaquiloside-induced early-stage urothelial lesions show increased cell proliferation and intact β-catenin and E-cadherin expression

Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) is a carcinogenic plant whose main toxin, ptaquiloside, causes cancer in farm and laboratory animals. Ptaquiloside contaminates underground waters as well as meat and milk from bracken-grazing animals and is a suspected human carcinogen. A better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of carcinogenesis can be achieved by studying the early stages of this process. Unfortunately, most research on ptaquiloside has focused on the late, malignant, lesions, so the early changes of ptaquiloside-induced carcinogenesis remain largely unknown. This study aims to characterize early-stage ptaquiloside-induced urinary bladder lesions both morphologically and immunohistochemically. 12 male CD-1 mice were administered 0.5 mg ptaquiloside intraperitoneally, weekly, for 15 weeks, followed by 15 weeks without treatment. 12 control animals were administered saline. Bladders were tested immunohistochemically for antibodies against a cell proliferation marker (Ki-67), and two cell adhesion markers (E-cadherin and β-catenin). Two exposed animals died during the work. Six ptaquiloside-exposed mice developed low-grade and two developed high grade urothelial dysplasia. No lesions were detected on control animals. Significantly, increased (p < 0.05) Ki-67 labeling indices were found on dysplastic urothelium from ptaquiloside-exposed mice, compared with controls. No differences were found concerning E-cadherin and β-catenin expression. Early-stage ptaquiloside-induced urothelial lesions show increased cell proliferation but there is no evidence for reduced intercellular adhesiveness, though this may be a later event in tumor progression.

Epithelial Urinary Bladder Tumors From Cows With Enzootic Hematuria

Thirty-nine epithelial bladder tumor samples from 37 animals affected with bovine enzootic hematuria (BEH) were selected for immunohistochemical studies. The expression of structural proteins such as uroplakin III (UPIII) and cytokeratin 7 (CK7) and the cell cycle–related proteins cyclin D1 and p53 were evaluated in urothelial papillomas and carcinomas. Loss of UPIII and CK7 expression was seen in both high-grade and high-stage urothelial carcinomas ( P < .001 and P < .02). Cyclin D1 expression showed no statistically significant association with grade or stage. In contrast, p53 immunoreactivity was positive in high-grade and high-stage carcinomas ( P < .05 and P < .01), confirming its association with the highest malignant behavior of the bladder tumors in BEH.

Bovine papillomavirus type 2 infection and a series of mesenchymal tumors of the urinary bladder in cattle

This report describes the histopathology of two hundred and fifty-three mesenchymal tumors of the urinary bladder in cattle grazing on lands rich in bracken fern. Approximately 80% were hemangiomas and angiosarcomas. Hemangioma (capillary, cavernous, and large vessels) was the most frequent mesenchymal tumor and was more common than angiosarcoma. Although the appearance of endothelial cells can vary remarkably, epithelioid angiosarcomas, often containing multinucleated cells, were the most frequent malignant vascular tumors. Hemangiopericytoma and tumors of muscle and soft connective tissue origin, alone and/or in association with tumor-like lesions, were less frequently seen. Furthermore, forty-five cases of intravascular papillary endothelial hyperplasia (IPEH), a lesion not previously reported in the urinary bladder of cattle, were also described. Bovine papillomavirus type-2 DNA was amplified in tumor samples. Forty vascular tumors were investigated by dual-labeling immunofluorescence, and, for the first time, a coexpression of E5 and platelet-derived growth factor β receptor (PDGFβR) was shown to occur. The results show that the BPV-2 E5 oncoprotein binds to the activated form of the PDGFβ receptor thus playing an important role in mesenchymal as well as epithelial carcinogenesis of the urinary bladder. Furthermore, these findings demonstrate that BPV-2 infects both epithelial and mesenchymal cells.

The environmental and human effects of ptaquiloside-induced enzootic bovine hematuria: a tumorous disease of cattle

In this review, we address the major aspects of enzootic bovine hematuria and have placed special emphasis on describing the etiology, human health implications, and advanced molecular diagnosis of the disease.Enzootic bovine hematuria (EBH) is a bovine disease characterized by the intermittent presence of blood in the urine and is caused by malignant lesions in the urinary bladder. This incurable disease is a serious malady in several countries across many continents. Accurate early-stage diagnosis of the disease is possible by applying advanced molecular techniques, e.g., detection of genetic mutations in the urine of cows from endemic areas. Use of such diagnostic approaches may help create an effective therapy against the disease.There is a consensus that EBH is caused primarily by animals consuming bracken fern (P. aquilinum) as they graze. The putative carcinogen in bracken is ptaquiloside(PT), a glycoside. However, other bracken constituents like quercetin, isoquercetin,ptesculentoside, caudatoside, astragalin, and tannins may also be carcinogenic.Studies are needed to identify the role of other metabolites in inducing urinary bladder carcinogenesis.The bovine papilloma virus is also thought to be an associated etiology in causing EBH in cattle. There is growing alarm that these fern toxins and their metabolites reach and contaminate the soil and water environment and that the carcinogen (PT)is transmitted via cow's milk to the human food chain, where it may now pose a threat to human health. An increased incidence of gastric and esophageal cancer has been recorded in humans consuming bracken ferns, and among those living for long periods in areas infested with bracken ferns.Although preliminary therapeutic vaccine trials with inactivated BPV-2 against EBH have been performed, further work is needed to standardize and validate vaccine doses for animals.

Expression of heat shock proteins in premalignant and malignant urothelial lesions of bovine urinary bladder

Abnormal heat shock protein (HSP) levels have been observed in a number of human tumours, where they are involved in all hallmarks of cancer. Since bovine urothelial tumours share striking morphological and biochemical features with their human counterparts, the aim of this study was to evaluate the immunohistochemical levels of Hsp27, Hsp60, Hsp72, Hsp73 and Hsp90 in 28 normal bovine urinary bladders and 30 bovine papillomavirus-positive urothelial tumours (9 in situ carcinomas, 9 low-grade and 12 high-grade carcinomas) and adjacent premalignant lesions obtained from cows suffering from chronic enzootic haematuria, in order to investigate the role of these proteins in the process of urothelial carcinogenesis. A semi-quantitative method was used for the analysis of the results. Western blot analysis was also used to confirm HSP expression in normal controls. All investigated HSPs were expressed in normal bovine urothelium, showing characteristic patterns of immunolabelling throughout urothelial cell layers, which usually appeared to be conserved in urothelial hyperplasia and dysplasia. On the other hand, gradual loss of Hsp27 immunostaining resulted to be significantly associated with increasing histological grade of malignancy (P < 0.01). As well, a significantly reduced immunosignal of Hsp73 and Hsp90 was observed in high-grade and low-/high-grade carcinomas, respectively (P < 0.01). In contrast, Hsp60 (P < 0.01) and Hsp72 (P < 0.05) immunoreactivity appeared to be significantly increased both in premalignant and malignant lesions when compared to that observed in normal urothelium, thus suggesting an early involvement of these proteins in neoplastic transformation of urinary bladder mucosa.

Bracken-associated human and animal health hazards: chemical, biological and pathological evidence

Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) is a widely distributed carcinogenic fern, to whose toxins human populations are exposed through multiple routes. Animals are also affected by bracken toxins, leading to serious production losses yearly. Accordingly, several governmental reports regarding the safeguard of public health against bracken carcinogens have been recently issued. This review describes the main bioactive compounds identified in bracken and their biological effects at the molecular, cellular, pathological and populational levels, with particular emphasis on ptaquiloside, the main bracken carcinogen. Recent biopathological studies shedding further light on the genotoxicity immunotoxicity and carcinogenicity of ptaquiloside are discussed. Key steps on the long effort to understand bracken toxicology are also reviewed, along with the latest findings on new bracken toxins and human exposures routes. The presence of ptaquiloside and related terpene glycosides in milk, meat and water are of particular concern from the viewpoints of both human and animal health.

A new, very sensitive method of assessment of ptaquiloside, the major bracken carcinogen in the milk of farm animals

We describe a new method to detect trace levels of ptaquiloside (Pta), a major carcinogen of bracken fern in biological samples such as milk from farm animals. The method involves the absorption of analyte on carbograph followed by elution with solvents mixtures. The unstable analyte is then converted into Br-Pt (II), which is specific for Pta, as it is not a natural decay product of the glycoside in aqueous media. An internal standard, the Br-pterosine-d₂, prepared in our laboratories has been used. Detection and quantification are possible with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) in single ion monitoring mode (SIM). The detectable amount is in the range of ppb. The method allowed us to detect Pta not only in the milk from bracken fern-poisoned cattle but also, for the first time, in the milk from healthy farm animals such as sheep, goat, horse, and donkey mares.

Epithelioid hemangiosarcomas of the bovine urinary bladder: a histologic, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural examination of four tumors

Epithelioid hemangiosarcoma is a specific variant of hemangiosarcoma that has recently been recognized in domestic animals. These malignant vascular neoplasms histologically resemble, and may be mistaken for, carcinomas. Four epithelioid hemangiosarcomas in the urinary bladders of 4 cows with severe enzootic hematuria are described in the current study. Grossly, the vesicular mucosa of the urinary bladder of each cow contained a single red elevated nodule. Histologically, each neoplasm was composed of short strands, cords, or nests of epithelioid, round, or slightly spindle-shaped endothelial cells that formed small vascular structures. Neoplastic cells were immunohistochemically positive for factor VIII-related antigen and vimentin, and were negative for cytokeratin and desmin. Ultrastructurally, the neoplastic cells often contained cytoplasmic intermediate filaments, a prominent granular endoplasmic reticulum, a Golgi complex, mitochondria, marked pinocytotic activity, and rare Weibel-Palade bodies. These neoplasms were diagnosed as epithelioid hemangiosarcomas based on their histologic, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural features. The present report widens the spectrum of mesenchymal tumors of the bovine urinary bladder and aids in the characterization of these vascular neoplasms.

Association of bovine papillomavirus type 2 (BPV-2) and urinary bladder tumours in cattle from the Azores archipelago

Urinary bladder tumours in cattle are caused by chronic ingestion of bracken fern and BPV-1/2 infection. The objective of the present study was to assess if BPV-2 was present in urinary bladder lesions from cattle with chronic enzootic haematuria (CEH) from the Azores archipelago (Portugal), in order to gain further information regarding the epidemiologic distribution of this virus. Samples were analysed using PCR specific primers for BPV-2 DNA and an immunohistochemistry for BPV E5 oncoprotein detection. We found a 28% incidence rate of BPV-2 DNA in different types of tumours and cystitis cases (13 out of 46 samples). Tested positive samples for PCR were also positive for the viral E5 oncoprotein; protein immunolabeling was mainly detected within the cytoplasm of urothelial cells, displaying a juxtanuclear distribution. This is the first report of BPV-2 detection in urinary bladder tumours associated with CEH in cattle from the Azores archipelago.

Trace metals and over-expression of metallothioneins in bladder tumoral lesions: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have provided some evidence of a possible association between cancer and metallothioneins. Whether this relates to an exposure to carcinogenic metals remains unclear.

METHODS

In order to examine the association between the expression of metallothioneins and bladder tumors, and to compare the levels of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead and nickel in animals with bladder tumors and animals without bladder tumors, 37 cases of bovine bladder tumors and 17 controls were collected. The detection and quantification of metallothioneins in bladder tissue of both cases and controls was performed by immunohistochemistry. And the quantification of metals in tissue and hair was assessed by inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Increased expression of metallothioneins was associated with bladder tumors when compared with non-tumoral bladder tissue (OR = 9.3, 95% CI: 1.0 - 480). The concentrations of cadmium, chromium, lead and nickel in hair of cases were significantly higher than those of controls. However, as for the concentration of metals in bladder tissue, the differences were not significant.

CONCLUSION

Though the sample size was small, the present study shows an association between bladder tumors and metallothioneins. Moreover, it shows that concentrations of metals such as cadmium, chromium, lead and nickel in hair may be used as a biomarker of exposure.

Aspectos clínico-hematológicos e lesões vesicais na intoxicação crônica espontânea por Pteridium aquilinum em bovinos

Foram estudados casos espontâneos de intoxicação crônica por samambaia (Pteridium aquilinum) em bovinos nas formas clinicopatológicas de carcinoma de células escamosas (CCE) no trato alimentar superior (TAS) e de hematúria enzoótica bovina (HEB), provenientes da Mesorregião Centro Ocidental Rio-Grandense e encaminhados ao Laboratório de Patologia Veterinária da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria. Para o estudo clínico foram avaliados os sinais clínicos de bovinos com CCEs no TAS e com HEB e realizados hemogramas na fase terminal da doença. Os principais sinais clínicos nos bovinos com CCEs no TAS foram emagrecimento progressivo, atonia ruminal, tosse, disfagia, timpanismo e regurgitação. Nos bovinos com HEB, hematúria foi o principal sinal, observado em todos os casos, seguido de emagrecimento progressivo. No exame hematológico, 33,33% dos bovinos com CCEs no TAS e 66,67% dos bovinos com HEB apresentaram anemia arregenerativa. Alterações no leucograma ocorreram em alguns casos, mas linfopenia foi um achado infreqüente em ambas as formas de intoxicação. Para o estudo morfológico, foram avaliadas as bexigas de 46 bovinos com CCEs no TAS e de 11 bovinos com HEB. Macroscopicamente, 16/46 bexigas dos casos de CCEs no TAS apresentaram alterações macroscópicas, que consistiam nódulos vermelhos ou pálidos, hemorragia e papilomas; urina vermelha foi observada na necropsia de apenas três casos). Nos casos de HEB, os achados macroscópicos vesicais foram nódulos vermelhos, massas neoplásicas focalmente extensas, urina vermelha, papilomas, hemorragias e ruptura de bexiga; pielonefrite e hidronefrose foram observados em poucos casos. Histologicamente, 44/46 (95,65%) bexigas de bovinos com CCEs no TAS apresentaram 22 tipos diferentes de alterações morfológicas, que foram classificadas em alterações neoplásicas (5/22) e alterações não-neoplásicas (17/22); essas últimas foram divididas em alterações epiteliais não-neoplásicas (6/17), alterações gerais na lâmina própria (6/22) e alterações inflamatórias (5/17). Os achados histológicos das bexigas dos casos de HEB foram classificados da mesma forma, resultando em 19 tipos diferentes de alterações morfológicas. Dessas, 5/19 eram alterações neoplásicas e 14/20, alterações não-neoplásicas (9/14 alterações epiteliais não neoplásicas, 3/14 alterações gerais na lâmina própria e 2/14 alterações inflamatórias). Na HEB, os neoplasmas mesenquimais foram mais freqüentemente observados que os epiteliais, e a maior parte era maligna. A técnica de imuno-histoquímica foi utilizada para caracterizar os aspectos morfológicos, principalmente dos neoplasmas. Através do estudo morfológico concluiu-se que é muito freqüente a ocorrência de lesões vesicais em bovinos com a forma crônica de CCEs no TAS e que essas lesões são idênticas às encontradas nos bovinos com HEB.

Immunohistochemical Evaluation of Vascular Urinary Bladder Tumors from Cows with Enzootic Hematuria

Fifty-six endothelial-derived urinary bladder tumor samples collected from 26 animals with bovine enzootic hematuria were selected for immunohistochemical studies. Expression of factor VHI-related antigen (FVIIIra), CD31, muscle-specific actin, uroplakin III (UPIII), and the cell cycle-related proteins cyclin Dl and p53 was evaluated in hemangiomas, “hemangioendotheliomas” (a vascular tumor that histologically is intermediate in appearance between a hemangioma and a conventional hemangiosarcoma), and hemangiosarcomas. Although CD31 expression was seen in all endothelial tumors tested, FVIIIra was not expressed in poorly differentiated endothelial tumor cells from solid areas or in 7 muscle-invasive hemangiosarcomas. Cyclin Dl overexpression was seen in 53% of hemangiomas, 82% of hemangioendotheliomas, and 95% of hemangiosarcomas. P53 immunoreac-tivity was only seen in muscle-invasive hemangiosarcomas. The UPIII staining pattern, normally very intense on the apical aspect and cytoplasm of superficial urothelial cells, was altered in the urothelium in an estimated 25% of hemangiomas, most hemangioendotheliomas, and most hemangiosarcomas. In conclusion, CD31 is a better marker than FVIIIra in the characterization of bovine endothelial tumors. The cell cycle regulatory pathways involving cyclin Dl and p53 seem to be impaired in endothelial urinary bladder tumors, p53 immunoreactivity positively correlating with enhanced invasion.

A biological hazard of our age: bracken fern [Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn]--a review

Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) is the fifth most distributed common weed species of the world. Its ecological distribution is very wide, and the plant can grow and spread successfully on many types of soil. The cover of P. aquilinum is--in some cases--remarkable (e.g., in the United Kingdom). Bracken fern contains different poisonous agents: some cyanogen glycosides, factors (agents) of antithiamine character (thermolabile thiaminase and thermostable other compounds) and factors of carcinogenic activity (first of all ptaquiloside). This paper summarises and reviews different toxicological problems and poisonings caused by bracken fern in ruminants (cattle, sheep) and in non-ruminant animals (horses, pigs, rats, mice, etc.). The carcinogenic properties of the norsesquiterpene-type ptaquiloside make bracken fern a potent, living hazard. Recent investigations have shown that ptaquiloside pollution of different soil layers is a distinct possibility. Ptaquiloside may leach from the soil into the drinking water base. This ecotoxicological aspect seems to be the most hazardous phenomenon in relation to P. aquilinum and ptaquiloside. The carcinogenic effect of ptaquiloside is based on its hydrolysis, which leads to the formation of a dienon intermediate. It can produce DNA adducts, which are responsible for inducing carcinoma.

Bovine papillomaviruses, papillomas and cancer in cattle

Bovine papillomaviruses (BPV) are DNA oncogenic viruses inducing hyperplastic benign lesions of both cutaneous and mucosal epithelia in cattle. Ten (BPV 1-10) different viral genotypes have been characterised so far. BPV 1-10 are all strictly species-specific but BPV 1/2 may also infect equids inducing fibroblastic tumours. These benign lesions generally regress but may also occasionally persist, leading to a high risk of evolving into cancer, particularly in the presence of environmental carcinogenic co-factors. Among these, bracken fern is the most extensively studied. The synergism between immunosuppressants and carcinogenic principles from bracken fern and the virus has been experimentally demonstrated for both urinary bladder and alimentary canal cancer in cows whose diets were based on this plant. BPV associated tumours have veterinary and agricultural relevance in their own right, although they have also been studied as a relevant model of Human papillomavirus (HPV). Recent insights into BPV biology have paved the way to new fields of speculation on the role of these viruses in neoplastic transformation of cells other than epithelial ones. This review will briefly summarise BPV genome organization, will describe in greater detail the functions of viral oncoproteins, the interaction between the virus and co-carcinogens in tumour development; relevant aspects of immunity and vaccines will also be discussed.

Chemo-angiogenic profile of bovine urinary bladder tumors distinguishes urothelial carcinomas from hemangiosarcomas

Angiogenesis and inflammation are two processes regulated by numerous common molecular mechanisms. Inflammation can stimulate angiogenesis, and angiogenesis can facilitate inflammation; both mechanisms have been shown to be involved in carcinogenesis. With this study we sought to gain an understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in tumor angiogenesis and inflammation in urinary bladder tumors. Tumor specimens were collected at slaughter from Friesian cows chronically exposed to bracken fern. Bracken chronic toxicity is characterized by the presence of multiple mixed tumors in the bladder, being reported throughout the world under the designation of bovine enzootic hematuria. We conducted molecular analyses of angiogenic factors and chemokine production by real-time RT-PCR, and also assessed microvessel density (MVD), microvessel pericyte coverage index (MPI) to reveal mature vessels, the extent of tumor-infiltrating leukocytes (TILk) and tumor cell apoptosis and proliferation in both epithelial and endothelial-derived bovine urinary bladder tumors. We defined a profile of chemokines/chemokine receptors (Mip1beta, CCR1) and angiogenesis-related factors (VEGF, VEGFR2) that allow distinguishing between urothelial carcinomas (epithelial origin) and hemangiosarcomas (endothelial origin). Taken together, our data reveals previously unrecognized paracrine and autocrine chemo-angiogenic loops in the context of bovine urinary bladder tumorigenesis.

Bovine papillomavirus type-2 DNA and expression of E5 and E7 oncoproteins in vascular tumours of the urinary bladder in cattle

Cattles suffering from chronic enzootic haematuria frequently develop urinary bladder tumours of both epithelial and mesenchymal origin mainly haemangioma and its malignant counterpart. The role of the bovine papillomavirus type-2 (BPV-2) and of its major transforming oncoprotein in naturally occurring urothelial carcinogenesis has been recently clarified. E5 interacts in vivo as in vitro with the beta receptor for the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). However, studies regarding tumours of mesenchymal origin such as those arising from blood vessels are lacking. We show that the BPV-2 is present in 100% of the vascular tumours of the urinary bladder examined. Twenty-six out of twenty-seven tumour samples (96%) expressed E5 while 20 out of 27 (74%) tumour samples expressed E7. The two viral oncoproteins were not expressed in normal endothelial cells. Additionally, they co-localize in neoplastic endothelial cells as demonstrated by confocal immunofluorescence. PDGFbeta receptor was also shown to be expressed and co-localizes with E5 in neoplastic blood vessels. Our results demonstrate, for the first time, that the BPV-2 is present in high percentage in tumours of mesenchymal origin arising in its natural host. Furthermore, the expression of the two viral oncoproteins confirm that the virus may have a causative role in the neoplastic process.