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Wright NL, Klompmaker AA, Petsios E. Exploring the preservation of a parasitic trace in decapod crustaceans using finite elements analysis. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0296146. [PMID: 38626153 PMCID: PMC11020947 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0296146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/18/2024] Open
Abstract
The fossil record of parasitism is poorly understood, due largely to the scarcity of strong fossil evidence of parasites. Understanding the preservation potential for fossil parasitic evidence is critical to contextualizing the fossil record of parasitism. Here, we present the first use of X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning and finite elements analysis (FEA) to analyze the impact of a parasite-induced fossil trace on host preservation. Four fossil and three modern decapod crustacean specimens with branchial swellings attributed to an epicaridean isopod parasite were CT scanned and examined with FEA to assess differences in the magnitude and distribution of stress between normal and swollen branchial chambers. The results of the FEA show highly localized stress peaks in reaction to point forces, with higher peak stress on the swollen branchial chamber for nearly all specimens and different forces applied, suggesting a possible shape-related decrease in the preservation potential of these parasitic swellings. Broader application of these methods as well as advances in the application of 3D data analysis in paleontology are critical to understanding the fossil record of parasitism and other poorly represented fossil groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan L. Wright
- Department of Geosciences, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States of America
| | - Adiël A. Klompmaker
- Department of Museum Research and Collections & Alabama Museum of Natural History, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Petsios
- Department of Geosciences, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States of America
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2
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Inoue T, Hara Y, Nakazato K. Mechanical Resistance of the Largest Denticle on the Movable Claw of the Mud Crab. Biomimetics (Basel) 2023; 8:602. [PMID: 38132541 PMCID: PMC10742142 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics8080602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Decapod crustaceans have tooth-like white denticles that are present only on the pinching side of the claws. In the mud crab, Scylla serrata, a huge denticle exists on the movable finger of the dominant claw. This is mainly used to crush the shells of the crab's staple food. The local mechanical properties, hardness (HIT) and elastic modulus (Er), of the peak and valley areas of the largest denticle were examined via a nanoindentation test. The microstructure and elemental composition were characterized using a scanning electron microscope and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The striation patterns originating from a twisted plywood structure parallel to the surface were visible over the entire denticle. Most of the largest denticle was occupied by a hard area without phosphorus, and there was a soft layer corresponding to the endocuticle with phosphorus in the innermost part. The HIT of the denticle valley was about 40% lower than that of the denticle peak, and the thickness of the soft endocuticle of the denticle valley was five times thicker than that of the denticle peak. The HIT-Er map showed that the abrasion resistance of the denticle surface was vastly superior and was in the top class among organisms. The claw denticles were designed with the necessary characteristics in the necessary places, as related to the ecology of the mud crab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadanobu Inoue
- National Institute for Materials Science, 1-2-1, Sengen, Tsukuba 305-0047, Japan; (Y.H.); (K.N.)
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3
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Shen H, Ji A, Li Q, Li X, Ma Y. Tensile mechanical properties and finite element simulation of the wings of the butterfly Tirumala limniace. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2023; 209:239-251. [PMID: 35840718 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-022-01556-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the morphological characteristics and mechanical properties of the wings of Tirumala limniace. The wings of this butterfly, including the forewings and hindwings, are composed mainly of a flexible wing membrane and supporting wing veins. Scanning electron microscopy was employed to observe specific positions of the wing membrane and veins and reveal the morphological characteristics. Tensile experiments were conducted to evaluate the mechanical properties of the wings and proved that the multifiber layer structures have a significantly fixed orientation of fiber alignment. A butterfly wing model reconstructed in reverse based on the finite element method was used to analyze the static characteristics of the wing structure in detail. Evaluation of stress and strain after applying uniform loading, perpendicular loading, and torsion revealed that minor wing deformation occurred and was concentrated near the main wing vein, which verifies the steadiness of the butterfly wing structure. Additionally, the flapping of butterfly wings was simulated using computational fluid dynamics to study the flow field near the butterfly wings and the distribution of pressure gradient on the wings. The results confirmed the effect of wing veins on maintaining the flight performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Shen
- Institute of Bio-Inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing, 210016, China
| | - Aihong Ji
- Institute of Bio-Inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing, 210016, China.
| | - Qian Li
- Institute of Bio-Inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing, 210016, China
| | - Xin Li
- School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Suqian University, Suqian, 223800, China
| | - Yaopeng Ma
- Institute of Bio-Inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing, 210016, China
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4
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Yamagata N, Randall G, Lavoie E, Arola D, Wang J. Microstructure, mechanical properties and elemental composition of the terrestrial isopod Armadillidium vulgare cuticle. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2022; 132:105299. [PMID: 35671667 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2022.105299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The exoskeletons of crustaceans are essential for providing protection from predators and other environmental threats. Understanding the structure and mechanical behavior of their natural armor could inspire the design of lightweight and high toughness synthetic materials. Most published work has focused on marine crustacea rather than their terrestrial counterparts, which are exposed to a multitude of unique threats. The interest in the terrestrial isopod Armadillidium vulgare (A. vulgare) has grown but the interrelationship between the microstructure, chemical composition, and mechanical properties has not been thoroughly investigated. Thus, this study aims to elucidate missing details concerning this biological mineralized composite. Exoskeleton specimens were fixated to preserve the intrinsic protein structure. We utilize scanning electron microscopy for microstructure analysis, Raman spectroscopy for elemental analysis, and nanoindentation property mapping to achieve mechanical characterization. The naturally fractured A. vulgare exoskeleton cross-section reveals four subregions with the repeating helicoidal 'Bouligand' arrangement most prominent in the endocuticle. The hardness and reduced modulus distributions exhibit a through-thickness exponential gradient with decreasing magnitudes from the outermost to the innermost layers of the exoskeleton. The Raman spectra show a graded spatial distribution of key constituents such as calcium carbonate across the thickness, some of which are consistent with the mechanical property gradient. Potential microstructure, elemental composition, and mechanical property relationships are discussed to explain how the hierarchical structure of this nanolaminate armor protects this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nana Yamagata
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Gillian Randall
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Ellen Lavoie
- Molecular Analysis Facility (MAF), MolES, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Dwayne Arola
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Junlan Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.
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Effect of Needle Type, Number of Layers on FPAFC Composite against Low-Velocity Projectile Impact. BUILDINGS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/buildings11120668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Protective structures subjected to intensive loads that may benefit from the use of multilayer composite structures with excellent hardness and impact resistance represent an emerging research field in recent times. In this study, low-velocity projectile impact tests were performed on Functionally-graded Preplaced Aggregate Fibrous Concrete (FPAFC) mixtures to evaluate their performance. The effects of projectile needle type, fibre type and hybridization in addition to the number of layers in the composites on projectile impact were investigated. The bioinspiration of the excellent impact strength of turtle shells was used to design an FPAFC comprising a higher amount of steel and polypropylene fibres at the outer layers. In parallel, one and two-layered concretes were also cast to assess the effectiveness of three-layered FPAFC. The tests were performed on disc specimens using non-deformable compound bevel, convex edge and hollow edge projectiles. The damage severity was quantified by the top damage area, bottom damage area and depth of penetration. In addition, a simple analytical model for predicting the composite mass expulsion was developed and implemented. Findings indicated that regardless of fiber type and distribution, the compound bevel projectile needle produced the lowest impact numbers for all single, double and triple-layer specimens compared to the convex edge and hollow edge projectiles. Repeated projectile impacts increased the penetration depth and damaged area at the top and bottom surfaces of all targets. Targets were more resistant to convex edge and hollow edge projectile penetration than the compound bevel. The experimental and analytical model results for mass expelled from the top surface are reasonably acceptable. This research gives an idea of developing advanced fibrous composite with superior impact resistance for the promising protective structures.
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Superior mechanical resistance in the exoskeleton of the coconut crab, Birgus latro. Mater Today Bio 2021; 12:100132. [PMID: 34622195 PMCID: PMC8479828 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2021.100132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The hierarchical tissue structure that can balance the lightweight and strength of organisms gives hints on the development of biologically inspired materials. The exoskeleton of the coconut crab, Birgus latro, which is the largest terrestrial crustacean, was systematically analyzed using a materials science approach. The tissue structures, chemical compositions, and mechanical properties of the claw, walking legs, cephalothorax, and abdomen were compared. The local mechanical properties, hardness(H) and stiffness(E), were examined by nanoindentation testing. The stacking height, Sh, of the twisted plywood structure observed only in the exocuticle, the exoskeleton thickness, and the thickness and compositions at each layer differed significantly by body part. The exocuticle is strongly mineralized regardless of body parts. The claw and walking legs were thicker than the cephalothorax and abdomen, and their endocuticle was mineralized as compared to the endocuticle in the cephalothorax and abdomen. The H and Sh had a correlation in the exocuticle layer, and the H increased with decreasing the Sh. On the H-E map for abrasion resistance of materials, the results showed that the exocuticle layer of the coconut crab was superior to that of other arthropods and all engineering polymers and competitive with the hardest metallic alloys.
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Zhang Y, Xu D, Li J, Zhang Z, Ding S, Wu W, Xia R. Mechanical properties and clamping behaviors of snow crab claw. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2021; 124:104818. [PMID: 34517170 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2021.104818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The high-performing biomimetic behaviors of crustaceans are the optimal results of long-time wise adaption to their living environment. One outstanding prototype is crab claw, which has the combining advantages of lightweight and high strength. To promote relevant engineering applications, it is imperative to explore its mechanical behaviors and structural characteristics. In this work, mechanical test and finite element analysis (FEA) are performed to reveal the fundamental mechanical properties and clamping behaviors of snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) claw, respectively. A lightweight modeling method, parametric lofting modeling, for the 3D modeling of the claw is employed, which is compared with the traditional reverse engineering modeling method based on tomography image. Our results demonstrated that the hardness and modulus of the regions near the top of the claw are larger than those of the regions near of bottom of the claw. Moisture is a critical factor in controlling the tensile behavior of the claw and the wet specimens exhibit higher modulus and strength under tensile loading. Besides, The parametric lofting method is highly flexible and efficient in generating 3D geometrical model. The investigation of clamping behaviors provides not only insights into mechanical behaviors and intrinsic mechanisms but also a practical guide for their potential applications, such as designing high-performing artificial clamping muscles for clinical operations, aerospace applications, and robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Machinery Transients (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Dongfang Xu
- Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Machinery Transients (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Jiejie Li
- Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Machinery Transients (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Zhennan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Machinery Transients (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Suhang Ding
- Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Machinery Transients (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Wenwang Wu
- School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China; Institute of Advanced Structure Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China.
| | - Re Xia
- Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Machinery Transients (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430072, China; Hubei Key Laboratory of Waterjet Theory and New Technology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China.
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8
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Multi-scale design of the chela of the hermit crab Coenobita brevimanus. Acta Biomater 2021; 127:229-241. [PMID: 33866037 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2020] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The chela of the hermit crab protects its body against the attack from predators. Yet, a deep understanding of this mechanical defense is still lacking. Here, we investigate the chela of hermit crab, Coenobita brevimanus, and establish the relationships between the microstructures, chemical compositions and mechanical properties to gain insights into its biomechanical functions. We find that the chela is a multi-layered shell composed of five different layers with distinct features of the microstructures and chemical compositions, conferring different mechanical properties. Especially, an increase of the calcium carbonate content towards the layer furthest from the exterior, unlike the chemical gradients of many crustacean exoskeletons, provides a strong resistance to deformation. Nanoindentation measurements reveal that the overall gradient of the elastic modulus and hardness in the cross-section displays a sandwich profile, i.e., a soft core clamped by two stiff surface layers. Further mechanics modeling demonstrates that the high curvature and stiff innermost sublayer enhance the structural rigidity of the chela. In conjunction with the experimental observations, dynamic finite element analysis maps the time-spatial distribution of principal stress and indicates that fiber bridging might be the major mechanism against crack propagation at microscale. The lessons gained from the study of this multiphase biological composite could provide important insights into the design and fabrication of bioinspired materials for structural applications. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Multiple hierarchical structures have been discovered in a variety of exoskeletons. They are naturally designed to maintain the structural integrity and act as a protective layer for the animals. However, each kind of the hierarchical structures has its unique topology, chemical gradients as well as mechanical properties. We find that the chela is multi-layered shell composed of five different layers with distinct features of the microstructures and chemical compositions, conferring different mechanical properties. Especially, a large amount of helicoidal organic fibrils form highly organized 3D woven matrix in the innermost layer, providing a strong mechanical resistance to avoid catastrophic failure. The overall gradient of the elastic modulus and hardness in the cross-section display a sandwich profile, effectively minimizing the stress concentration and deformation. The lessons gained from the multiscale design strategy of the chela provide important insights into the design and fabrication of bioinspired materials.
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9
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Zhang Y, Garrevoet J, Wang Y, Roeh JT, Terrill NJ, Falkenberg G, Dong Y, Gupta HS. Molecular to Macroscale Energy Absorption Mechanisms in Biological Body Armour Illuminated by Scanning X-ray Diffraction with In Situ Compression. ACS NANO 2020; 14:16535-16546. [PMID: 33034451 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c02879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Determining multiscale, concurrent strain, and deformation mechanisms in hierarchical biological materials is a crucial engineering goal, to understand structural optimization strategies in Nature. However, experimentally characterizing complex strain and displacement fields within a 3D hierarchical composite, in a multiscale full-field manner, is challenging. Here, we determined the in situ strains at the macro-, meso-, and molecular-levels in stomatopod cuticle simultaneously, by exploiting the anisotropy of the 3D fiber diffraction coupled with sample rotation. The results demonstrate the method, using the mineralized 3D α-chitin fiber networks as strain sensors, can capture submicrometer deformation of a single lamella (mesoscale), can extract strain information on multiple constituents concurrently, and shows that α-chitin fiber networks deform elastically while the surrounding matrix deforms plastically before systematic failure under compression. Further, the results demonstrate a molecular-level prestrain gradient in chitin fibers, resulting from different mineralization degrees in the exo- and endo cuticle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Science, 100049 Beijing, China
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jan Garrevoet
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Yanhong Wang
- Queen Mary University of London, Institute of Bioengineering and School of Engineering and Material Science, E1 4NS London, U.K
| | - Jan Torben Roeh
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Nicholas J Terrill
- Diamond Light Source, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, OX11 0DE Harwell, U.K
| | | | - Yuhui Dong
- Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Science, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Himadri S Gupta
- Queen Mary University of London, Institute of Bioengineering and School of Engineering and Material Science, E1 4NS London, U.K
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10
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Zhao Q, Chang Y, Lin Z, Zhang Z, Han Z, Ren L. Microstructure and in-situ tensile strength of propodus of mantis shrimp. Microsc Res Tech 2020; 84:415-421. [PMID: 32937000 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.23598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Effects of microstructure and phase component on mechanical property of spearer propodus of mantis shrimp were investigated. The spearer propodus consisted of three layers including epicuticle (outer layer), exocuticle (middle layer), and endocuticle (inner layer). The outer layer was composed of fluorapatite, which was treated as permeability barrier to environment. The compact middle layer and inner layer were constituted of chitin-protein fibers, which exhibited the layered spiral structure. Under the in-situ tensile test environment, spearer propodus owned high mechanical strength, which bore maximum tensile fore of 320 N. In the in-situ tensile process, cracks extended along with zigzag lines on spearer propodus surface. The middle layer and inner layer resisted the damage of force via the fracture and pulling of fibers. The crack deflection and delamination phenomena were the mechanical property mechanisms of spearer propodus of mantis shrimp. The investigations provided typical bionic models for the design and preparation of bionic structure materials, bionic anti-impact materials, and bionic soft materials in engineering fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhao
- The Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yanjiao Chang
- The Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China.,School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Zhaohua Lin
- The Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China.,School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Zhihui Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Zhiwu Han
- The Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Luquan Ren
- The Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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11
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Ernst F, Fabritius HO, Griesshaber E, Reisecker C, Neues F, Epple M, Schmahl WW, Hild S, Ziegler A. Functional adaptations in the tergite cuticle of the desert isopod Hemilepistus reaumuri (Milne-Edwards, 1840). J Struct Biol 2020; 212:107570. [PMID: 32650132 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2020.107570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
To survive in its extreme habitat, the cuticle of the burrowing desert isopod Hemilepistus reaumuri requires properties distinct from isopods living in moist or mesic habitats. In particular, the anterior tergites are exposed to high mechanical loads and temperatures when individuals guard the entrance of their burrow. We have, therefore, investigated the architecture, composition, calcite texture and local mechanical properties of the tergite cuticle, with particular emphasis on large anterior cuticle tubercles and differences between the anterior and posterior tergite. Unexpectedly, structure and thickness of the epicuticle resemble those in mesic isopod species. The anterior tergite has a thicker endocuticle and a higher local stiffness than the posterior tergite. Calcite distribution in the cuticle is unusual, because in addition to the exocuticle the endocuticle distally also contains calcite. The calcite consists of a distal layer of dense and highly co-oriented crystal-units, followed proximally by irregularly distributed and, with respect to each other, misoriented calcite crystallites. The calcite layer at the tip of the tubercle is thicker relative to the tubercle slopes, and its crystallites are more misoriented to each other. A steep decrease of local stiffness and hardness is observed within a distal region of the cuticle, likely caused by a successive increase in the ACC/calcite ratio rather than changes in the degree of mineralisation. Comparison of the results with other isopods reveals a much lower ACC/calcite ratio in H. reaumuri and a correlation between the degree of terrestriality of isopod species and the magnesium content of the cuticle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Ernst
- Central Facility for Electron Microscopy, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89069 Ulm, Germany
| | - Helge-Otto Fabritius
- Bionics and Materials Development, Hamm-Lippstadt University of Applied Sciences, Marker Allee 76-78, 59063 Hamm, Germany; Department of Microstructure Physics and Alloy Design, Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Str. 1, 40237 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Erika Griesshaber
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, LMU, Theresienstr. 41, 80333 München, Germany
| | - Christian Reisecker
- Institute of Polymer Science, Johannes Kepler Universität Linz, Altenbergerstraße 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Frank Neues
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstraße 5-7, 45117 Essen, Germany
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstraße 5-7, 45117 Essen, Germany
| | - Wolfgang W Schmahl
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, LMU, Theresienstr. 41, 80333 München, Germany
| | - Sabine Hild
- Institute of Polymer Science, Johannes Kepler Universität Linz, Altenbergerstraße 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Andreas Ziegler
- Central Facility for Electron Microscopy, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89069 Ulm, Germany.
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Matrix-induced pre-strain and mineralization-dependent interfibrillar shear transfer enable 3D fibrillar deformation in a biogenic armour. Acta Biomater 2019; 100:18-28. [PMID: 31563691 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The cuticle of stomatopod is an example of a natural mineralized biomaterial, consisting of chitin, amorphous calcium carbonate and protein components with a multiscale hierarchical structure, and forms a protective shell with high impact resistance. At the ultrastructural level, cuticle mechanical functionality is enabled by the nanoscale architecture, wherein chitin fibrils are in intimate association with enveloping mineral and proteins. However, the interactions between these ultrastructural building blocks, and their coupled response to applied load, remain unclear. Here, we elucidate these interactions via synchrotron microbeam wide-angle X-ray diffraction combined with in situ tensile loading, to quantify the chitin crystallite structure of native cuticle - and after demineralization and deproteinization - as well as time-resolved changes in chitin fibril strain on macroscopic loading. We demonstrate chitin crystallite stabilization by mineral, seen via a compressive pre-strain of approximately 0.10% (chitin/protein fibre pre-stress of ∼20 MPa), which is lost on demineralization. Clear reductions of stiffness at the fibrillar-level following matrix digestion are linked to the change in the protein/matrix mechanical properties. Furthermore, both demineralization and deproteinization alter the 3D-pattern of deformation of the fibrillar network, with a non-symmetrical angular fibril strain induced by the chemical modifications, associated with loss of the load-transferring interfibrillar matrix. Our results demonstrate and quantify the critical role of interactions at the nanoscale (between chitin-protein and chitin-mineral) in enabling the molecular conformation and outstanding mechanical properties of cuticle, which will inform future design of hierarchical bioinspired composites. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Chitinous biomaterials (e.g. arthropod cuticle) are widespread in nature and attracting attention for bioinspired design due to high impact resistance coupled with light weight. However, how the nanoscale interactions of the molecular building blocks - alpha-chitin, protein and calcium carbonate mineral - lead to these material properties is not clear. Here we used X-ray scattering to determine the cooperative interactions between chitin fibrils, protein matrix and biominerals, during tissue loading. We find that the chitin crystallite structure is stabilized by mineral nanoparticles, the protein phase prestresses chitin fibrils, and that chemical modification of the interfibrillar matrix significantly disrupts 2D mechanics of the microfibrillar chitin plywood network. These results will aid rational design of advanced chitin-based biomaterials with high impact resistance.
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13
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Microstructural characterization and mechanical property prediction of a polymer matrix composite by X-ray synchrotron tomography and spatial correlation functions. SN APPLIED SCIENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s42452-019-1310-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
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14
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Song Z, Ni Y, Cai S. Fracture modes and hybrid toughening mechanisms in oscillated/twisted plywood structure. Acta Biomater 2019; 91:284-293. [PMID: 31028909 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.04.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Twisted or oscillated plywood structure can be often found in biological composites such as claws of lobsters, bone of mammals, dactyl club of mantis shrimps, and exoskeleton of beetles, which exhibits a combination of high stiffness, high fracture toughness and low density. However, there lacks a quantitative understanding of the relationship between the fracture toughness of the composite and its internal geometry. In this article, we propose that a combination of crack tilting and crack bridging determines the effective fracture toughness of the fiber-reinforced composite with the plywood structure. During the fracturing process, a crack plane initially propagates in the matrix-fiber interface following the twisted fiber alignment. Such crack tilting mechanism can significantly enlarge the area of cracking surface and thus enhance the effective fracture toughness of the composite. With the propagation of the tilted crack plane, the local energy release rate becomes too small to maintain the growth of the tilted crack plane, leading the crack to grow into the matrix, crossing the fibers. Because of the high strength of the fiber, a few fibers can maintain unbroken behind the crack tip, corresponding to crack bridging mechanism. Based on our quantitative analysis, it is found that the effective fracture toughness of the composite can be maximized for a certain pitch angle of the oscillated/twisted plywood structure, which agrees well with experiments. STATEMENTS OF SIGNIFICANCE: Fiber-reinforced composites can be widely found in nature and engineering applications. Recently, it has been discovered that many fiber-reinforced composites in biology have twisted or oscillated plywood structure with high fracture toughness, high mechanical stiffness and low density. Detailed experiments have indicated that an optimal pitch angle may exist for the plywood structure to maximize the fracture toughness of the composites. However, there lacks a quantitative model of revealing such pitch angle-dependent fracture toughness. In this work, we propose a hybrid toughening mechanism and predict the optimal pitch angle in twisted/oscillated plywood structure for maximizing the fracture toughness. Our predictions agree reasonably well with experimental results. As such, the theory may help the design of better fiber-reinforced composites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoqiang Song
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Yong Ni
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mechanical Behavior and Design of Materials, Department of Modern Mechanics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Shengqiang Cai
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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15
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Li X, Guo C. Microstructure and material properties of hind wings of a bamboo weevil
Cyrtotrachelus buqueti
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Microsc Res Tech 2019; 82:1102-1113. [DOI: 10.1002/jemt.23258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 03/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Li
- College of Mechanical and Electrical EngineeringNanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Nanjing China
- Institute of Bio‐inspired Structure and Surface EngineeringNanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Nanjing China
| | - Ce Guo
- Institute of Bio‐inspired Structure and Surface EngineeringNanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Nanjing China
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16
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Sykes D, Hartwell R, Bradley RS, Burnett TL, Hornberger B, Garwood RJ, Withers PJ. Time-lapse three-dimensional imaging of crack propagation in beetle cuticle. Acta Biomater 2019; 86:109-116. [PMID: 30660007 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.01.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Arthropod cuticle has extraordinary properties. It is very stiff and tough whilst being lightweight, yet it is made of rather ordinary constituents. This desirable combination of properties results from a hierarchical structure, but we currently have a poor understanding of how this impedes damage propagation. Here we use non-destructive, time-lapse in situ tensile testing within an X-ray nanotomography (nCT) system to visualise crack progression through dry beetle elytron (wing case) cuticle in 3D. We find that its hierarchical pseudo-orthogonal laminated microstructure exploits many extrinsic toughening mechanisms, including crack deflection, fibre and laminate pull-out and crack bridging. We highlight lessons to be learned in the design of engineering structures from the toughening methods employed. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: We present the first comprehensive study of the damage and toughening mechanisms within arthropod cuticle in a 3D time-lapse manner, using X-ray nanotomography during crack growth. This technique allows lamina to be isolated despite being convex, which limits 2D analysis of microstructure. We report toughening mechanisms previously unobserved in unmineralised cuticle such as crack deflection, fibre and laminate pull-out and crack bridging; and provide insights into the effects of hierarchical microstructure on crack propagation. Ultimately the benefits of the hierarchical microstructure found here can not only be used to improve biomimetic design, but also helps us to understand the remarkable success of arthropods on Earth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Sykes
- Henry Moseley X-ray Imaging Facility, The Royce Institute, School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.
| | - Rebecca Hartwell
- Henry Moseley X-ray Imaging Facility, The Royce Institute, School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Rob S Bradley
- Henry Moseley X-ray Imaging Facility, The Royce Institute, School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Timothy L Burnett
- Henry Moseley X-ray Imaging Facility, The Royce Institute, School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | | | - Russell J Garwood
- School of Earth and Environmental Science, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK; Earth Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Philip J Withers
- Henry Moseley X-ray Imaging Facility, The Royce Institute, School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
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17
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Mechanics of Arthropod Cuticle-Versatility by Structural and Compositional Variation. ARCHITECTURED MATERIALS IN NATURE AND ENGINEERING 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-11942-3_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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18
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Lin S, Chen B, Fang Z, Ye W. Effects of Shape and Orientation of Pore Canals on Mechanical Behaviors of Lobster Cuticles. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2018; 24:424-430. [PMID: 29925457 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927618000466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The work is to investigate the relationships between the microstructures and mechanical behaviors of lobster cuticles and reveal the inner mechanisms of the anisotropic mechanical properties of the cuticles and give the helpful guidance for the design of high-performance man-made composites. First, the tensile mechanical properties of the longitudinal and transverse specimens of the cuticles of American lobsters were tested with a mechanical-testing instrument. It is was found that the fracture strength and elastic modulus of the longitudinal specimens are distinctly larger than those of the transverse specimens. Then, the microstructural characteristics of the fracture surfaces of the specimens were observed with scanning electron microscope. It was observed that the pore canals in the cuticles are elliptic and their orientations are along the longitudinal orientation of the cuticles. Furthermore, the stresses and micro-damage of the longitudinal and transverse specimens were calculated with the rule of progressive damage by finite element method. It was revealed that the shape and orientation of the pore canals in the cuticles give rise to the anisotropic mechanical property of the cuticles and ensure that the cuticles possess the largest fracture strength and elastic modulus along their largest main-stress orientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyun Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control,College of Aerospace Engineering,Chongqing University,Chongqing 400030,China
| | - Bin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control,College of Aerospace Engineering,Chongqing University,Chongqing 400030,China
| | - Zhongqi Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control,College of Aerospace Engineering,Chongqing University,Chongqing 400030,China
| | - Wei Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control,College of Aerospace Engineering,Chongqing University,Chongqing 400030,China
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19
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20
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Peng J, Cheng Q. High-Performance Nanocomposites Inspired by Nature. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29:1702959. [PMID: 29058359 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201702959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Revised: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Natural materials, including nacre, bone, and the lobster cuticle, exhibit excellent mechanical properties, combining high strength and toughness. Such materials have the added benefit of being light in weight. These advantageous features are due to such natural materials' orderly hierarchical architectures and abundant interface interactions. How to utilize these design principles created by nature to fabricate high-performance bioinspired nanocomposites remains a great research challenge. A logical roadmap for developing these nanocomposites can be described as "discovery, invention, and creation." Here, the discovery of the relationship between natural materials' design principles and such materials' extraordinary mechanical properties is discussed. Then, the invention of bioinspired strategies for mimicking natural materials is considered and representative strategies addressed. Next, the creation of multifunctional nanocomposites is discussed and bioinspired nanocomposites, including fiber nanocomposites, 2D film nanocomposites, and 3D bulk nanocomposites reviewed. Finally, a perspective and outlook for future directions in making bioinspired nanocomposites is provided to offer inspiration to the community and a clear vision for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingsong Peng
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Inspired Smart Interfacial Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, P. R. China
| | - Qunfeng Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Inspired Smart Interfacial Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, P. R. China
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21
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22
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Abstract
Chitin nanofibers are the fundamental building blocks of numerous structural natural materials. From top-down to bottom-up, here we review engineering strategies to produce chitin nanofibers for engineered materials and their applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolin Zhang
- Department of Electrical Engineering
- University of California
- Santa Cruz
- USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
| | - Marco Rolandi
- Department of Electrical Engineering
- University of California
- Santa Cruz
- USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
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23
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Fabritius HO, Ziegler A, Friák M, Nikolov S, Huber J, Seidl BHM, Ruangchai S, Alagboso FI, Karsten S, Lu J, Janus AM, Petrov M, Zhu LF, Hemzalová P, Hild S, Raabe D, Neugebauer J. Functional adaptation of crustacean exoskeletal elements through structural and compositional diversity: a combined experimental and theoretical study. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2016; 11:055006. [PMID: 27609556 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/11/5/055006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The crustacean cuticle is a composite material that covers the whole animal and forms the continuous exoskeleton. Nano-fibers composed of chitin and protein molecules form most of the organic matrix of the cuticle that, at the macroscale, is organized in up to eight hierarchical levels. At least two of them, the exo- and endocuticle, contain a mineral phase of mainly Mg-calcite, amorphous calcium carbonate and phosphate. The high number of hierarchical levels and the compositional diversity provide a high degree of freedom for varying the physical, in particular mechanical, properties of the material. This makes the cuticle a versatile material ideally suited to form a variety of skeletal elements that are adapted to different functions and the eco-physiological strains of individual species. This review presents our recent analytical, experimental and theoretical studies on the cuticle, summarising at which hierarchical levels structure and composition are modified to achieve the required physical properties. We describe our multi-scale hierarchical modeling approach based on the results from these studies, aiming at systematically predicting the structure-composition-property relations of cuticle composites from the molecular level to the macro-scale. This modeling approach provides a tool to facilitate the development of optimized biomimetic materials within a knowledge-based design approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helge-Otto Fabritius
- Department Microstructure Physics and Alloy Design, Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany
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24
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Characteristics of the tensile mechanical properties of fresh and dry forewings of beetles. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2016; 65:51-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2016.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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25
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Nagy Kem G. Flexibility and rigidity of cross-linked Straight Fibrils under axial motion constraints. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2016; 62:504-514. [PMID: 27289214 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2016.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The Straight Fibrils are stiff rod-like filaments and play a significant role in cellular processes as structural stability and intracellular transport. Introducing a 3D mechanical model for the motion of braced cylindrical fibrils under axial motion constraint; we provide some mechanism and a graph theoretical model for fibril structures and give the characterization of the flexibility and the rigidity of this bar-and-joint spatial framework. The connectedness and the circuit of the bracing graph characterize the flexibility of these structures. In this paper, we focus on the kinematical properties of hierarchical levels of fibrils and evaluate the number of the bracing elements for the rigidity and its computational complexity. The presented model is a good characterization of the frameworks of bio-fibrils such as microtubules, cellulose, which inspired this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyula Nagy Kem
- Szent István University Ybl Miklós, Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Thököly út 74, HU 1146, Budapest, Hungary.
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26
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A bioinspired study on the interlaminar shear resistance of helicoidal fiber structures. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2016; 56:57-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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27
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Naleway SE, Taylor JR, Porter MM, Meyers MA, McKittrick J. Structure and mechanical properties of selected protective systems in marine organisms. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2016; 59:1143-1167. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.10.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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28
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Palanca M, Tozzi G, Cristofolini L. The use of digital image correlation in the biomechanical area: a review. Int Biomech 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/23335432.2015.1117395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Palanca
- School of Engineering and Architecture, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Gianluca Tozzi
- School of Engineering, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Luca Cristofolini
- School of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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29
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Guarín-Zapata N, Gomez J, Yaraghi N, Kisailus D, Zavattieri PD. Shear wave filtering in naturally-occurring Bouligand structures. Acta Biomater 2015; 23:11-20. [PMID: 25983314 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2015.04.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2014] [Revised: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Wave propagation was investigated in the Bouligand-like structure from within the dactyl club of the stomatopod, a crustacean that is known to smash their heavily shelled preys with high accelerations. We incorporate the layered nature in a unitary material cell through the propagator matrix formalism while the periodic nature of the material is considered via Bloch boundary conditions as applied in the theory of solid state physics. Our results show that these materials exhibit bandgaps at frequencies related to the stress pulse generated by the impact of the dactyl club to its prey, and therefore exhibiting wave filtering in addition to the already known mechanisms of macroscopic isotropic behavior and toughness.
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30
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Sullivan T, McGuinness K, O'Connor NE, Regan F. Characterization and anti-settlement aspects of surface micro-structures from Cancer pagurus. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2014; 9:046003. [PMID: 25291692 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3182/9/4/046003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Tuning surface and material properties to inhibit or prevent settlement and attachment of microorganisms is of interest for applications such as antifouling technologies. Here, optimization of nano- and microscale structures on immersed surfaces can be utilized to improve cell removal while reducing adhesion strength and the likelihood of initial cellular attachment. Engineered surfaces capable of controlling cellular behaviour under natural conditions are challenging to design due to the diversity of attaching cell types in environments such as marine waters, where many variations in cell shape, size and adhesion strategy exist. Nevertheless, understanding interactions between a cell and a potential substrate for adhesion, including topographically driven settlement cues, offers a route to designing surfaces capable of controlling cell settlement. Biomimetic design of artificial surfaces, based upon microscale features from natural surfaces, can be utilized as model surfaces to understand cell-surface interactions. The microscale surface features of the carapace from the crustacean Cancer pagurus has been previously found to influence the rate of attachment of particular organisms when compared to smooth controls. However, the nature of microscale topographic features from C. pagurus have not been examined in sufficient detail to allow design of biomimetic surfaces. In this work, the spatial distribution, chemical composition, size and shape descriptors of microscale surface features from C. pagurus are characterized in detail for the first time. Additionally, the influence of topography from C. pagurus on the settlement of marine diatoms is examined under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Sullivan
- MESTECH: Marine and Environmental Sensing Technology Hub, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland
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31
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Grunenfelder LK, Suksangpanya N, Salinas C, Milliron G, Yaraghi N, Herrera S, Evans-Lutterodt K, Nutt SR, Zavattieri P, Kisailus D. Bio-inspired impact-resistant composites. Acta Biomater 2014; 10:3997-4008. [PMID: 24681369 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2014.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2013] [Revised: 02/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Through evolutionary processes, biological composites have been optimized to fulfil specific functions. This optimization is exemplified in the mineralized dactyl club of the smashing predator stomatopod (specifically, Odontodactylus scyllarus). This crustacean's club has been designed to withstand the thousands of high-velocity blows that it delivers to its prey. The endocuticle of this multiregional structure is characterized by a helicoidal arrangement of mineralized fiber layers, an architecture which results in impact resistance and energy absorbance. Here, we apply the helicoidal design strategy observed in the stomatopod club to the fabrication of high-performance carbon fiber-epoxy composites. Through experimental and computational methods, a helicoidal architecture is shown to reduce through-thickness damage propagation in a composite panel during an impact event and result in an increase in toughness. These findings have implications in the design of composite parts for aerospace, automotive and armor applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- L K Grunenfelder
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - N Suksangpanya
- School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - C Salinas
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - G Milliron
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - N Yaraghi
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - S Herrera
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - K Evans-Lutterodt
- National Synchrotron Light Source, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - S R Nutt
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - P Zavattieri
- School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - D Kisailus
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA; Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
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32
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Grunenfelder LK, Herrera S, Kisailus D. Crustacean-derived biomimetic components and nanostructured composites. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2014; 10:3207-3232. [PMID: 24833136 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201400559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Revised: 04/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Over millions of years, the crustacean exoskeleton has evolved into a rigid, tough, and complex cuticle that is used for structural support, mobility, protection of vital organs, and defense against predation. The crustacean cuticle is characterized by a hierarchically arranged chitin fiber scaffold, mineralized predominately by calcium carbonate and/or calcium phosphate. The structural organization of the mineral and organic within the cuticle occurs over multiple length scales, resulting in a strong and tough biological composite. Here, the ultrastructural details observed in three species of crustacean are reviewed: the American lobster (Homarus americanus), the edible crab (Cancer pagurus), and the peacock mantis shrimp (Odontodactylus scyllarus). The Review concludes with a discussion of recent advances in the development of biomimetics with controlled organic scaffolding, mineralization, and the construction of nanoscale composites, inspired by the organization and formation of the crustacean cuticle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lessa Kay Grunenfelder
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Bourns Hall B357, Rvierside, CA, 92521, USA
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33
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Ultrastructure and mineral composition of the cornea cuticle in the compound eyes of a supralittoral and a marine isopod. J Struct Biol 2014; 187:158-173. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2014.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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34
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Jayyosi C, Fargier G, Coret M, Bruyère-Garnier K. Photobleaching as a tool to measure the local strain field in fibrous membranes of connective tissues. Acta Biomater 2014; 10:2591-601. [PMID: 24568925 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2014.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Connective tissues are complex structures which contain collagen and elastin fibers. These fiber-based structures have a great influence on material mechanical properties and need to be studied at the microscopic scale. Several microscopy techniques have been developed in order to image such microstructures; among them are two-photon excited fluorescence microscopy and second harmonic generation. These observations have been coupled with mechanical characterization to link microstructural kinematics to macroscopic material parameter evolution. In this study, we present a new approach to measure local strain in soft biological tissues using a side-effect of fluorescence microscopy: photobleaching. Controlling the loss of fluorescence induced by photobleaching, we create a pattern on our sample that we can monitor during mechanical loading. The image analysis allows three-dimensional displacements of the patterns at various loading levels to be computed. Then, local strain distribution is derived using the finite element discretization on a four-node element mesh created from our photobleached pattern. Photobleaching tests on a human liver capsule have revealed that this technique is non-destructive and does not have any impact on mechanical properties. This method is likely to have other applications in biological material studies, considering that all collagen-elastin fiber-based biological tissues possess autofluorescence properties and thus can be photobleached.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Jayyosi
- Université de Lyon, F-69622 Lyon;IFSTTAR, LBMC, UMR-T9406; Université Lyon 1, France.
| | - G Fargier
- Plateforme IVTV, CNRS, 36 Avenue Guy de Collongue, Bâtiment G8, 69134 Ecully Cedex, France
| | - M Coret
- LUNAM Université, GEM, UMR CNRS 6183, Ecole Centrale de Nantes, Université de Nantes, France
| | - K Bruyère-Garnier
- Université de Lyon, F-69622 Lyon;IFSTTAR, LBMC, UMR-T9406; Université Lyon 1, France
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35
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Ruangchai S, Reisecker C, Hild S, Ziegler A. The architecture of the joint head cuticle and its transition to the arthrodial membrane in the terrestrial crustacean Porcellio scaber. J Struct Biol 2013; 182:22-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2013.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2012] [Revised: 01/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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36
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Chen Q, Pugno NM. Bio-mimetic mechanisms of natural hierarchical materials: A review. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2013; 19:3-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2012.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Revised: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 10/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Fabritius HO, Karsten ES, Balasundaram K, Hild S, Huemer K, Raabe D. Correlation of structure, composition and local mechanical properties in the dorsal carapace of the edible crab Cancer pagurus. Z KRIST-CRYST MATER 2012. [DOI: 10.1524/zkri.2012.1532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The exoskeleton of crustaceans is formed by the cuticle, a chitin-protein-based nano-composite with hierarchical organization over at least eight levels. On the molecular level, it consists of chitin associated with proteins forming fibres, which are organized in the form of twisted plywood. On the higher levels, the twisted plywood organization is modified and forms skeletal elements with elaborate functions. The load-bearing parts of crustacean cuticle are reinforced with both crystalline and amorphous biominerals. During evolution, all parts of the exoskeleton were optimized to fulfill different functions according to different ecophysiological strains faced by the animals. This is achieved by modifications in microstructure and chemical composition. In order to understand the relationship between structure, composition, mechanical properties and function we structurally characterized cuticle from the dorsal carapace of the edible crab Cancer pagurus using light and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The local chemical composition was investigated using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and confocal m-Raman spectroscopy. Nanoindentation tests were performed to study the resulting local mechanical properties. The results show local differences in structure on several levels of the structural hierarchy in combination with a very heterogeneous mineralization. The distal exocuticle is mineralized with calcite, followed by a layer containing a magnesium, phosphate and carbonate rich phase and ACC in the proximal part. The endocuticle contains magnesian calcite and ACC in special regions below the exocuticle. Structure and mineral phase are reflected in the local stiffness and hardness of the respective cuticle regions. The heterogeneity of structural organization and mechanical properties suggests remarkable consequences for the mechanical behaviour of the bulk material.
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Luquet G. Biomineralizations: insights and prospects from crustaceans. Zookeys 2012:103-21. [PMID: 22536102 PMCID: PMC3335408 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.176.2318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 12/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
For growing, crustaceans have to molt cyclically because of the presence of a rigid exoskeleton. Most of the crustaceans harden their cuticle not only by sclerotization, like all the arthropods, but also by calcification. All the physiology of crustaceans, including the calcification process, is then linked to molting cycles. This means for these animals to find regularly a source of calcium ions quickly available just after ecdysis. The sources of calcium used are diverse, ranging from the environment where the animals live to endogenous calcium deposits cyclically elaborated by some of them. As a result, crustaceans are submitted to an important and energetically demanding calcium turnover throughout their life. The mineralization process occurs by precipitation of calcium carbonate within an organic matrix network of chitin-proteins fibers. Both crystalline and stabilized amorphous polymorphs of calcium carbonate are found in crustacean biominerals. Furthermore, Crustacea is the only phylum of animals able to elaborate and resorb periodically calcified structures. Notably for these two previous reasons, crustaceans are more and more extensively studied and considered as models of choice in the biomineralization research area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilles Luquet
- Biogéosciences, UMR 5561 CNRS - Université de Bourgogne, Dijon, France
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Compressive behavior of a turtle’s shell: Experiment, modeling, and simulation. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2012; 6:106-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2011.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2011] [Revised: 10/07/2011] [Accepted: 10/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Juárez-de la Rosa B, Muñoz-Saldaña J, Torres-Torres D, Ardisson PL, Alvarado-Gil J. Nanoindentation characterization of the micro-lamellar arrangement of black coral skeleton. J Struct Biol 2012; 177:349-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2011.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2011] [Revised: 11/27/2011] [Accepted: 12/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Ha NS, Jin TL, Goo NS, Park HC. Anisotropy and non-homogeneity of an Allomyrina Dichotoma beetle hind wing membrane. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2011; 6:046003. [PMID: 21992989 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3182/6/4/046003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Biomimetics is one of the most important paradigms as researchers seek to invent better engineering designs over human history. However, the observation of insect flight is a relatively recent work. Several researchers have tried to address the aerodynamic performance of flapping creatures and other natural properties of insects, although there are still many unsolved questions. In this study, we try to answer the questions related to the mechanical properties of a beetle's hind wing, which consists of a stiff vein structure and a flexible membrane. The membrane of a beetle's hind wing is small and flexible to the point that conventional methods cannot adequately quantify the material properties. The digital image correlation method, a non-contact displacement measurement method, is used along with a specially designed mini-tensile testing system. To reduce the end effects, we developed an experimental method that can deal with specimens with as high an aspect ratio as possible. Young's modulus varies over the area in the wing and ranges from 2.97 to 4.5 GPa in the chordwise direction and from 1.63 to 2.24 GPa in the spanwise direction. Furthermore, Poisson's ratio in the chordwise direction is 0.63-0.73 and approximately twice as large as that in the spanwise direction (0.33-0.39). From these results, we can conclude that the membrane of a beetle's hind wing is an anisotropic and non-homogeneous material. Our results will provide a better understanding of the flapping mechanism through the formulation of a fluid-structure interaction analysis or aero-elasticity analysis and meritorious data for biomaterial properties database as well as a creative design concept for a micro aerial flapper that mimics an insect.
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Affiliation(s)
- N S Ha
- Biomimetics and Intelligent Microsystem Laboratory, Department of Advanced Technology Fusion, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Korea
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Ultrastructure and mineral distribution in the tergite cuticle of the beach isopod Tylos europaeus Arcangeli, 1938. J Struct Biol 2011; 174:512-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2010] [Revised: 03/07/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Chitin in the Exoskeletons of Arthropoda: From Ancient Design to Novel Materials Science. TOPICS IN GEOBIOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-9684-5_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Zhou F, Wu Z, Wang M, Chen K. Structure and mechanical properties of pincers of lobster (Procambarus clarkii) and crab (Eriocheir Sinensis). J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2010; 3:454-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2010.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2009] [Revised: 04/19/2010] [Accepted: 05/03/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Nikolov S, Petrov M, Lymperakis L, Friák M, Sachs C, Fabritius HO, Raabe D, Neugebauer J. Revealing the design principles of high-performance biological composites using ab initio and multiscale simulations: the example of lobster cuticle. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2010; 22:519-26. [PMID: 20217746 DOI: 10.1002/adma.200902019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Svetoslav Nikolov
- Institute of Mechanics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Str. Bl. 4 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria.
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Zack TI, Claverie T, Patek SN. Elastic energy storage in the mantis shrimp's fast predatory strike. J Exp Biol 2009; 212:4002-9. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.034801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Storage of elastic energy is key to increasing the power output of many biological systems. Mantis shrimp (Stomatopoda) must store considerable elastic energy prior to their rapid raptorial strikes; however, little is known about the dynamics and location of elastic energy storage structures in this system. We used computed tomography (CT) to visualize the mineralization patterns in Gonodactylaceus falcatus and high speed videography of Odontodactylus scyllarus to observe the dynamics of spring loading. Using a materials testing apparatus, we measured the force and work required to contract the elastic structures in G. falcatus. There was a positive linear correlation between contraction force and contraction distance; alternative model tests further supported the use of a linear model. Therefore, we modeled the system as a Hookean spring. The force required to fully compress the spring was positively correlated with body mass and appendage size, but the spring constant did not scale with body size, suggesting a possible role of muscle constraints in the scaling of this system. One hypothesized elastic storage structure, the saddle, only contributed approximately 11% of the total measured force, thus suggesting that primary site of elastic energy storage is in the mineralized ventral bars found in the merus segment of the raptorial appendages. Furthermore, the intact system exhibited 81% resilience and severing the saddle resulted in a non-significant reduction to 77% resilience. The remarkable shapes and mineralization patterns that characterize the mantis shrimp's raptorial appendage further reveal a highly integrated mechanical power amplification system based on exoskeletal elastic energy storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. I. Zack
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3140, USA
| | - T. Claverie
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3140, USA
| | - S. N. Patek
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3140, USA
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Rhee H, Horstemeyer M, Hwang Y, Lim H, El Kadiri H, Trim W. A study on the structure and mechanical behavior of the Terrapene carolina carapace: A pathway to design bio-inspired synthetic composites. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2009.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Müller M, Olek M, Giersig M, Schmitz H. Micromechanical properties of consecutive layers in specialized insect cuticle: the gula ofPachnoda marginata(Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae)and the infrared sensilla ofMelanophila acuminata(Coleoptera,Buprestidae). J Exp Biol 2008; 211:2576-83. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.020164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARYInsect cuticle is a highly adaptive material that fulfils a wide spectrum of different functions. Cuticle does not only build the exoskeleton with diverse moveable parts but is also an important component of a stunning variety of mechanosensory receptors. Therefore, the mechanical properties of these specialized cuticular systems are of crucial importance. We studied the different cuticular layers of the head part (gula) of the head-to-neck ball articulation of Pachnoda marginata and of the photomechanic infrared(IR) sensilla of Melanophila acuminata on the basis of cross sections. In our study, we combined histological methods (i.e. detection of the different types of cuticle by specific staining) with measurements of hardness (H) and reduced elastic modulus (Er) by nanoindentation technique. In the gula of Pachnoda we found an unusual aberrance from the well-known layering. Between the epi- and exocuticle, two meso- and one endocuticular layers are deposited which are softer and more elastic than the underlying exo- and mesocuticular layers. The hardest of all examined materials is the cuticle of the exocuticular shell of the internal sphere of the Melanophila IR sensillum with H=0.53GPa whereas the inner mesocuticular core of the sensillum represents the most elastic and softest layer with values of H=0.29GPa and Er=4.8GPa. Results are discussed with regard to the proposed functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Müller
- Institute for Zoology, University of Bonn, Poppelsdorfer Schloss, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Maciej Olek
- Forschungszentrum caesar, Ludwig-Erhardt-Allee 2, D-53175 Bonn, Germany
| | - Michael Giersig
- Forschungszentrum caesar, Ludwig-Erhardt-Allee 2, D-53175 Bonn, Germany
| | - Helmut Schmitz
- Institute for Zoology, University of Bonn, Poppelsdorfer Schloss, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
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50
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Chen PY, Lin AYM, Lin YS, Seki Y, Stokes AG, Peyras J, Olevsky EA, Meyers MA, McKittrick J. Structure and mechanical properties of selected biological materials. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2008. [PMID: 19627786 DOI: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2007.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 950] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/19/2023]
Abstract
Mineralized biological tissues offer insight into how nature has evolved these components to optimize multifunctional purposes. These mineral constituents are weak by themselves, but interact with the organic matrix to produce materials with unexpected mechanical properties. The hierarchical structure of these materials is at the crux of this enhancement. Microstructural features such as organized, layered organic/inorganic structures and the presence of porous and fibrous elements are common in many biological components. The organic and inorganic portions interact at the molecular and micro-levels synergistically to enhance the mechanical function. In this paper, we report on recent progress on studies of the abalone and Araguaia river clam shells, arthropod exoskeletons, antlers, tusks, teeth and bird beaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- P-Y Chen
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037-0411, United States
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