Photosynthetic light reactions: integral to chloroplast retrograde signalling

Physiological and Proteomic Responses of the Tetraploid Robinia pseudoacacia L. to High CO2 Levels

The increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration is a significant factor in triggering global warming. CO2 is essential for plant photosynthesis, but excessive CO2 can negatively impact photosynthesis and its associated physiological and biochemical processes. The tetraploid Robinia pseudoacacia L., a superior and improved variety, exhibits high tolerance to abiotic stress. In this study, we investigated the physiological and proteomic response mechanisms of the tetraploid R. pseudoacacia under high CO2 treatment. The results of our physiological and biochemical analyses revealed that a 5% high concentration of CO2 hindered the growth and development of the tetraploid R. pseudoacacia and caused severe damage to the leaves. Additionally, it significantly reduced photosynthetic parameters such as Pn, Gs, Tr, and Ci, as well as respiration. The levels of chlorophyll (Chl a and b) and the fluorescent parameters of chlorophyll (Fm, Fv/Fm, qP, and ETR) also significantly decreased. Conversely, the levels of ROS (H2O2 and O2·-) were significantly increased, while the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, GR, and APX) were significantly decreased. Furthermore, high CO2 induced stomatal closure by promoting the accumulation of ROS and NO in guard cells. Through a proteomic analysis, we identified a total of 1652 DAPs after high CO2 treatment. GO functional annotation revealed that these DAPs were mainly associated with redox activity, catalytic activity, and ion binding. KEGG analysis showed an enrichment of DAPs in metabolic pathways, secondary metabolite biosynthesis, amino acid biosynthesis, and photosynthetic pathways. Overall, our study provides valuable insights into the adaptation mechanisms of the tetraploid R. pseudoacacia to high CO2.

Integrating the multiple functions of CHLH into chloroplast-derived signaling fundamental to plant development and adaptation as well as fruit ripening

Chlorophyll (Chl)-mediated oxygenic photosynthesis sustains life on Earth. Greening leaves play fundamental roles in plant growth and crop yield, correlating with the idea that more Chls lead to better adaptation. However, they face significant challenges from various unfavorable environments. Chl biosynthesis hinges on the first committed step, which involves inserting Mg2+ into protoporphyrin. This step is facilitated by the H subunit of magnesium chelatase (CHLH) and features a conserved mechanism from cyanobacteria to plants. For better adaptation to fluctuating land environments, especially drought, CHLH evolves multiple biological functions, including Chl biosynthesis, retrograde signaling, and abscisic acid (ABA) responses. Additionally, it integrates into various chloroplast-derived signaling pathways, encompassing both retrograde signaling and hormonal signaling. The former comprises ROS (reactive oxygen species), heme, GUN (genomes uncoupled), MEcPP (methylerythritol cyclodiphosphate), β-CC (β-cyclocitral), and PAP (3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphate). The latter involves phytohormones like ABA, ethylene, auxin, cytokinin, gibberellin, strigolactone, brassinolide, salicylic acid, and jasmonic acid. Together, these elements create a coordinated regulatory network tailored to plant development and adaptation. An intriguing example is how drought-mediated improvement of fruit quality provides insights into chloroplast-derived signaling, aiding the shift from vegetative to reproductive growth. In this context, we explore the integration of CHLH's multifaceted roles into chloroplast-derived signaling, which lays the foundation for plant development and adaptation, as well as fruit ripening and quality. In the future, manipulating chloroplast-derived signaling may offer a promising avenue to enhance crop yield and quality through the homeostasis, function, and regulation of Chls.

Methyl viologen-induced changes in the Arabidopsis proteome implicate PATELLIN 4 in oxidative stress responses

The photosynthesis-induced accumulation of reactive oxygen species in chloroplasts can lead to oxidative stress, triggering changes in protein synthesis, degradation, and the assembly/disassembly of protein complexes. Using shot-gun proteomics, we identified methyl viologen-induced changes in protein abundance in wild-type Arabidopsis and oxidative stress-hypersensitive fsd1-1 and fsd1-2 knockout mutants, which are deficient in IRON SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE 1 (FSD1). The levels of proteins that are localized in chloroplasts and the cytoplasm were modified in all lines treated with methyl viologen. Compared with the wild-type, fsd1 mutants showed significant changes in metabolic protein and chloroplast chaperone levels, together with increased ratio of cytoplasmic, peroxisomal, and mitochondrial proteins. Different responses in proteins involved in the disassembly of photosystem II-light harvesting chlorophyll a/b binding proteins were observed. Moreover, the abundance of PATELLIN 4, a phospholipid-binding protein enriched in stomatal lineage, was decreased in response to methyl viologen. Reverse genetic studies using patl4 knockout mutants and a PATELLIN 4 complemented line indicate that PATELLIN 4 affects plant responses to oxidative stress by effects on stomatal closure.

Salinity-induced changes in plastoquinone pool redox state in halophytic Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L

We have analyzed the effect of salinity on photosystem II (PSII) photochemistry and plastoquinone (PQ) pool in halophytic Mesembryanthemum crystallinum plants. Under prolonged salinity conditions (7 or 10 days of 0.4 M NaCl treatment) we noted an enlarged pool of open PSII reaction centers and increased energy conservation efficiency, as envisaged by parameters of the fast and slow kinetics of chlorophyll a fluorescence. Measurements of oxygen evolution, using 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone as an electron acceptor, showed stimulation of the PSII activity due to salinity. In salt-acclimated plants (10 days of NaCl treatment), the improved PSII performance was associated with an increase in the size of the photochemically active PQ pool and the extent of its reduction. This was accompanied by a rise in the NADP⁺/NADPH ratio. The presented data suggest that a redistribution of PQ molecules between photochemically active and non-active fractions and a change of the redox state of the photochemically active PQ pool indicate and regulate the acclimation of the photosynthetic apparatus to salinity.

Potassium alleviates over-reduction of the photosynthetic electron transport chain and helps to maintain photosynthetic function under salt-stress

Potassium ions enhance photosynthetic tolerance to salt stress. We hypothesized that potassium ions, by minimizing the trans-thylakoid proton diffusion potential difference, can alleviate over-reduction of the photosynthetic electron transport chain and maintain the functionality of the photosynthetic apparatus. This study investigated the effects of exogenous potassium on the transcription level and activity of proteins related to the photosynthetic electron-transport chain of tobacco seedlings under salt stress. Salt stress retarded the growth of seedlings and caused an outflow of potassium ions from the chloroplast. It also lowered qP (indicator of the oxidation state of QA , the primary quinone electron acceptor in Photosystem II (PSII) and YPSII (average photochemical yield of PSII in the light-adapted state) while increasing YNO+NF (nonregulatory energy dissipation in functional and nonfunctional PSII), accompanied by decreased expression of most light-harvesting, energy-transduction, and electron-transport genes. However, exogenous potassium prevented these effects due to NaCl. Interestingly, lincomycin (an inhibitor of the synthesis of chloroplast-encoded proteins in PSII) significantly diminished the alleviation effect of exogenous potassium on salt stress. We attribute the comprehensive NaCl-induced downregulation of transcription and photosynthetic activities to retrograde signaling induced by reactive oxygen species. There probably exist at least two types of retrograde signaling induced by reactive oxygen species, distinguished by their sensitivity to lincomycin. Exogenous potassium appears to exert its primary effect by ameliorating the trans-thylakoid proton diffusion potential difference via a potassium channel, thereby accelerating ATP synthesis and carbon assimilation, alleviating over-reduction of the photosynthetic electron transport chain, and maintaining the functionality of photosynthetic proteins.

Abscisic acid plays a key role in the mechanism of photosynthetic and physiological response effect of Tetrabromobisphenol A on tobacco

The toxicity of bromide to animals and microorganisms has been widely studied, but the mechanism by which bromide toxicity affects plants is rarely studied. This study used the bromophenol compound Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) as a representative of bromide to explore the physiological and molecular response mechanism of tobacco leaves to TBBPA. In addition, physiological determination, transcriptomics, weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) analysis, and random forest prediction model were conducted. The findings from this study indicated that TBBPA limited the photoreaction process by destroying the light-catching antenna protein of tobacco leaves, the activity of the photosystem reaction centers (PSII and PSI), and the linear electron transport efficiency. TBBPA also reduced the rate of the Calvin-Benson cycle by inhibiting the activities of gene such as Rubisco, PGK, and TPI, and finally destroyed the photosynthesis process. Although cyclic electron transport was enhanced under stress conditions, it could not reverse the damage caused by TBBPA on photosynthesis. TBBPA exposure resulted in the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in tobacco leaves, and the activities of Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and Glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and their coding genes were significantly down-regulated. Although POD activity and proline (Pro) content were increased, they were insufficient to remove excess O₂^·- free radicals to relieve ROS stress. WCGNA and random forest models predicted that the damage of TBBPA to the above processes in tobacco was closely related to the increase in abscisic acid (ABA) content. TBBPA affects the Calvin cycle by inducing ABA signal transduction and stomatal closure, which leads to a series of chain reactions, such as electron transport chain obstruction, excess of ROS, decrease in chlorophyll synthesis, and photosystem reaction center damage.

Photosynthetic acclimation to changing environments

Plants are exposed to environments that fluctuate of timescales varying from seconds to months. Leaves that develop in one set of conditions optimise their metabolism to the conditions experienced, in a process called developmental acclimation. However, when plants experience a sustained change in conditions, existing leaves will also acclimate dynamically to the new conditions. Typically this process takes several days. In this review, we discuss this dynamic acclimation process, focussing on the responses of the photosynthetic apparatus to light and temperature. We briefly discuss the principal changes occurring in the chloroplast, before examining what is known, and not known, about the sensing and signalling processes that underlie acclimation, identifying likely regulators of acclimation.

Transcriptome-based analysis of key pathways relating to yield formation stage of foxtail millet under different drought stress conditions

Although foxtail millet, as small Panicoid crop, is of drought resilient, drought stress has a significant effect on panicle of foxtail millet at the yield formation stage. In this study, the changes of panicle morphology, photosynthesis, antioxidant protective enzyme system, reactive oxygen species (ROS) system, and osmotic regulatory substance and RNA-seq of functional leaves under light drought stress (LD), heavy drought stress (HD), light drought control (LDCK) and heavy drought control (HDCK) were studied to get a snap-shot of specific panicle morphological changes, physiological responses and related molecular mechanisms. The results showed that the length and weight of panicle had decreased, but with increased empty abortive rate, and then yield dropped off 14.9% and 36.9%, respectively. The photosynthesis of millet was significantly decreased, like net photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance and transpiration rate, especially under HD treatment with reluctant recovery from rehydration. Under LD and HD treatment, the peroxidase (POD) was increased by 34% and 14% and the same as H₂O₂ by 34.7% and 17.2% compared with LDCK and HDCK. The ability to produce and inhibit O^2- free radicals under LD treatment was higher than HD. The content of soluble sugar was higher under LD treatment but the proline was higher under HD treatment. Through RNA-seq analysis, there were 2,393 and 3,078 different genes expressed under LD and HD treatment. According to the correlation analysis between weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) and physiological traits, the co-expression network of several modules with high correlation was constructed, and some hub genes of millet in response to drought stress were found. The expression changes relating to carbon fixation, sucrose and starch synthesis, lignin synthesis, gibberellin synthesis, and proline synthesis of millet were specifically analyzed. These findings provide a full perspective on how drought affects the yield formation of foxtail millet by constructing one work model thereby providing theoretical foundation for hub genes exploration and drought resistance breeding of foxtail millet.

Molecular Regulation and Evolution of Redox Homeostasis in Photosynthetic Machinery

The recent advances in plant biology have significantly improved our understanding of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as signaling molecules in the redox regulation of complex cellular processes. In plants, free radicals and non-radicals are prevalent intra- and inter-cellular ROS, catalyzing complex metabolic processes such as photosynthesis. Photosynthesis homeostasis is maintained by thiol-based systems and antioxidative enzymes, which belong to some of the evolutionarily conserved protein families. The molecular and biological functions of redox regulation in photosynthesis are usually to balance the electron transport chain, photosystem II, photosystem I, mesophyll and bundle sheath signaling, and photo-protection regulating plant growth and productivity. Here, we review the recent progress of ROS signaling in photosynthesis. We present a comprehensive comparative bioinformatic analysis of redox regulation in evolutionary distinct photosynthetic cells. Gene expression, phylogenies, sequence alignments, and 3D protein structures in representative algal and plant species revealed conserved key features including functional domains catalyzing oxidation and reduction reactions. We then discuss the antioxidant-related ROS signaling and important pathways for achieving homeostasis of photosynthesis. Finally, we highlight the importance of plant responses to stress cues and genetic manipulation of disturbed redox status for balanced and enhanced photosynthetic efficiency and plant productivity.

Simultaneous Ozone and High Light Treatments Reveal an Important Role for the Chloroplast in Co-ordination of Defense Signaling

Plants live in a world of changing environments, where they are continuously challenged by alternating biotic and abiotic stresses. To transfer information from the environment to appropriate protective responses, plants use many different signaling molecules and pathways. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are critical signaling molecules in the regulation of plant stress responses, both inside and between cells. In natural environments, plants can experience multiple stresses simultaneously. Laboratory studies on stress interaction and crosstalk at regulation of gene expression, imply that plant responses to multiple stresses are distinctly different from single treatments. We analyzed the expression of selected marker genes and reassessed publicly available datasets to find signaling pathways regulated by ozone, which produces apoplastic ROS, and high light treatment, which produces chloroplastic ROS. Genes related to cell death regulation were differentially regulated by ozone versus high light. In a combined ozone + high light treatment, the light treatment enhanced ozone-induced cell death in leaves. The distinct responses from ozone versus high light treatments show that plants can activate stress signaling pathways in a highly precise manner.

Reactive oxygen species in photosystem II: relevance for oxidative signaling

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are formed in photosystem II (PSII) under various types of abiotic and biotic stresses. It is considered that ROS play a role in chloroplast-to-nucleus retrograde signaling, which changes the nuclear gene expression. However, as ROS lifetime and diffusion are restricted due to the high reactivity towards biomolecules (lipids, pigments, and proteins) and the spatial specificity of signal transduction is low, it is not entirely clear how ROS might transduce signal from the chloroplasts to the nucleus. Biomolecule oxidation was formerly connected solely with damage; nevertheless, the evidence appears that oxidatively modified lipids and pigments are be involved in chloroplast-to-nucleus retrograde signaling due to their long diffusion distance. Moreover, oxidatively modified proteins show high spatial specificity; however, their role in signal transduction from chloroplasts to the nucleus has not been proven yet. The review attempts to summarize and evaluate the evidence for the involvement of ROS in oxidative signaling in PSII.

Polyamines: Α bioenergetic smart switch for plant protection and development

The present review highlights the bioenergetic role of polyamines in plant protection and development and proposes a universal model for describing polyamine-mediated stress responses. Any stress condition induces an excitation pressure on photosystem II by reforming the photosynthetic apparatus. To control this phenomenon, polyamines act directly on the molecular structure and function of the photosynthetic apparatus as well as on the components of the chemiosmotic proton-motive force (ΔpH/Δψ), thus regulating photochemical (qP) and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) of energy. The review presents the mechanistic characteristics that underline the key role of polyamines in the structure, function, and bioenergetics of the photosynthetic apparatus upon light adaptation and/or under stress conditions. By following this mechanism, it is feasible to make stress-sensitive plants to be tolerant by simply altering their polyamine composition (especially the ratio of putrescine to spermine), either chemically or by light regulation.

Identification of key genes and molecular mechanisms associated with temperature stress in lentil

Extreme temperature is one of the serious threats to crop production in present and future scenarios of global climate changes. Lentil (Lens culinaris) is an important crop, and there is a serious lack of genetic information regarding environmental and temperature stresses responses. This study is the first report of evaluation of key genes and molecular mechanisms related to temperature stresses in lentil using the RNA sequencing technique. De novo transcriptome assembly created 44,673 contigs and differential gene expression analysis revealed 7494 differentially expressed genes between the temperature stresses and control group. Basic annotation of generated transcriptome assembly in our study led to the identification of 2765 novel transcripts that have not been identified yet in lentil genome draft v1.2. In addition, several unigenes involved in mechanisms of temperature sensing, calcium and hormone signaling and DNA-binding transcription factor activity were identified. Also, common mechanisms in response to temperature stresses, including the proline biosynthesis, the photosynthetic light reactions balancing, chaperone activity and circadian rhythms, are determined by the hub genes through the protein-protein interaction networks analysis. Deciphering the mechanisms of extreme temperature tolerance would be a new way for developing crops with enhanced plasticity against climate change. In general, this study has identified set of mechanisms and various genes related to cold and heat stresses which will be useful in better understanding of the lentil's reaction to temperature stresses.

Proline metabolism as regulatory hub

Proline is a multifunctional amino acid that is accumulated in high concentrations in plants under various stress conditions. Proline accumulation is intimately connected to many cellular processes, such as osmotic pressure, energy status, nutrient availability, changes in redox balance, and defenses against pathogens. Proline biosynthesis and catabolism is linked to photosynthesis and mitochondrial respiration, respectively. Proline can function as a signal, modulating gene expression and certain metabolic processes. We review important findings on proline metabolism and function of the last decade, giving a more informative picture about the function of this unusual amino acid in maintaining cellular homeostasis, modulating plant development, and promoting stress acclimation.

Photosystem I Inhibition, Protection and Signalling: Knowns and Unknowns

Photosynthesis is the process that harnesses, converts and stores light energy in the form of chemical energy in bonds of organic compounds. Oxygenic photosynthetic organisms (i.e., plants, algae and cyanobacteria) employ an efficient apparatus to split water and transport electrons to high-energy electron acceptors. The photosynthetic system must be finely balanced between energy harvesting and energy utilisation, in order to limit generation of dangerous compounds that can damage the integrity of cells. Insight into how the photosynthetic components are protected, regulated, damaged, and repaired during changing environmental conditions is crucial for improving photosynthetic efficiency in crop species. Photosystem I (PSI) is an integral component of the photosynthetic system located at the juncture between energy-harnessing and energy consumption through metabolism. Although the main site of photoinhibition is the photosystem II (PSII), PSI is also known to be inactivated by photosynthetic energy imbalance, with slower reactivation compared to PSII; however, several outstanding questions remain about the mechanisms of damage and repair, and about the impact of PSI photoinhibition on signalling and metabolism. In this review, we address the knowns and unknowns about PSI activity, inhibition, protection, and repair in plants. We also discuss the role of PSI in retrograde signalling pathways and highlight putative signals triggered by the functional status of the PSI pool.

Thioredoxins m are major players in the multifaceted light-adaptive response in Arabidopsis thaliana

Thioredoxins (TRXs) are well-known redox signalling players, which carry out post-translational modifications in target proteins. Chloroplast TRXs are divided into different types and have central roles in light energy uptake and the regulation of primary metabolism. The isoforms TRX m1, m2, and m4 from Arabidopsis thaliana are considered functionally related. Knowing their key position in the hub of plant metabolism, we hypothesized that the impairment of the TRX m signalling would not only have harmful consequences on chloroplast metabolism but also at different levels of plant development. To uncover the physiological and developmental processes that depend on TRX m signalling, we carried out a comprehensive study of Arabidopsis single, double, and triple mutants defective in the TRX m1, m2, and m4 proteins. As light and redox signalling are closely linked, we investigated the response to high light (HL) of the plants that are gradually compromised in TRX m signalling. We provide experimental evidence relating the lack of TRX m and the appearance of novel phenotypic features concerning mesophyll structure, stomata biogenesis, and stomatal conductance. We also report new data indicating that the isoforms of TRX m fine-tune the response to HL, including the accumulation of the protective pigment anthocyanin. These results reveal novel signalling functions for the TRX m and underline their importance for plant growth and fulfilment of the acclimation/response to HL conditions.

The flexibility of metabolic interactions between chloroplasts and mitochondria in Nicotiana tabacum leaf

To examine the effect of mitochondrial function on photosynthesis, wild-type and transgenic Nicotiana tabacum with varying amounts of alternative oxidase (AOX) were treated with different respiratory inhibitors. Initially, each inhibitor increased the reduction state of the chloroplast electron transport chain, most severely in AOX knockdowns and least severely in AOX overexpressors. This indicated that the mitochondrion was a necessary sink for photo-generated reductant, contributing to the 'P700 oxidation capacity' of photosystem I. Initially, the Complex III inhibitor myxothiazol and the mitochondrial ATP synthase inhibitor oligomycin caused an increase in photosystem II regulated non-photochemical quenching not evident with the Complex III inhibitor antimycin A (AA). This indicated that the increased quenching depended upon AA-sensitive cyclic electron transport (CET). Following 12 h with oligomycin, the reduction state of the chloroplast electron transport chain recovered in all plant lines. Recovery was associated with large increases in the protein amount of chloroplast ATP synthase and mitochondrial uncoupling protein. This increased the capacity for photophosphorylation in the absence of oxidative phosphorylation and enabled the mitochondrion to act again as a sink for photo-generated reductant. Comparing the AA and myxothiazol treatments at 12 h showed that CET optimized photosystem I quantum yield, depending upon the P700 oxidation capacity. When this capacity was too high, CET drew electrons away from other sinks, moderating the P700+ amount. When P700 oxidation capacity was too low, CET acted as an electron overflow, moderating the amount of reduced P700. This study reveals flexible chloroplast-mitochondrion interactions able to overcome lesions in energy metabolism.

A Holistic Approach to Study Photosynthetic Acclimation Responses of Plants to Fluctuating Light

Plants in natural environments receive light through sunflecks, the duration and distribution of these being highly variable across the day. Consequently, plants need to adjust their photosynthetic processes to avoid photoinhibition and maximize yield. Changes in the composition of the photosynthetic apparatus in response to sustained changes in the environment are referred to as photosynthetic acclimation, a process that involves changes in protein content and composition. Considering this definition, acclimation differs from regulation, which involves processes that alter the activity of individual proteins over short-time periods, without changing the abundance of those proteins. The interconnection and overlapping of the short- and long-term photosynthetic responses, which can occur simultaneously or/and sequentially over time, make the study of long-term acclimation to fluctuating light in plants challenging. In this review we identify short-term responses of plants to fluctuating light that could act as sensors and signals for acclimation responses, with the aim of understanding how plants integrate environmental fluctuations over time and tailor their responses accordingly. Mathematical modeling has the potential to integrate physiological processes over different timescales and to help disentangle short-term regulatory responses from long-term acclimation responses. We review existing mathematical modeling techniques for studying photosynthetic responses to fluctuating light and propose new methods for addressing the topic from a holistic point of view.

The intracellular ROS accumulation in elicitor-induced immunity requires the multiple organelle-targeted Arabidopsis NPK1-related protein kinases

Recognition at the plasma membrane of danger signals (elicitors) belonging to the classes of the microbe/pathogen- and damage-associated molecular patterns is a key event in pathogen sensing by plants and is associated with a rapid activation of immune responses. Different cellular compartments, including plasma membrane, chloroplasts, nuclei and mitochondria, are involved in the immune cellular program. However, how pathogen sensing is transmitted throughout the cell remains largely to be uncovered. Arabidopsis NPK1-related Proteins (ANPs) are mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinases previously shown to have a role in immunity. In this article, we studied the in vivo intracellular dynamics of ANP1- and ANP3-GFP fusions and found that under basal physiological conditions both proteins are present in the cytosol, while ANP3 is also localized in mitochondria. After elicitor perception, both proteins are present also in the plastids and nuclei, revealing a localization pattern that is so far unique. The N-terminal region of the protein kinases is responsible for their localization in mitochondria and plastids. Moreover, we found that the localization of ANPs coincides with the sites of elicitor-induced ROS accumulation and that plants lacking ANP function do not accumulate intracellular ROS.

Linking jasmonates with vitamin E accumulation in plants: a case study in the Mediterranean shrub Cistus albidus L

Jasmonic acid positively modulates vitamin E accumulation, but the latter can also partly influence the capacity to accumulate the jasmonic acid precursor, 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid, in white-leaved rockrose (Cistus albidus L.) plants growing in their natural habitat. This study suggests a bidirectional link between chloroplastic antioxidants and lipid peroxidation-derived hormones in plants. While vitamin E is well known for its antioxidant properties being involved in plant responses to abiotic stress, jasmonates are generally related to biotic stress responses in plants. Studying them in non-model plants under natural conditions is crucial for the knowledge on their relationship, which will help us to better understand mechanisms and limits of stress tolerance to implement better conservation strategies in vulnerable ecosystems. We studied a typical Mediterranean shrub, white-leaved rockrose (Cistus albidus) under natural conditions during three winters and we analyzed both α and γ-tocopherol, and the three main jasmonates forms 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA), jasmonic acid (JA), and jasmonoyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile). We found that JA contents positively correlated with vitamin E accumulation, most particularly with γ-tocopherol, the precursor of α-tocopherol (the most active vitamin E form). This finding was confirmed by exogenous application of methyl jasmonate (MeJA) in leaf discs under controlled conditions, which increased γ-tocopherol when applied at 0.1 mM MeJA and α-tocopherol at 1 mM MeJA. Furthermore, a complementary meta-analysis study with previously published reports revealed a positive correlation between JA and vitamin E, although this relationship turned to be strongly species specific. A strong negative correlation was observed, however, between total tocopherols and OPDA (a JA precursor located in chloroplasts). This antagonistic effect was observed between α-tocopherol and OPDA, but not between γ-tocopherol and OPDA. It is concluded that (i) variations in jasmonates and vitamin E due to yearly, inter-individual and sun orientation-driven variability are compatible with a partial regulation of vitamin E accumulation by jasmonates, (ii) vitamin E may also exert a role in the modulation of the biosynthesis of OPDA, with a much smaller effect, if any, on other jasmonates, and (iii) a trade-off in the accumulation of vitamin E and jasmonates might occur in the regulation of biotic and abiotic stress responses in plants.

Primary leaf-type ferredoxin 1 participates in photosynthetic electron transport and carbon assimilation in rice

Ferredoxins (Fds) play a crucial role in photosynthesis by regulating the distribution of electrons to downstream enzymes. Multiple Fd genes have been annotated in the Oryza sativa L. (rice) genome; however, their specific functions are not well understood. Here, we report the functional characterization of rice Fd1. Sequence alignment, phylogenetic analysis of seven rice Fd proteins and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis showed that rice Fd1 is a primary leaf-type Fd. Electron transfer assays involving NADP⁺ and cytochrome c indicated that Fd1 can donate electrons from photosystem I (PSI) to ferredoxin-NADP⁺ reductase. Loss-of-function fd1 mutants showed chlorosis and seedling lethality at the three-leaf stage. The deficiency of Fd1 impaired photosynthetic electron transport, which affected carbon assimilation. Exogenous glucose treatment partially restored the mutant phenotype, suggesting that Fd1 plays an important role in photosynthetic electron transport in rice. In addition, the transcript levels of Fd-dependent genes were affected in fd1 mutants, and the trend was similar to that observed in fdc2 plants. Together, these results suggest that OsFd1 is the primary Fd in photosynthetic electron transport and carbon assimilation in rice.

Chloroplast-associated molecular patterns as concept for fine-tuned operational retrograde signalling

Chloroplasts compose about one-quarter of the mesophyll cell volume and contain about 60% of the cell protein. Photosynthetic carbon assimilation is the dominating metabolism in illuminated leaves. To optimize the resource expenditure in these costly organelles and to control and adjust chloroplast metabolism, an intensive transfer of information between nucleus-cytoplasm and chloroplasts occurs in both directions as anterograde and retrograde signalling. Recent research identified multiple retrograde pathways that use metabolite transfer and include reaction products of lipids and carotenoids with reactive oxygen species (ROS). Other pathways use metabolites of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen metabolism, low molecular weight antioxidants and hormone precursors to carry information between the cell compartments. This review focuses on redox- and ROS-related retrograde signalling pathways. In analogy to the microbe-associated molecular pattern, we propose the term 'chloroplast-associated molecular pattern' which connects chloroplast performance to extrachloroplast processes such as nuclear gene transcription, posttranscriptional processing, including translation, and RNA and protein fate. This article is part of the theme issue 'Retrograde signalling from endosymbiotic organelles'.

Photosynthetic signalling during high light stress and recovery: targets and dynamics

The photosynthetic apparatus is one of the major primary sensors of the plant's external environment. Changes in environmental conditions affect the balance between harvested light energy and the capacity to deal with excited electrons in the stroma, which alters the redox homeostasis of the photosynthetic electron transport chain. Disturbances to redox balance activate photosynthetic regulation mechanisms and trigger signalling cascades that can modify the transcription of nuclear genes. H₂O₂ and oxylipins have been identified as especially prominent regulators of gene expression in response to excess light stress. This paper explores the hypothesis that photosynthetic imbalance triggers specific signals that target discrete gene profiles and biological processes. Analysis of the major retrograde signalling pathways engaged during high light stress and recovery demonstrates both specificity and overlap in gene targets. This work reveals distinct, time-resolved profiles of gene expression that suggest a regulatory interaction between rapidly activated abiotic stress response and induction of secondary metabolism and detoxification processes during recovery. The findings of this study show that photosynthetic electron transport provides a finely tuned sensor for detecting and responding to the environment through chloroplast retrograde signalling. This article is part of the theme issue 'Retrograde signalling from endosymbiotic organelles'.

Chloroplast-to-nucleus retrograde signalling controls intercellular trafficking via plasmodesmata formation

The signalling pathways that regulate intercellular trafficking via plasmodesmata (PD) remain largely unknown. Analyses of mutants with defects in intercellular trafficking led to the hypothesis that chloroplasts are important for controlling PD, probably by retrograde signalling to the nucleus to regulate expression of genes that influence PD formation and function, an idea encapsulated in the organelle-nucleus-PD signalling (ONPS) hypothesis. ONPS is supported by findings that point to chloroplast redox state as also modulating PD. Here, we have attempted to further elucidate details of ONPS. Through reverse genetics, expression of select nucleus-encoded genes with known or predicted roles in chloroplast gene expression was knocked down, and the effects on intercellular trafficking were then assessed. Silencing most genes resulted in chlorosis, and the expression of several photosynthesis and tetrapyrrole biosynthesis associated nuclear genes was repressed in all silenced plants. PD-mediated intercellular trafficking was changed in the silenced plants, consistent with predictions of the ONPS hypothesis. One striking observation, best exemplified by silencing the PNPase homologues, was that the degree of chlorosis of silenced leaves was not correlated with the capacity for intercellular trafficking. Finally, we measured the distribution of PD in silenced leaves and found that intercellular trafficking was positively correlated with the numbers of PD. Together, these results not only provide further support for ONPS but also point to a genetic mechanism for PD formation, clarifying a longstanding question about PD and intercellular trafficking. This article is part of the theme issue 'Retrograde signalling from endosymbiotic organelles'.

Assessing the Impact of Ozone on Forest Trees in An Integrative Perspective: Are Foliar Visible Symptoms Suitable Predictors for Growth Reduction? A Critical Review

Plant growth reduction (GR) is the most widely accepted damage parameter to assess the sensitivity of trees to tropospheric ozone (O3) pollution since it integrates different physiological processes leading to loss of photosynthetic activity and distraction of metabolic resources from growth to defense, repair, and recovery pathways. Because of the intrinsic difficulty to assess the actual O3 risk assessment for forests in field conditions, foliar visible symptoms (FVS) induced by O3 have been proposed as a proxy to estimate possible GR in forest trees. The rationale for this assumption is that the onset of FVS implies a reduction of the photosynthetic capacity of plants. In this review, we show that GR and FVS can be the consequences of independent physiological pathways involving different response mechanisms that can cause both FVS without GR and GR without FVS. The onset of FVS may not lead necessarily to significant GR at plant level for several reasons, including the rise of compensatory photosynthesis, the time lag between growth processes and the accumulation of critical O3 dose, and the negligible effect of a modest amount of injured leaves. Plant GR, on the other hand, may be induced by different physiological mechanisms not necessarily related to FVS, such as stomatal closure (i.e., carbon starvation) to avoid or reduce O3 uptake, and the increase of respiratory processes for the production of metabolic defense compounds. Growth reduction and FVS can be interpreted as different strategies for the acclimation of plants to a stressful environment, and do not mean necessarily damage. Growth reduction (without FVS) seems to prevail in species adapted to limiting environmental conditions, that avoid loss and replacement of injured leaves because of the high metabolic cost of their production; conversely, FVS manifestation (without GR) and the replacement of injured leaves is more common in species adapted to environments with low-stress levels, since they can benefit from a rapid foliar turnover to compensate for the decreased rate of photosynthesis of the whole plant.

Transcription Factor Networks in Leaves of Cichorium endivia: New Insights into the Relationship Between Photosynthesis and Leaf Development

Cichorium endivia is a leafy crop closely related to Lactuca sativa that comprises two major botanical varieties characterized by a high degree of intraspecific morphological variation: var. latifolium with broad leaves (escarole) and var. crispum with narrow crisp curly leaves (endive). To investigate the relationship between leaf morphology and photosynthetic activity, escaroles and endives were used as a crop model due to the striking morphological diversity of their leaves. We constructed a leaf database for transcription factors (TFs) and photosynthesis-related genes from a refined C. endivia transcriptome and used RNA-seq transcriptomic data from leaves of four commercial endive and escarole cultivars to explore transcription factor regulatory networks. Cluster and gene co-expression network (GCN) analyses identified two main anticorrelated modules that control photosynthesis. Analysis of the GCN network topological properties identified known and novel hub genes controlling photosynthesis, and candidate developmental genes at the boundaries between shape and function. Differential expression analysis between broad and curly leaves suggested three novel TFs putatively involved in leaf shape diversity. Physiological analysis of the photosynthesis properties and gene expression studies on broad and curly leaves provided new insights into the relationship between leaf shape and function.

Signaling interactions between mitochondria and chloroplasts in Nicotiana tabacum leaf

Research has begun to elucidate the signal transduction pathway(s) that control cellular responses to changes in mitochondrial status. Important tools in such studies are chemical inhibitors used to initiate mitochondrial dysfunction. This study compares the effect of different inhibitors and treatment conditions on the transcript amount of nuclear genes specifically responsive to mitochondrial dysfunction in leaf of Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. Petit Havana. The Complex III inhibitors antimycin A (AA) and myxothiazol (MYXO), and the Complex V inhibitor oligomycin (OLIGO), each increased the transcript amount of the mitochondrial dysfunction genes. Transcript responses to OLIGO were greater during treatment in the dark than in the light, and the dark treatment resulted in cell death. In the dark, transcript responses to AA and MYXO were similar to one another, despite MYXO leading to cell death. In the light, transcript responses to AA and MYXO diverged, despite cell viability remaining high with either inhibitor. This divergent response may be due to differential signaling from the chloroplast because only AA also inhibited cyclic electron transport, resulting in a strong acceptor-side limitation in photosystem I. In the light, chemical inhibition of chloroplast electron transport reduced transcript responses to AA, while having no effect on the response to MYXO, and increasing the response to OLIGO. Hence, when studying mitochondrial dysfunction signaling, different inhibitor and treatment combinations differentially affect linked processes (e.g. chloroplast function and cell fate) that then contribute to measured responses. Therefore, inhibitor and treatment conditions should be chosen to align with specific study goals.

LEFKOTHEA Regulates Nuclear and Chloroplast mRNA Splicing in Plants

Eukaryotic organisms accomplish the removal of introns to produce mature mRNAs through splicing. Nuclear and organelle splicing mechanisms are distinctively executed by spliceosome and group II intron complex, respectively. Here, we show that LEFKOTHEA, a nuclear encoded RNA-binding protein, participates in chloroplast group II intron and nuclear pre-mRNA splicing. Transiently optimized LEFKOTHEA nuclear activity is fundamental for plant growth, whereas the loss of function abruptly arrests embryogenesis. Nucleocytoplasmic partitioning and chloroplast allocation are efficiently balanced via functional motifs in LEFKOTHEA polypeptide. In the context of nuclear-chloroplast coevolution, our results provide a strong paradigm of the convergence of RNA maturation mechanisms in the nucleus and chloroplasts to coordinately regulate gene expression and effectively control plant growth.

Redox Homeostasis in Photosynthetic Organisms: Novel and Established Thiol-Based Molecular Mechanisms

Significance: Redox homeostasis consists of an intricate network of reactions in which reactive molecular species, redox modifications, and redox proteins act in concert to allow both physiological responses and adaptation to stress conditions. Recent Advances: This review highlights established and novel thiol-based regulatory pathways underlying the functional facets and significance of redox biology in photosynthetic organisms. In the last decades, the field of redox regulation has largely expanded and this work is aimed at giving the right credit to the importance of thiol-based regulatory and signaling mechanisms in plants. Critical Issues: This cannot be all-encompassing, but is intended to provide a comprehensive overview on the structural/molecular mechanisms governing the most relevant thiol switching modifications with emphasis on the large genetic and functional diversity of redox controllers (i.e., redoxins). We also summarize the different proteomic-based approaches aimed at investigating the dynamics of redox modifications and the recent evidence that extends the possibility to monitor the cellular redox state in vivo. The physiological relevance of redox transitions is discussed based on reverse genetic studies confirming the importance of redox homeostasis in plant growth, development, and stress responses. Future Directions: In conclusion, we can firmly assume that redox biology has acquired an established significance that virtually infiltrates all aspects of plant physiology.

The Enigmatic Roles of PPR-SMR Proteins in Plants

The pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) protein family, with more than 400 members, is one of the largest and most diverse protein families in land plants. A small subset of PPR proteins contain a C-terminal small MutS-related (SMR) domain. Although there are relatively few PPR-SMR proteins, they play essential roles in embryo development, chloroplast biogenesis and gene expression, and plastid-to-nucleus retrograde signaling. Here, recent advances in understanding the roles of PPR-SMR proteins and the SMR domain based on a combination of genetic, biochemical, and physiological analyses are described. In addition, the potential of the PPR-SMR protein SOT1 to serve as a tool for RNA manipulation is highlighted.

Global transcriptome analysis and differentially expressed genes in grapevine after application of the yeast-derived defense inducer cerevisane

BACKGROUND

Cerevisane, made up of cell wall derivatives from the Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain LAS117, is proposed as a resistance inducer in plants. The mode of action of cerevisane was investigated through transcriptome analysis (RNA-Seq) carried out on leaves of potted vines cv. Italia grown in the greenhouse and sprayed at 1-week intervals with cerevisane. Analyses were performed at three time points after one and three sprays as well as on vines challenged with artificial inoculation with Plasmopara viticola, Erysiphe necator and Botrytis cinerea.

RESULTS

Cerevisane proved effective against downy mildew and caused an increase in expression levels of several genes related to defense responses to fungal pathogens and other stresses and down-regulation of genes involved in several processes related to plant growth and development. Up-regulated genes included genes encoding (i) enzymes involved in hormone metabolism (i.e. salicylic acid, jasmonate, ethylene) and related plant responses, (ii) defense compounds (i.e. pathogenesis-related proteins, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, stilbene synthases, lipoxygenase, leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinases, non-specific plant lipid transfer proteins, serine-threonine protein kinases involved in signal transduction, superoxide dismutase and glutathione S-transferase involved in response to oxidative stress), (iii) secondary metabolites (i.e. phenylpropanoids, terpenoids, lignin), and (iv) photosynthetic processes (light harvesting chlorophyll A/B-binding proteins and components of the photosystems).

CONCLUSION

Cerevisane can be a useful tool in protection schedules against downy mildew on grapevine aimed at reducing the usage of synthetic fungicides and preventing fungicide resistance. The results provide the first basic knowledge on the mode of action of yeast-derived elicitors effective against P. viticola on grapevine. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Responses of olive plants exposed to different irrigation treatments in combination with heat shock: physiological and molecular mechanisms during exposure and recovery

A water-deficit period, leading to stomatal control and overexpression of protective proteins (sHSP and DHN), contributes to olive´s tolerance to later imposed stress episodes. Aquaporins modulation is important in olive recovery. Olive is traditionally cultivated in dry farming or in high water demanding irrigated orchards. The impact of climate change on these orchards remains to unveil, as heat and drought episodes are increasing in the Mediterranean region. To understand how young plants face such stress episodes, olive plants growing in pots were exposed to well-irrigated and non-irrigated treatments. Subsequently, plants from each treatment were either exposed to 40 °C for 2 h or remained under control temperature. After treatments, all plants were allowed to grow under well-irrigated conditions (recovery). Leaves were compared for photosynthesis, relative water content, mineral status, pigments, carbohydrates, cell membrane permeability, lipid peroxidation and expression of the protective proteins' dehydrin (OeDHN1), heat-shock proteins (OeHSP18.3), and aquaporins (OePIP1.1 and OePIP2.1). Non-irrigation, whilst increasing carbohydrates, reduced some photosynthetic parameters to values below the ones of the well-irrigated plants. However, when both groups of plants were exposed to heat, well-irrigated plants suffered more drastic decreases of net CO₂ assimilation rate and chlorophyll b than non-irrigated plants. Overall, OeDHN1 and OeHSP18.3 expression, which was increased in non-irrigated treatment, was potentiated by heat, possibly to counteract the increase of lipid peroxidation and loss of membrane integrity. Plants recovered similarly from both irrigation and temperature treatments, and recovery was associated with increased aquaporin expression in plants exposed to one type of stress (drought or heat). These data represent an important contribution for further understanding how dry-farming olive will cope with drought and heat episodes.

DNA damage and reactive oxygen species cause cell death in the rice local lesions 1 mutant under high light and high temperature

High light and high temperature (HLHT) stress may become more frequent and severe as the climate changes, affecting crop growth and resulting in reduced production. However, the mechanism of the response to HLHT stress in rice is not yet fully understood. In the present study, we screened a rice mutant library using HLHT conditions and isolated an HLHT-sensitive mutant, local lesions 1 (ls1), which showed decreased pigment contents, defective stomata and chloroplasts, and a local lesions phenotype under HLHT. We characterized and cloned LS1 by map-based cloning and genetic complementation. LS1 encodes the A subunit of the RNase H2 complex (RNASEH2A). Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) and comet assays indicated that mutation of LS1 led to severe DNA damage under HLHT stress. Furthermore, we found excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation in the ls1 mutant under HLHT stress. Exogenous antioxidants eased the local lesions phenotype of the ls1 mutant under HLHT. DNA damage caused by HLHT stress induces ROS accumulation, which causes the injury and apoptosis of leaf cells in the ls1 mutant. These results enhance our understanding of the regulatory mechanism in the response to HLHT stress in higher plants.

Light Control of Salt-Induced Proline Accumulation Is Mediated by ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 5 in Arabidopsis

Plants have to adapt their metabolism to constantly changing environmental conditions, among which the availability of light and water is crucial in determining growth and development. Proline accumulation is one of the sensitive metabolic responses to extreme conditions; it is triggered by salinity or drought and is regulated by light. Here we show that red and blue but not far-red light is essential for salt-induced proline accumulation, upregulation of Δ1-PYRROLINE-5-CARBOXYLATE SYNTHASE 1 (P5CS1) and downregulation of PROLINE DEHYDROGENASE 1 (PDH1) genes, which control proline biosynthetic and catabolic pathways, respectively. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrated that the transcription factor ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 5 (HY5) binds to G-box and C-box elements of P5CS1 and a C-box motif of PDH1. Salt-induced proline accumulation and P5CS1 expression were reduced in the hy5hyh double mutant, suggesting that HY5 promotes proline biosynthesis through connecting light and stress signals. Our results improve our understanding on interactions between stress and light signals, confirming HY5 as a key regulator in proline metabolism.

The Effects of Combined Abiotic and Pathogen Stress in Plants: Insights From Salinity and Pseudomonas syringae pv lachrymans Interaction in Cucumber

Plants are often challenged by abiotic and biotic stresses acting in combination and the response to combinatorial stress differs from that triggered by each factor individually. Although salinity and pathogens are major stressors limiting plant growth and productivity worldwide, their interaction is poorly understood. The reactions to pathogens overlap with those to abiotic stresses, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) and stress hormones represent central nodes in the interacting signaling pathways. Usually, abiotic stress negatively affects plant susceptibility to disease. Specific focus of this review is on cucumber plants exposed to salt stress and thereafter infected with Pseudomonas syringae pv lachrymans (Psl). We addressed this problem by discussing the changes in photochemistry, the antioxidant system, primary carbon metabolism, salicylic acid (SA) and abscisic acid (ABA) contents. Salt-treated plants were more prone to infection and this effect was determined by changes in the hormonal and redox balance as well as the carboxylate metabolism and activities of some NADPH-generating enzymes. Our detailed understanding of the interactive effects of biotic and abiotic stresses is fundamental to achieve enhanced tolerance to combination stress in agronomically important crops.

Singlet oxygen imaging using fluorescent probe Singlet Oxygen Sensor Green in photosynthetic organisms

Formation of singlet oxygen (¹O₂) was reported to accompany light stress in plants, contributing to cell signaling or oxidative damage. So far, Singlet Oxygen Sensor Green (SOSG) has been the only commercialized fluorescent probe for ¹O₂ imaging though it suffers from several limitations (unequal penetration and photosensitization) that need to be carefully considered to avoid misinterpretation of the analysed data. Herein, we present results of a comprehensive study focused on the appropriateness of SOSG for ¹O₂ imaging in three model photosynthetic organisms, unicellular cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and higher plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Penetration of SOSG differs in both unicellular organisms; while it is rather convenient for Chlamydomonas it is restricted by the presence of mucoid sheath of Synechocystis, which penetrability might be improved by mild heating. In Arabidopsis, SOSG penetration is limited due to tissue complexity which can be increased by pressure infiltration using a shut syringe. Photosensitization of SOSG and SOSG endoperoxide formed by its interaction with ¹O₂ might be prevented by illumination of samples by a red light. When measured under controlled conditions given above, SOSG might serve as specific probe for detection of intracellular ¹O₂ formation in photosynthetic organisms.

Features of cues and processes during chloroplast-mediated retrograde signaling in the alga Chlamydomonas

Retrograde signaling is an intracellular communication process defined by cues generated in chloroplast and mitochondria which traverse membranes to their destination in the nucleus in order to regulate nuclear gene expression and protein synthesis. The coding and decoding of such organellar message(s) involve gene medleys and metabolic components about which more is known in higher plants than the unicellular organisms such as algae. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is an oxygenic microalgal model for genetic and physiological studies. It harbors a single chloroplast and is amenable for generating mutants. The focus of this review is on studies that delineate retrograde signaling in Chlamydomonas vis a vis higher plants. Thus, communication networks between chloroplast and nucleus involving photosynthesis- and ROS-generated signals, functional tetrapyrrole biosynthesis intermediates, and Ca²⁺-signaling that modulate nuclear gene expression in this alga are discussed. Conceptually, different signaling components converge to regulate either the same or functionally-overlapping gene products.

ROS-dependent signalling pathways in plants and algae exposed to high light: Comparisons with other eukaryotes

Like all aerobic organisms, plants and algae co-opt reactive oxygen species (ROS) as signalling molecules to drive cellular responses to changes in their environment. In this respect, there is considerable commonality between all eukaryotes imposed by the constraints of ROS chemistry, similar metabolism in many subcellular compartments, the requirement for a high degree of signal specificity and the deployment of thiol peroxidases as transducers of oxidising equivalents to regulatory proteins. Nevertheless, plants and algae carry out specialised signalling arising from oxygenic photosynthesis in chloroplasts and photoautotropism, which often induce an imbalance between absorption of light energy and the capacity to use it productively. A key means of responding to this imbalance is through communication of chloroplasts with the nucleus to adjust cellular metabolism. Two ROS, singlet oxygen (¹O₂) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), initiate distinct signalling pathways when photosynthesis is perturbed. ¹O₂, because of its potent reactivity means that it initiates but does not transduce signalling. In contrast, the lower reactivity of H₂O₂ means that it can also be a mobile messenger in a spatially-defined signalling pathway. How plants translate a H₂O₂ message to bring about changes in gene expression is unknown and therefore, we draw on information from other eukaryotes to propose a working hypothesis. The role of these ROS generated in other subcellular compartments of plant cells in response to HL is critically considered alongside other eukaryotes. Finally, the responses of animal cells to oxidative stress upon high irradiance exposure is considered for new comparisons between plant and animal cells.

Ion and metabolite transport in the chloroplast of algae: lessons from land plants

Chloroplasts are endosymbiotic organelles and play crucial roles in energy supply and metabolism of eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms (algae and land plants). They harbor channels and transporters in the envelope and thylakoid membranes, mediating the exchange of ions and metabolites with the cytosol and the chloroplast stroma and between the different chloroplast subcompartments. In secondarily evolved algae, three or four envelope membranes surround the chloroplast, making more complex the exchange of ions and metabolites. Despite the importance of transport proteins for the optimal functioning of the chloroplast in algae, and that many land plant homologues have been predicted, experimental evidence and molecular characterization are missing in most cases. Here, we provide an overview of the current knowledge about ion and metabolite transport in the chloroplast from algae. The main aspects reviewed are localization and activity of the transport proteins from algae and/or of homologues from other organisms including land plants. Most chloroplast transporters were identified in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, reside in the envelope and participate in carbon acquisition and metabolism. Only a few identified algal transporters are located in the thylakoid membrane and play role in ion transport. The presence of genes for putative transporters in green algae, red algae, diatoms, glaucophytes and cryptophytes is discussed, and roles in the chloroplast are suggested. A deep knowledge in this field is required because algae represent a potential source of biomass and valuable metabolites for industry, medicine and agriculture.

Transcriptomic studies reveal a key metabolic pathway contributing to a well-maintained photosynthetic system under drought stress in foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.)

Drought stress is one of the most important abiotic factors limiting crop productivity. A better understanding of the effects of drought on millet (Setaria italica L.) production, a model crop for studying drought tolerance, and the underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for drought stress responses is vital to improvement of agricultural production. In this study, we exposed the drought resistant F1 hybrid, M79, and its parental lines E1 and H1 to drought stress. Subsequent physiological analysis demonstrated that M79 showed higher photosynthetic energy conversion efficiency and drought tolerance than its parents. A transcriptomic study using leaves collected six days after drought treatment, when the soil water content was about ∼20%, identified 3066, 1895, and 2148 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in M79, E1 and H1 compared to the respective untreated controls, respectively. Further analysis revealed 17 Gene Ontology (GO) enrichments and 14 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways in M79, including photosystem II (PSII) oxygen-evolving complex, peroxidase (POD) activity, plant hormone signal transduction, and chlorophyll biosynthesis. Co-regulation analysis suggested that these DEGs in M79 contributed to the formation of a regulatory network involving multiple biological processes and pathways including photosynthesis, signal transduction, transcriptional regulation, redox regulation, hormonal signaling, and osmotic regulation. RNA-seq analysis also showed that some photosynthesis-related DEGs were highly expressed in M79 compared to its parental lines under drought stress. These results indicate that various molecular pathways, including photosynthesis, respond to drought stress in M79, and provide abundant molecular information for further analysis of the underlying mechanism responding to this stress.

Ties that bind: the integration of plastid signalling pathways in plant cell metabolism

Plastids are critical organelles in plant cells that perform diverse functions and are central to many metabolic pathways. Beyond their major roles in primary metabolism, of which their role in photosynthesis is perhaps best known, plastids contribute to the biosynthesis of phytohormones and other secondary metabolites, store critical biomolecules, and sense a range of environmental stresses. Accordingly, plastid-derived signals coordinate a host of physiological and developmental processes, often by emitting signalling molecules that regulate the expression of nuclear genes. Several excellent recent reviews have provided broad perspectives on plastid signalling pathways. In this review, we will highlight recent advances in our understanding of chloroplast signalling pathways. Our discussion focuses on new discoveries illuminating how chloroplasts determine life and death decisions in cells and on studies elucidating tetrapyrrole biosynthesis signal transduction networks. We will also examine the role of a plastid RNA helicase, ISE2, in chloroplast signalling, and scrutinize intriguing results investigating the potential role of stromules in conducting signals from the chloroplast to other cellular locations.

Interaction between photosynthetic electron transport and chloroplast sinks triggers protection and signalling important for plant productivity

The photosynthetic light reactions provide energy that is consumed and stored in electron sinks, the products of photosynthesis. A balance between light reactions and electron consumption in the chloroplast is vital for plants, and is protected by several photosynthetic regulation mechanisms. Photosystem I (PSI) is particularly susceptible to photoinhibition when these factors become unbalanced, which can occur in low temperatures or in high light. In this study we used the pgr5 Arabidopsis mutant that lacks ΔpH-dependent regulation of photosynthetic electron transport as a model to study the consequences of PSI photoinhibition under high light. We found that PSI damage severely inhibits carbon fixation and starch accumulation, and attenuates enzymatic oxylipin synthesis and chloroplast regulation of nuclear gene expression after high light stress. This work shows that modifications to regulation of photosynthetic light reactions, which may be designed to improve yield in crop plants, can negatively impact metabolism and signalling, and thereby threaten plant growth and stress tolerance.This article is part of the themed issue 'Enhancing photosynthesis in crop plants: targets for improvement'.

Transcriptomic studies reveal a key metabolic pathway contributing to a well-maintained photosynthetic system under drought stress in foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.)

Drought stress is one of the most important abiotic factors limiting crop productivity. A better understanding of the effects of drought on millet (Setaria italica L.) production, a model crop for studying drought tolerance, and the underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for drought stress responses is vital to improvement of agricultural production. In this study, we exposed the drought resistant F₁ hybrid, M79, and its parental lines E1 and H1 to drought stress. Subsequent physiological analysis demonstrated that M79 showed higher photosynthetic energy conversion efficiency and drought tolerance than its parents. A transcriptomic study using leaves collected six days after drought treatment, when the soil water content was about ∼20%, identified 3066, 1895, and 2148 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in M79, E1 and H1 compared to the respective untreated controls, respectively. Further analysis revealed 17 Gene Ontology (GO) enrichments and 14 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways in M79, including photosystem II (PSII) oxygen-evolving complex, peroxidase (POD) activity, plant hormone signal transduction, and chlorophyll biosynthesis. Co-regulation analysis suggested that these DEGs in M79 contributed to the formation of a regulatory network involving multiple biological processes and pathways including photosynthesis, signal transduction, transcriptional regulation, redox regulation, hormonal signaling, and osmotic regulation. RNA-seq analysis also showed that some photosynthesis-related DEGs were highly expressed in M79 compared to its parental lines under drought stress. These results indicate that various molecular pathways, including photosynthesis, respond to drought stress in M79, and provide abundant molecular information for further analysis of the underlying mechanism responding to this stress.

The soluble guanylate cyclase CYG12 is required for the acclimation to hypoxia and trophic regimes in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Oxygenic phototrophs frequently encounter environmental conditions that result in intracellular energy crises. Growth of the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii in hypoxia in the light depends on acclimatory responses of which the induction of photosynthetic cyclic electron flow is essential. The microalga cannot grow in the absence of molecular oxygen (O₂ ) in the dark, although it possesses an elaborate fermentation metabolism. Not much is known about how the microalga senses and signals the lack of O₂ or about its survival strategies during energy crises. Recently, nitric oxide (NO) has emerged to be required for the acclimation of C. reinhardtii to hypoxia. In this study, we show that the soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) CYG12, a homologue of animal NO sensors, is also involved in this response. CYG12 is an active sGC, and post-transcriptional down-regulation of the CYG12 gene impairs hypoxic growth and gene expression in C. reinhardtii. However, it also results in a disturbed photosynthetic apparatus under standard growth conditions and the inability to grow heterotrophically. Transcriptome profiles indicate that the mis-expression of CYG12 results in a perturbation of responses that, in the wild-type, maintain the cellular energy budget. We suggest that CYG12 is required for the proper operation of the photosynthetic apparatus which, in turn, is essential for survival in hypoxia and darkness.

Structure-function relationships in photosynthetic membranes: Challenges and emerging fields

Oxygenic photosynthesis is a fundamental biological process that shaped the earth's biosphere. The process of energy transformation is hosted in highly specialized thylakoid membranes that adjust their architecture in response to environmental cues at different structural levels leading to the adjustment of photosynthetic functions. This review presents structure-function dynamics ranging from the whole membrane system over the mesoscopic level (protein ensembles) down to interactions between lipids and protein complexes. On the whole membrane level, thylakoid membranes constantly change their overall shape (e.g. membranes swell and shrink or destack and stack) that controls vital functions of energy transformation. Furthermore, the physical connection and transition between stacked grana thylakoid and unstacked membrane regions that determines mass transport between these sub-compartments is a crucial open question. On the mesoscopic level, it turns out that reorganizations between disordered and ordered protein arrangements is central for light harvesting and lateral diffusion processes. It has to be unraveled how changes in mesoscopic protein organization are controlled. Finally, dynamic physicochemical properties of the lipid bilayer can determine the structure and organization of photosynthetic membrane proteins, a field that is highly neglected so far. This review focusses on open questions and challenging problems in photosynthesis research.

Dual-Located WHIRLY1 Interacting with LHCA1 Alters Photochemical Activities of Photosystem I and Is Involved in Light Adaptation in Arabidopsis

Plastid-nucleus-located WHIRLY1 protein plays a role in regulating leaf senescence and is believed to associate with the increase of reactive oxygen species delivered from redox state of the photosynthetic electron transport chain. In order to make sure whether WHIRLY1 plays a role in photosynthesis, in this study, the performances of photosynthesis were detected in Arabidopsis whirly1 knockout (kowhy1) and plastid localized WHIRLY1 overexpression (oepWHY1) plants. Loss of WHIRLY1 leads to a higher photochemical quantum yield of photosystem I Y(I) and electron transport rate (ETR) and a lower non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) involved in the thermal dissipation of excitation energy of chlorophyll fluorescence than the wild type. Further analyses showed that WHIRLY1 interacts with Light-harvesting protein complex I (LHCA1) and affects the expression of genes encoding photosystem I (PSI) and light harvest complexes (LHCI). Moreover, loss of WHIRLY1 decreases chloroplast NAD(P)H dehydrogenase-like complex (NDH) activity and the accumulation of NDH supercomplex. Several genes encoding the PSI-NDH complexes are also up-regulated in kowhy1 and the whirly1whirly3 double mutant (ko1/3) but steady in oepWHY1 plants. However, under high light conditions (800 μmol m-2 s-1), both kowhy1 and ko1/3 plants show lower ETR than wild-type which are contrary to that under normal light condition. Moreover, the expression of several PSI-NDH encoding genes and ERF109 which is related to jasmonate (JA) response varied in kowhy1 under different light conditions. These results indicate that WHIRLY1 is involved in the alteration of ETR by affecting the activities of PSI and supercomplex formation of PSI with LHCI or NDH and may acting as a communicator between the plastids and the nucleus.

Spectroanalysis in native gels (SING): rapid spectral analysis of pigmented thylakoid membrane complexes separated by CN-PAGE

Photosynthetic organisms rapidly adjust the capture, transfer and utilization of light energy to optimize the efficiency of photosynthesis and avoid photodamage. These adjustments involve fine-tuning of expression levels and mutual interactions among electron/proton transfer components and their associated light-harvesting antenna. Detailed studies of these interactions and their dynamics have been hindered by the low throughput and resolution of currently available research tools, which involve laborious isolation, separation and characterization steps. To address these issues, we developed an approach that measured multiple spectroscopic properties of thylakoid preparations directly in native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis gels, enabling unprecedented resolution of photosynthetic complexes, both in terms of the spectroscopic and functional details, as well as the ability to distinguish separate complexes and thus test their functional connections. As a demonstration, we explore the thylakoid membrane components of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii acclimated to high and low light, using a combination of room temperature absorption and 77K fluorescence emission to generate a multi-dimensional molecular and spectroscopic map of the photosynthetic apparatus. We show that low-light-acclimated cells accumulate a photosystem I-containing megacomplex that is absent in high-light-acclimated cells and contains distinct LhcII proteins that can be distinguished based on their spectral signatures.

A chloroplast thylakoid lumen protein is required for proper photosynthetic acclimation of plants under fluctuating light environments

Despite our increasingly sophisticated understanding of mechanisms ensuring efficient photosynthesis under laboratory-controlled light conditions, less is known about the regulation of photosynthesis under fluctuating light. This is important because-in nature-photosynthetic organisms experience rapid and extreme changes in sunlight, potentially causing deleterious effects on photosynthetic efficiency and productivity. Here we report that the chloroplast thylakoid lumenal protein MAINTENANCE OF PHOTOSYSTEM II UNDER HIGH LIGHT 2 (MPH2; encoded by At4g02530) is required for growth acclimation of Arabidopsis thaliana plants under controlled photoinhibitory light and fluctuating light environments. Evidence is presented that mph2 mutant light stress susceptibility results from a defect in photosystem II (PSII) repair, and our results are consistent with the hypothesis that MPH2 is involved in disassembling monomeric complexes during regeneration of dimeric functional PSII supercomplexes. Moreover, mph2-and previously characterized PSII repair-defective mutants-exhibited reduced growth under fluctuating light conditions, while PSII photoprotection-impaired mutants did not. These findings suggest that repair is not only required for PSII maintenance under static high-irradiance light conditions but is also a regulatory mechanism facilitating photosynthetic adaptation under fluctuating light environments. This work has implications for improvement of agricultural plant productivity through engineering PSII repair.

Photosynthesis-dependent H2O2 transfer from chloroplasts to nuclei provides a high-light signalling mechanism

Chloroplasts communicate information by signalling to nuclei during acclimation to fluctuating light. Several potential operating signals originating from chloroplasts have been proposed, but none have been shown to move to nuclei to modulate gene expression. One proposed signal is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) produced by chloroplasts in a light-dependent manner. Using HyPer2, a genetically encoded fluorescent H2O2 sensor, we show that in photosynthetic Nicotiana benthamiana epidermal cells, exposure to high light increases H2O2 production in chloroplast stroma, cytosol and nuclei. Critically, over-expression of stromal ascorbate peroxidase (H2O2 scavenger) or treatment with DCMU (photosynthesis inhibitor) attenuates nuclear H2O2 accumulation and high light-responsive gene expression. Cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase over-expression has little effect on nuclear H2O2 accumulation and high light-responsive gene expression. This is because the H2O2 derives from a sub-population of chloroplasts closely associated with nuclei. Therefore, direct H2O2 transfer from chloroplasts to nuclei, avoiding the cytosol, enables photosynthetic control over gene expression.Multiple plastid-derived signals have been proposed but not shown to move to the nucleus to promote plant acclimation to fluctuating light. Here the authors use a fluorescent hydrogen peroxide sensor to provide evidence that H2O2 is transferred directly from chloroplasts to nuclei to control nuclear gene expression.