Untargeted characterization of extracts from Cannabis sativa L. cultivars by gas and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry in high resolution mode

Chromatographic and Spectroscopic Analyses of Cannabinoids: A Narrative Review Focused on Cannabis Herbs and Oily Products

Cannabis sativa L. is cultivated nowadays for agricultural, industrial, and medicinal applications and also for recreational use. The latter is due to the presence of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, a psychoactive substance. Recreational cannabis policies vary between different countries, which has led to the lack of a clearly defined legal context for cannabis and also a diversity of products derived from or containing cannabis on the (il)legal market. These cannabis-derived products have regained attention, notably because of their cannabinoid content. This review aims to assess and present analytical methods developed to analyze phytocannabinoids with spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques in specific cannabis matrices: herbs and oily products. Published papers from 2018-November 2024 were searched for with precise criteria, analyzed, and summarized. In the studies, liquid and gas chromatographic techniques (>70% reviewed papers) were the most used and have been widely applied using similar methods, and most papers were focused on cannabis herbs (>75%). Techniques were also compared and future challenges were identified. A comparison of different specificities of chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques discussed in this current review has also been established and summarized.

Enhancing Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa) Leaf By-Products: Bioactive Compounds, Anti-Inflammatory Properties, and Potential Health Applications

The sustainable utilization of biomass-derived bioactives addresses the growing demand for natural health products and supports sustainable development goals by reducing reliance on synthetic chemicals in healthcare. Cannabis sativa biomass, in particular, has emerged as a valuable resource within this context. This study focuses on the hydroethanolic extract of C. sativa leaves (CSE), which exhibited significant levels of phenolic compounds contributing to robust antioxidant activity. Evaluation using potassium ferricyanide, ABTS, and DPPH methods revealed potent radical scavenging activity comparable to the Trolox standard. UPLC-MS/MS profiling identified cannabinoids as the predominant secondary metabolites in CSE, with flavonoids also present in substantial quantities. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory potential of CSE on RAW 264.7 macrophages and IL-1β-stimulated C-20/A4 immortalized human chondrocytes, demonstrating protective effects without cytotoxic or mutagenic effects. Mechanistically, CSE reduced inflammation by inhibiting the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways. In silico approaches showed the ability of CSE's main metabolites to bind and influence MAPK and NF-κB activity, confirming in vitro evidence. Incorporating C. sativa leaf extract into a hyaluronic acid-based formulation showed biotechnological promise for treating joint inflammation. Future research should aim to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects and explore the potential of CSE-derived compounds in mitigating osteoarthritis progression. This approach highlights the significance of utilizing annually increasing biomass waste for sustainable bioactivity and environmental impact reduction.

Complementarity of two-dimensional gas chromatography and two-dimensional liquid chromatography for the analysis of depolymerised lignin

Two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) and two-dimensional liquid chromatography (LC × LC) are nowadays widely used in academia and industry due to their high separation power. However, as far as we know, the complementarity of these two techniques has not yet been thoroughly studied based on the analysis of the same sample. Therefore, this was undertaken here by analysing the liquid fraction obtained after depolymerising a natural waste - lignin - with GC × GC and off-line comprehensive LC × SFC (SFC: supercritical fluid chromatography). Using complementary techniques is also important for lignin valorisation, as thorough structural characterisation of the depolymerised product can aid with developing and improving valorisation processes. For the tentative identification, NIST library was used for GC × GC-MS results and MS-DIAL together with SIRIUS for LC × SFC-MS/MS data. This allowed to study which compounds are detectable with the different 2D methods but also to discuss the limitations of the data analysis processes. The previous knowledge that LC techniques are more suitable than GC × GC for the analysis of larger oligomers and other low volatility compounds was confirmed; however, it was seen that GC × GC enabled the analysis of smaller compounds, such as aliphatic alcohols and saturated compounds. Overall, the study demonstrates the complementarity of the two techniques but also draws attention to the different detectable compound groups and classifications that the two techniques can provide.

Nonterpenoid Chemical Diversity of Cannabis Phenotypes Predicts Differentiated Aroma Characteristics

The recent increase in legality of Cannabis Sativa L. has led to interest in developing new varieties with unique aromatic or effect-driven traits. Selectively breeding plants for the genetic stability and consistency of their secondary metabolite profiles is one application of phenotyping. While this horticultural process is used extensively in the cannabis industry, few studies exist examining the chemical data that may differentiate phenotypes aromatically. To gain insight into the diversity of secondary metabolite profiles between progeny, we analyzed five ice water hash rosin extracts created from five different phenotypes of the same crossing using comprehensive 2-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry, flame ionization detection, and sulfur chemiluminescence detection. These results were then correlated to results from a human sensory panel, which revealed specific low-concentration compounds that strongly influence sensory perception. We found aroma differences between certain phenotypes that are driven by key minor, nonterpenoid compounds, including the newly reported 3-mercaptohexyl hexanoate. We further report the identification of octanoic and decanoic acids, which are implicated in the production of cheese-like aromas in cannabis. These results establish that even genetically similar phenotypes can possess diverse and distinct aromas arising not from the dominant terpenes, but rather from key minor volatile compounds. Moreover, our study underscores the value of detailed chemical analyses in enhancing cannabis selective breeding practices, offering insights into the chemical basis of aroma and sensory differences.

Chemical Composition of Commercial Cannabis

Cannabis is widely used for medicinal and recreational purposes. As a result, there is increased interest in its chemical components and their physiological effects. However, current information on cannabis chemistry is often outdated or scattered across many books and journals. To address this issue, we used modern metabolomics techniques and modern bioinformatics techniques to compile a comprehensive list of >6000 chemical constituents in commercial cannabis. The metabolomics methods included a combination of high- and low-resolution liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (MS), gas chromatography-MS, and inductively coupled plasma-MS. The bioinformatics methods included computer-aided text mining and computational genome-scale metabolic inference. This information, along with detailed compound descriptions, physicochemical data, known physiological effects, protein targets, and referential compound spectra, has been made available through a publicly accessible database called the Cannabis Compound Database (https://cannabisdatabase.ca). Such a centralized, open-access resource should prove to be quite useful for the cannabis community.

Uncovering the metabolite complexity and variability of cultivated hemp (Cannabis sativa L.): A first phytochemical diversity mapping in Greece

The high value of fiber-type Cannabis sativa L. (hemp) due to its phytochemicals has yet to be fully recognized and leveraged. Besides cannabidiol (CBD), which is the most prevalent non-psychoactive cannabinoid, hemp contains numerous other cannabinoids with unexplored bioactivities, in addition to various compound classes. Previous works have aimed to correlate chemical profiles of C. sativa inflorescences with important parameters, mostly based on experiments under controlled conditions. However, mapping studies that explore the phytochemical diversity of hemp in a more realistic context are crucial to guide decisions at multiple levels, especially in areas where hemp cultivation was recently re-authorized, including Mediterranean countries. In this work, a powerful strategy was followed to map the phytochemical diversity of cultivated hemp in Greece, being the first study of its kind for this environment. A panel of 98 inflorescence samples, covering two harvesting years, eleven geographical regions and seven commonly used EU varieties, were studied using a combination of targeted and untargeted approaches. Quantitative results based on UPLC-PDA revealed relatively constant CBD/THC (total) ratios, while profiling by LC-HRMS effectively probed the phytochemical variability of samples, and led to the annotation of 88 metabolites, including a multitude of minor cannabinoids. Multivariate analysis substantiated a strong effect of harvesting year in sample discrimination and related biomarkers were revealed, belonging to fatty acids and flavonoids. The effect of geographical region and, especially, variety on chemical variation patterns was more intricate to interpret. The results of this work are envisioned to enhance our understanding of the real-world phytochemical complexity of C. sativa (hemp), with a view to maximized utilization of hemp for the promotion of human well-being.

Cannabigerol (CBG) signal enhancement in its analysis by gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry

PURPOSE

According to recent reports, cannabigerol (CBG) concentration level in blood and body fluids may have forensic utility as a highly specific albeit insensitive biomarker of recent cannabis smoking. While the analytical sensitivity of cannabidiol (CBD), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabichromene (CBC) or cannabinol (CBN) estimation by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is similar and sufficiently high, it is exceptionally low in the case of CBG (ca. 25 times lower than for the other mentioned cannabinoids). The purpose of this study is to explain the reasons for the extremely low analytical sensitivity of GC-MS in estimating CBG and to present possible ways of its improvement.

METHODS

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data and GC-MS responses to CBG and its various derivatization and transformation products were studied.

RESULTS

The validation data of individual derivatives of CBG and its transformation products were established. CBG silylation/acylation or hydration allows to decrease LOD about 3 times, whereas the formation of pyranic CBG derivative leads to 10-times decrease of LOD. The paper enriches the literature of the subject by providing MS and NMR spectra, not published so far, for derivatives of CBG and its transformation products. The most likely cause of low GC-MS response to CBG is also presented.

CONCLUSIONS

The presented results shows that although the signal increase of CBG can be obtained through its derivatization by silylation and/or acylation, the greatest increase is observed in the case of its cyclization to the pyranic CBG form during the sample preparation process. The CBG cyclization procedure is very simple and workable in estimating this cannabinoid in blood/plasma samples.

Development of sequential online extraction electrospray ionization mass spectrometry for accurate authentication of highly-similar Atractylodis Macrocephalae

The accurate and rapid authentication techniques and strategies for highly-similar foods are still lacking. Herein, a novel sequential online extraction electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (S-oEESI-MS) was developed to achieve spatio-temporally resolved ionization and comprehensive characterization of complex foods with multi-components (high, medium, and low polarity substances). Meanwhile, a characteristic marker screening method and an integrated research strategy based on MS fingerprinting, characteristic marker and chemometrics modeling were established, which are especially suitable for the accurate and rapid authentication of highly-similar foods that are difficult to be authenticated by traditional techniques (e.g., LC-MS). Thirty-two batches of highly-similar Atractylodis macrocephalae rhizome from four different origins were used as model samples. As a result, S-oEESI-MS enabled a more comprehensive MS characterization of substance profiles in complex plant samples in 1.0 min. Further, 22 characteristic markers of Atractylodis macrocephalae were ingeniously screened out and combined with multivariate statistical analysis model, the accurate authentication of highly-similar Atractylodis macrocephalae was realized. This study presents a comprehensive strategy for accurate authentication and origin analysis of highly-similar foods, which has potentially significant applications for ensuring food quality and safety.

Extraction solvent selection for Cannabis sativa L. by efficient exploration of cannabinoid selectivity and phytochemical diversity

INTRODUCTION

Cannabis sativa L. is attracting worldwide attention due to various health-promoting effects. Extraction solvent type is critical for the recovery of bioactive compounds from the plant, especially cannabinoids. However, the choice of solvent is varied and not adequately warranted elsewhere, causing confusion in involved fields.

OBJECTIVE

The present work aimed to investigate the effect of extraction solvent on C. sativa (hemp) with regard to cannabinoid recovery and phytochemical profile of the extracts, considering most of the related solvents.

METHODOLOGY

The majority of solvents reported for C. sativa (n = 14) were compared using a representative hemp pool. Quantitative results for major and minor cannabinoids were rapidly and reliably obtained using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with photodiode array detection (UPLC-PDA). In parallel, high-performance thin-layer chromatographic (HPTLC) fingerprinting was employed, involving less toxic mobile phase than in relevant reports. Various derivatisation schemes were applied for more comprehensive comparison of extracts.

RESULTS

Differential selectivity towards cannabinoids was observed among solvents. MeOH was found particularly efficient for most cannabinoids, in addition to solvent systems such as n-Hex/EtOH 70:30 and ACN/EtOH 80:20, while EtOH was generally inferior. For tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-type compounds, EtOAc and n-Hex/EtOAc 60:40 outperformed n-Hex, despite its use in the official EU method. Solvents that tend to extract more lipids or more polar compounds were revealed based on HPTLC results.

CONCLUSION

Combining the observations from UPLC quantitation and HPTLC fingerprinting, this work allowed comprehensive evaluation of extraction solvents, in view of robust quality assessment and maximised utilisation of C. sativa.

Application of gas chromatography in the analysis of phytocannabinoids: An update (2020-2023)

INTRODUCTION

Cannabinoids are a group of compounds that bind to cannabinoid receptors. They possess pharmacological properties like that of the plant Cannabis sativa. Gas chromatography (GC) is one of the popular chromatographic techniques that has been routinely used in the analysis of cannabinoids in different matrices.

OBJECTIVE

The article aims to review the literature on the application of GC-based analytical methods for the analysis of phytocannabinoids published during the period from January 2020 to August 2023.

METHODOLOGY

A thorough literature search was conducted using different databases, like Web of Knowledge, PubMed, Google Scholar, and other relevant published materials including published books. The keywords used, in various combinations, with cannabinoids being present in all combinations, in the search were cannabinoids, Cannabis sativa, marijuana, analysis, GC, quantitative, qualitative, and quality control. From the search results, only the publications that incorporate the GC analysis of phytocannabinoids were reviewed, and papers on synthetic cannabinoids were excluded.

RESULTS

Since the publication of the review article on GC analysis of phytocannabinoids in early 2020, several GC-based methods for the analysis of phytocannabinoids have appeared in the literature. While simple 1D GC-mass spectrometry (MS) and GC-flame ionisation detector (FID) methods are still quite common in phytocannabinoids analysis, 2D GC-MS and GC-MS/MS are increasingly becoming popular, as these techniques offer more useful data for identification and quantification of phytocannabinoids in various matrices. The use of automation in sample preparation and the utilisation of mathematical and computational models for optimisation of different protocols have become a norm in phytocannabinoids analysis. Pre-analyses have been found to incorporate different derivatisation techniques and environmentally friendly extraction protocols.

CONCLUSIONS

GC-based analysis of phytocannabinoids, especially using GC-MS, remains one of the most preferred methods for the analysis of these compounds. New derivatisation methods, ionisation techniques, mathematical models, and computational approaches for method optimisation have been introduced.

Aqueous Extracts from Hemp Seeds as a New Weapon against Staphylococcus epidermidis Biofilms

This study investigated the antibiofilm activity of water-soluble extracts obtained under different pH conditions from Cannabis sativa seeds and from previously defatted seeds. The chemical composition of the extracts, determined through GC-MS and NMR, revealed complex mixtures of fatty acids, monosaccharides, amino acids and glycerol in ratios depending on extraction pH. In particular, the extract obtained at pH 7 from defatted seeds (Ex7d) contained a larger variety of sugars compared to the others. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids were found in all of the analysed extracts, but linoleic acid (C18:2) was detected only in the extracts obtained at pH 7 and pH 10. The extracts did not show cytotoxicity to HaCaT cells and significantly inhibited the formation of Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms. The exception was the extract obtained at pH 10, which appeared to be less active. Ex7d showed the highest antibiofilm activity, i.e., around 90%. Ex7d was further fractionated by HPLC, and the antibiofilm activity of all fractions was evaluated. The 2D-NMR analysis highlighted that the most active fraction was largely composed of glycerolipids. This evidence suggested that these molecules are probably responsible for the observed antibiofilm effect but does not exclude a possible synergistic contribution by the other components.

Genome-Scale Metabolic Reconstruction, Non-Targeted LC-QTOF-MS Based Metabolomics Data, and Evaluation of Anticancer Activity of Cannabis sativa Leaf Extracts

Over the past decades, Colombia has suffered complex social problems related to illicit crops, including forced displacement, violence, and environmental damage, among other consequences for vulnerable populations. Considerable effort has been made in the regulation of illicit crops, predominantly Cannabis sativa, leading to advances such as the legalization of medical cannabis and its derivatives, the improvement of crops, and leaving an open window to the development of scientific knowledge to explore alternative uses. It is estimated that C. sativa can produce approximately 750 specialized secondary metabolites. Some of the most relevant due to their anticancer properties, besides cannabinoids, are monoterpenes, sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, essential oils, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds. However, despite the increase in scientific research on the subject, it is necessary to study the primary and secondary metabolism of the plant and to identify key pathways that explore its great metabolic potential. For this purpose, a genome-scale metabolic reconstruction of C. sativa is described and contextualized using LC-QTOF-MS metabolic data obtained from the leaf extract from plants grown in the region of Pesca-Boyaca, Colombia under greenhouse conditions at the Clever Leaves facility. A compartmentalized model with 2101 reactions and 1314 metabolites highlights pathways associated with fatty acid biosynthesis, steroids, and amino acids, along with the metabolism of purine, pyrimidine, glucose, starch, and sucrose. Key metabolites were identified through metabolomic data, such as neurine, cannabisativine, cannflavin A, palmitoleic acid, cannabinoids, geranylhydroquinone, and steroids. They were analyzed and integrated into the reconstruction, and their potential applications are discussed. Cytotoxicity assays revealed high anticancer activity against gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS), melanoma cells (A375), and lung carcinoma cells (A549), combined with negligible impact against healthy human skin cells.

Argentination: A Silver Bullet for Cannabinoid Separation by Differential Mobility Spectrometry

As the legality of cannabis continues to evolve globally, there is a growing demand for methods that can accurately quantitate cannabinoids found in commercial products. However, the isobaric nature of many cannabinoids, along with variations in extraction methods and product formulations, makes cannabinoid quantitation by mass spectrometry (MS) challenging. Here, we demonstrate that differential mobility spectrometry (DMS) and tandem-MS can distinguish a set of seven cannabinoids, five of which are isobaric: Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), Δ⁸-THC, exo-THC, cannabidiol, cannabichromene, cannabinol, and cannabigerol. Analytes were detected as argentinated species ([M + Ag]⁺), which, when subjected to collision-induced dissociation, led to the unexpected discovery that argentination promotes distinct fragmentation patterns for each cannabinoid. The unique fragment ions formed were rationalized by discerning fragmentation mechanisms that follow each cannabinoid's MS³ behavior. The differing fragmentation behaviors between species suggest that argentination can distinguish cannabinoids by tandem-MS, although not quantitatively as some cannabinoids produce small amounts of a fragment ion that is isobaric with the major fragment generated by another cannabinoid. By adding DMS to the tandem-MS workflow, it becomes possible to resolve each cannabinoid in a pure N₂ environment by deconvoluting the contribution of each cannabinoid to a specific fragmentation channel. To this end, we used DMS in conjunction with a multiple reaction monitoring workflow to assess cannabinoid levels in two cannabis extracts. Our methodology exhibited excellent accuracy, limits of detection (10-20 ppb depending on the cannabinoid), and linearity during quantitation by standard addition (R² > 0.99).

A Metabolomics and Big Data Approach to Cannabis Authenticity (Authentomics)

With the increasing accessibility of cannabis (Cannabis sativa L., also known as marijuana and hemp), its products are being developed as extracts for both recreational and therapeutic use. This has led to increased scrutiny by regulatory bodies, who aim to understand and regulate the complex chemistry of these products to ensure their safety and efficacy. Regulators use targeted analyses to track the concentration of key bioactive metabolites and potentially harmful contaminants, such as metals and other impurities. However, the metabolic complexity of cannabis metabolic pathways requires a more comprehensive approach. A non-targeted metabolomic analysis of cannabis products is necessary to generate data that can be used to determine their authenticity and efficacy. An authentomics approach, which involves combining the non-targeted analysis of new samples with big data comparisons to authenticated historic datasets, provides a robust method for verifying the quality of cannabis products. To meet International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards, it is necessary to implement the authentomics platform technology and build an integrated database of cannabis analytical results. This study is the first to review the topic of the authentomics of cannabis and its potential to meet ISO standards.

Analysis of Polar Lipids in Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) By-Products by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography and High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

Polar lipids were extracted from residual biomass of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) by-products with EtOH and partitioned into aqueous and chloroform fractions. The chloroform fractions were studied for their lipid composition using solid-phase extraction (SPE) followed by UHPLC/HRMS and NMR analyses. The 1H NMR and gravimetric yield of SPE indicated triacylglycerols covered ≥ 51.3% of the chloroform fraction of hemp seed hulls and hemp cake. UHPLC/HRMS analyses of remaining polar lipids led to the identification of nine diacylglycerols (DAGs), six lysophosphatidylcholines (LPCs), five lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPEs), eight phosphatidylethanolamines (PEs), and thirteen phosphatidylcholines (PCs) for the first time from hemp seed hulls. The regiospecificity of fatty acyl substitutes in glycerol backbone of individual phospholipids were assigned by analyzing the diagnostic fragment ions and their intensities. The heat-map analysis suggested that DAG 18:2/18:2, 1-LPC 18:2, 1-LPE 18:2, PE 18:2/18:2, and PC 18:2/18:2 were the predominant molecules within their classes, supported by the fact that linoleic acid was the major fatty acid covering > 41.1% of the total fatty acids determined by GC-FID analysis. The 31P NMR analysis confirmed the identification of phospholipids and suggested PC covers ≥ 37.9% of the total phospholipid present in hemp by-products. HPLC purification led to the isolation of 1,2-dilinoleoylphosphatidylcholine and 1-palmitoyl-2-linoleoylphosphatidylcholine. These two major PCs further confirmed the UHPLC/HRMS finding.

Direct Quantitation of Phytocannabinoids by One-Dimensional 1H qNMR and Two-Dimensional 1H-1H COSY qNMR in Complex Natural Mixtures

The widespread use of phytocannabinoids or cannabis extracts as ingredients in numerous types of products, in combination with the legal restrictions on THC content, has created a need for the development of new, rapid, and universal analytical methods for their quantitation that ideally could be applied without separation and standards. Based on previously described qNMR studies, we developed an expanded ¹H qNMR method and a novel 2D-COSY qNMR method for the rapid quantitation of ten major phytocannabinoids in cannabis plant extracts and cannabis-based products. The ¹H qNMR method was successfully developed for the quantitation of cannabidiol (CBD), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), cannabinol (CBN), cannabichromene (CBC), cannabichromenic acid (CBCA), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ9-THCA), Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC), cannabielsoin (CBE), and cannabidivarin (CBDV). Moreover, cannabidivarinic acid (CBDVA) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid (Δ9-THCVA) can be distinguished from CBDA and Δ9-THCA respectively, while cannabigerovarin (CBGV) and Δ8-tetrahydrocannabivarin (Δ8-THCV) present the same ¹H-spectra as CBG and Δ8-THC, respectively. The COSY qNMR method was applied for the quantitation of CBD, CBDA, CBN, CBG/CBGA, and THC/THCA. The two methods were applied for the analysis of hemp plants; cannabis extracts; edible cannabis medium-chain triglycerides (MCT); and hemp seed oils and cosmetic products with cannabinoids. The ¹H-NMR method does not require the use of reference compounds, and it requires only a short time for analysis. However, complex extracts in ¹H-NMR may have a lot of signals, and quantitation with this method is often hampered by peak overlap, with 2D NMR providing a solution to this obstacle. The most important advantage of the COSY NMR quantitation method was the determination of the legality of cannabis plants, extracts, and edible oils based on their THC/THCA content, particularly in the cases of some samples for which the determination of THC/THCA content by ¹H qNMR was not feasible.

Cannabis for Medical Use: Versatile Plant Rather Than a Single Drug

Medical Cannabis and its major cannabinoids (−)-trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are gaining momentum for various medical purposes as their therapeutic qualities are becoming better established. However, studies regarding their efficacy are oftentimes inconclusive. This is chiefly because Cannabis is a versatile plant rather than a single drug and its effects do not depend only on the amount of THC and CBD. Hundreds of Cannabis cultivars and hybrids exist worldwide, each with a unique and distinct chemical profile. Most studies focus on THC and CBD, but these are just two of over 140 phytocannabinoids found in the plant in addition to a milieu of terpenoids, flavonoids and other compounds with potential therapeutic activities. Different plants contain a very different array of these metabolites in varying relative ratios, and it is the interplay between these molecules from the plant and the endocannabinoid system in the body that determines the ultimate therapeutic response and associated adverse effects. Here, we discuss how phytocannabinoid profiles differ between plants depending on the chemovar types, review the major factors that affect secondary metabolite accumulation in the plant including the genotype, growth conditions, processing, storage and the delivery route; and highlight how these factors make Cannabis treatment highly complex.

Cannabinoid Profile in Cannabis sativa L. Samples by Means of LC-MRM/IDA/EPI Analysis: A New Approach for Cultivar Classification

A new multitarget screening procedure for 36 cannabinoids in 12 Cannabis sativa L. cultivars (hemp) was developed using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) coupled with an enhanced product ion (EPI) scan in an information-dependent acquisition (IDA) experiment, which can be performed by means of high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS)/MS analysis. The MRM-IDA-EPI experiment was used for the analysis of hemp samples and the identification of the compounds of interest. It was performed through the comparison of EPI spectra with literature data and with the in-house library. The results, processed by multivariate statistical analysis, showed an accurate classification of the 12 C. sativa cultivars, emphasizing the synergic contribution of the new cannabinoids recently discovered and showing how the traditional classification based on a common cannabinoid is limiting.

Differentiation of industrial hemp strains by their cannabinoid and phenolic compounds using LC × LC-HRMS

Cannabis is an ancient plant that has been used for therapeutic and recreational purposes. Nowadays, industrial hemp, a variety with low concentration of the psychoactive cannabinoid Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and high concentration of non-psychoactive cannabinoids, is getting more and more interest in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industry. However, cannabis not only contains cannabinoids as bioactive components but also other metabolites like terpenes and phenolic compounds, and the content of these interesting secondary metabolites greatly differs with the genetic variety of the plant. Due to the huge complexity of composition of the cannabis matrix, in this work, a comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography (LC × LC) method has been developed as a very power separation technique coupling a pentafluorophenyl (PFP) and a C18 in the first and second dimensions. Two industrial hemp strains (cookie and gelato) were analyzed to determine the difference in their content of cannabinoids and phenolic compounds. To do this, a new demodulation process was applied for the first time to transform 2D raw data into 1D data which allowed carrying out the chemometric analysis needed to determine the statistical differences between the hemp strains. The cookie strain presented a total of 41 cannabinoid markers, while the gelato strain presented more representative phenolic compounds, in total 24 phenolic compounds were detected as potential markers of this sample. These differences in the chemical composition could determine the industrial destiny of the different hemp strains.

Analytical Techniques for Phytocannabinoid Profiling of Cannabis and Cannabis-Based Products-A Comprehensive Review

Cannabis is gaining increasing attention due to the high pharmacological potential and updated legislation authorizing multiple uses. The development of time- and cost-efficient analytical methods is of crucial importance for phytocannabinoid profiling. This review aims to capture the versatility of analytical methods for phytocannabinoid profiling of cannabis and cannabis-based products in the past four decades (1980-2021). The thorough overview of more than 220 scientific papers reporting different analytical techniques for phytocannabinoid profiling points out their respective advantages and drawbacks in terms of their complexity, duration, selectivity, sensitivity and robustness for their specific application, along with the most widely used sample preparation strategies. In particular, chromatographic and spectroscopic methods, are presented and discussed. Acquired knowledge of phytocannabinoid profile became extremely relevant and further enhanced chemotaxonomic classification, cultivation set-ups examination, association of medical and adverse health effects with potency and/or interplay of certain phytocannabinoids and other active constituents, quality control (QC), and stability studies, as well as development and harmonization of global quality standards. Further improvement in phytocannabinoid profiling should be focused on untargeted analysis using orthogonal analytical methods, which, joined with cheminformatics approaches for compound identification and MSLs, would lead to the identification of a multitude of new phytocannabinoids.

Exploiting Beneficial Pseudomonas spp. for Cannabis Production

Among the oldest domesticated crops, cannabis plants (Cannabis sativa L., marijuana and hemp) have been used to produce food, fiber, and drugs for thousands of years. With the ongoing legalization of cannabis in several jurisdictions worldwide, a new high-value market is emerging for the supply of marijuana and hemp products. This creates unprecedented challenges to achieve better yields and environmental sustainability, while lowering production costs. In this review, we discuss the opportunities and challenges pertaining to the use of beneficial Pseudomonas spp. bacteria as crop inoculants to improve productivity. The prevalence and diversity of naturally occurring Pseudomonas strains within the cannabis microbiome is overviewed, followed by their potential mechanisms involved in plant growth promotion and tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses. Emphasis is placed on specific aspects relevant for hemp and marijuana crops in various production systems. Finally, factors likely to influence inoculant efficacy are provided, along with strategies to identify promising strains, overcome commercialization bottlenecks, and design adapted formulations. This work aims at supporting the development of the cannabis industry in a sustainable way, by exploiting the many beneficial attributes of Pseudomonas spp.

Untargeted Metabolomics Combined with Solid Phase Fractionation for Systematic Characterization of Bioactive Compounds in Hemp with Methane Mitigation Potential

This study systematically evaluates the presence of methane mitigating metabolites in two hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) varieties, Futura 75 and Finola. Hemp metabolites were extracted with methanol and fractionated using Solid Phase Extraction (SPE). Extracts, fractions, and the remaining pulp were screened for their methane mitigating potential using an in vitro model of rumen fermentation. The bioactive metabolites were identified with Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS). When incubated with a standard feed (maize silage), the extract of Futura 75 significantly reduced methane production compared to that of control (without added extract) and without negative effects on feed degradability and volatile fatty acid patterns. The compounds responsible for the methane mitigating effect were assigned to flavonoid glycosides. However, none of the fractions of Futura 75 or the pulp exhibited similar effect on methane emission. Butyric acid concentration in the fermentation inoculum was significantly increased, which could indicate why methane production was higher, when incubated with the fractions and the pulp. The extract of Finola did not show a similar significant effect, however, there was a numerical tendency towards lower methane production. The difference in methane mitigating properties between Cannabis sativa L. Futura 75 and Finola, could be related to the content of bioactive flavonoids.

Hemp Chemotype Definition by Cannabinoids Characterization Using LC-ESI(+)-LTQ-FTICR MS and Infrared Multiphoton Dissociation

The development and application of advanced analytical methods for a comprehensive analysis of Cannabis sativa L. extracts plays a pivotal role in order to have a reliable evaluation of their chemotype definition to guarantee the efficacy and safety in pharmaceutical use. This paper deals with the qualitative and quantitative determination of cannabidiol (CBD), tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabidivarin (CBDV), and cannabigerol (CBG) based on a liquid chromategraphy-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method using electrospray ionization in positive mode (ESI+), coupled with a hybrid quadrupole linear ion trap (LTQ) and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer (FTICR-MS). For the first time, structural information of phytocannabinoids is available upon precursor ions’ isolation within the FTICR trapping cell and subsequent fragmentation induced by infrared multiphoton dissociation (IRMPD). Such fragmentation and accurate mass measurement of product ions, alongside collision-induced dissociation (CID) within LTQ, was advantageous to propose a reliable fragmentation pattern for each compound. Then, the proposed LC-ESI(+)-LTQ-FTICR MS method was successfully applied to the hemp chemotype definition of three registered Italian accessions of hemp C. sativa plants (Carmagnola C.S., Carmagnola, and Eletta Campana), thus resulting in the Eletta Campana accession being the best one for cannabis product manufacturing.

Cannabinoids vs. whole metabolome: Relevance of cannabinomics in analyzing Cannabis varieties

Cannabis sativa has a long history of domestication both for its bioactive compounds and its fibers. This has produced hundreds of varieties, usually characterized in the literature by chemotypes, with Δ⁹-THC and CBD content as the main markers. However, chemotyping could also be done based on minor compounds (phytocannabinoids and others). In this work, a workflow, which we propose to name cannabinomics, combines mass spectrometry of the whole metabolome and statistical analysis to help differentiate C. sativa varieties and deciphering their characteristic markers. By applying this cannabinomics approach to the data obtained from 20 varieties of C. sativa (classically classified as chemotype I, II, or III), we compared the results with those obtained by a targeted quantification of 11 phytocannabinoids. Cannabinomics can be considered as a complementary tool for phenotyping and genotyping, allowing the identification of minor compounds playing a key role as markers of differentiation.

Analysis of cannabis seizures by non-targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Due to the popularity of recreational cannabis use, contamination of this drug with diverse classes of chemicals, including pesticides, mycotoxins, and synthetic cannabinoids, has been identified as major threat for public health. For the detection of these compounds in seized cannabis, a screening workflow involving non-targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LCMS/MS) was developed. A Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe (QuEChERS) method was used for the extraction of small bioorganic molecules from ground dried material. Instrumental analysis involved chromatographic separation of compounds and subsequent mass spectrometric detection. Collection of MS and MS/MS information was accomplished by data-dependent acquisition. Compound identification was primarily based on matching acquired MS/MS-spectra to several thousands of reference spectra stored in multiple libraries. Additionally, for selected cannabinoid and pesticide standards, a retention time library was developed. Performance of the workflow was evaluated for 182 pesticides. All tested pesticides were detectable at 5000 μg/kg, 94 % at 500 μg/kg, and 50 % at 50 μg/kg. The workflow was applied to the screening of seized cannabis samples. 41 out of 93 analysed samples (44 %) were tested positive for one or more contaminants impairing quality and/or safety of the material. The detected contaminants included a synthetic cannabinoid (5F-MDMB-PINACA), fifteen pesticide residues (boscalid, carbendazim, chlorantraniliprole, chlorpyrifos, chlorotoluron, cyprodinil, diflubenzuron, ethiofencarb sulfoxide, hexythiazox, iprodione, metalaxyl, pyrimethanil, terbutryn, thiophanate methyl, and trifloxystrobin), and a mycotoxin (sterigmatocystin).

Recent applications of mass spectrometry for the characterization of cannabis and hemp phytocannabinoids: From targeted to untargeted analysis

This review is a collection of recent applications of mass spectrometry studies for the characterization of phytocannabinoids in cannabis and hemp plant material and related products. The focus is mostly on recent applications using mass spectrometry as detector, in hyphenation to typical separation techniques (i.e., liquid chromatography or gas chromatography), but also with less common couplings or by simple direct analysis. The papers are described starting from the most common approach for targeted quantitative analysis, with applications using low-resolution mass spectrometry equipment, but also with the introduction of high-resolution mass analyzers as the detectors. This reflects a common trend in this field, and introduces the most recent applications using high-resolution mass spectrometry for untargeted analysis. The different approaches used for untargeted analysis are then described, from simple retrospective analysis of compounds without pure standards, through untargeted metabolomics strategies, and suspect screening methods, which are the ones currently allowing to achieve the most detailed qualitative characterization of the entire phytocannabinoid composition, including minor compounds which are usually overlooked in targeted studies and in potency evaluation. These approaches also represent powerful strategies to answer questions on biological and pharmacological activity of cannabis, and provide a sound technology for improved classification of cannabis varieties. Finally, open challenges are discussed for future directions in the detailed study of complex phytocannabinoid mixtures.

Phytocannabinoids - An Overview of the Analytical Methodologies for Detection and Quantification of Therapeutically and Recreationally Relevant Cannabis Compounds

The legalization of the cultivation of low Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and high cannabidiol (CBD) Cannabis Sativa plants is gaining momentum around the world due to increasing demand for CBD-containing products. In many countries where CBD oils, extracts and CBD-infused foods and beverages are being sold in health shops and supermarkets, appropriate testing of these products is a legal requirement. Normally this involves determining the total Δ9-THC and CBD and their precursor tetrahydrocannabinolic acids (THCA) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA). As our knowledge of the other relevant cannabinoids expands, it is likely so too will the demand for them as additives in many consumer products ensuring a necessity for quantification methods and protocols for their identification. This paper discusses therapeutically relevant cannabinoids found in Cannabis plant, the applicability and efficiency of existing extraction and analytical techniques as well as the legal requirements for these analyses.

In Situ Decarboxylation-Pressurized Hot Water Extraction for Selective Extraction of Cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa. Chemometric Approach

Isolation of the therapeutic cannabinoid compounds from Cannabis Sativa L. (C. Sativa) is important for the development of cannabis-based pharmaceuticals for cancer treatment, among other ailments. The main pharmacological cannabinoids are THC and CBD. However, THC also induces undesirable psychoactive effects. The decarboxylation process converts the naturally occurring acidic forms of cannabinoids, such as cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), to their more active neutral forms, known as cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The purpose of this study was to selectively extract cannabinoids using a novel in situ decarboxylation pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE) system. The decarboxylation step was evaluated at different temperature (80–150 °C) and time (5–60 min) settings to obtain the optimal conditions for the decarboxylation-PHWE system using response surface methodology (RSM). The system was optimized to produce cannabis extracts with high CBD content, while suppressing the THC and CBN content. The identification and quantification of cannabinoid compounds were determined using UHPLC-MS/MS with external calibration. As a result, the RSM has shown good predictive capability with a p-value < 0.05, and the chosen parameters revealed to have a significant effect on the CBD, CBN and THC content. The optimal decarboxylation conditions for an extract richer in CBD than THC were set at 149.9 °C and 42 min as decarboxylation temperature and decarboxylation time, respectively. The extraction recoveries ranged between 96.56 and 103.42%, 95.22 and 99.95%, 99.62 and 99.81% for CBD, CBN and THC, respectively.

Targeted and Untargeted Metabolic Profiling to Discover Bioactive Compounds in Seaweeds and Hemp Using Gas and Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

Greenhouse gas emissions are a global problem facing the dairy/beef industry. Novel feed additives consisting of seaweeds and hemp containing bioactive compounds are theorized to reduce enteric methane emissions. In this study we aimed to investigate the metabolic profiles of brown, red and green seaweeds and hemp using gas chromatography and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. We used targeted and untargeted approaches, quantifying known halomethanes and phenolics, as well as identifying potentially novel bioactive compounds with anti-methanogenic properties. The main findings were: (a) Asparagopsis taxiformis contained halomethanes, with high concentrations of bromoform (4200 µg/g DW), six volatile halocarbons were tentatively identified; (b) no halomethanes were detected in the other studied seaweeds nor in hemp; (c) high concentrations of lignans were measured in hemp; (d) a high numbers of sulfated phenolic acids and unidentified sulfuric acid-containing compounds were detected in all seaweeds; (e) flavonoid glucosides and glucuronides were mainly identified in hemp; and (f) the condensed tannin gallocatechin was tentatively identified in Fucus sp. Using the combined metabolomics approach, an overview and in-depth information on secondary metabolites were provided. Halomethanes of Asparagopsis sp. have already been shown to be anti-methanogenic; however, metabolic profiles of seaweeds such as Dictyota and Sargassum have also been shown to contain compounds that may have anti-methanogenic potential.

Cannabidiol attenuates pulmonary arterial hypertension by improving vascular smooth muscle cells mitochondrial function

Rationale: Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a chronic disease associated with enhanced proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) and dysfunctional mitochondria, and the clinical therapeutic option for PAH is very limited. Recent studies showed that cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive constituent of cannabinoids, possessed antioxidant effect towards several cardiovascular diseases, whereas the mechanistic effect of CBD in PAH is unknown.

Methods: In this study, the effects of CBD in PAH were determined by analyzing its preventive and therapeutic actions in PAH rodent models in vivo and PASMCs' proliferation test in vitro. Additionally, CBD's roles in mitochondrial function and oxidant stress were also assessed in PASMCs.

Results: We found that CBD reversed the pathological changes observed in both Sugen-hypoxia and monocrotaline-induced PAH rodent models in a cannabinoid receptors-independent manner. Our results also demonstrated that CBD significantly inhibited the PASMCs' proliferation in PAH mice with less inflammation and reactive oxygen species levels. Moreover, CBD alleviated rodent PAH by recovering mitochondrial energy metabolism, normalizing the hypoxia-induced oxidant stress, reducing the lactate overaccumulation and abnormal glycolysis.

Conclusions: Taken together, these findings confirm an important role for CBD in PAH pathobiology.

In-depth cannabis fatty acid profiling by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry

Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) represents an important plant, used for a variety of uses including pharmaceutical and nutraceutical purposes. As such, a detailed characterization of the composition of this plant could help future research to further exploit the beneficial effects of hemp compounds on the human health. Among the many compounds of hemp, fatty acids represent an interesting class of minor components, which has been overlooked so far. In this work, an untargeted approach based on liquid-chromatography coupled to a high-resolution mass spectrometry and a dedicated structure-based workflow for raw data interpretation was employed for the characterization of fatty acids from hemp inflorescences. A simple method, without any chemical derivatization, was developed for extraction and characterization of fatty acids leading to the tentative identification of 39 fatty acid species in the five hemp samples. A quantitative analysis on the untargeted data was initially performed, using peak areas as surrogate of analyte abundance for relative quantitation. Five fatty acids resulted the most abundant in all hemp samples, with ca. 90% of the total peak area. For these compounds a targeted quantitative method was validated, indicating that the most abundant ones were linolenic acid (1.39-7.95 mg g-1) and linoleic acid (1.04-7.87 mg g-1), followed by palmitic acid (3.74-6.08 mg g-1), oleic acid (0.91-4.73 mg g-1) and stearic acid (0.64-2.25 mg g-1).

Development of Gas-Chromatographic Method for Simultaneous Determination of Cannabinoids and Terpenes in Hemp

An original gas chromatographic method has been developed for simultaneous determination of major terpenes and cannabinoids in plant samples and their extracts. The main issues to be addressed were the large differences in polarity and volatility between both groups of analytes, but also the need for an exhaustive decarboxylation of cannabinoid acidic forms. Sample preparation was minimised, also by avoiding any analyte derivatisation. Acetone was found to be the most appropriate extraction solvent. Successful chromatographic separation was achieved by using a medium polarity column. Limits of detection ranged from 120 to 260 ng/mL for terpenes and from 660 to 860 ng/mL for cannabinoids. Parallel testing proved the results for cannabinoids are comparable to those obtained from established HPLC methods. Despite very large differences in concentrations between both analyte groups, a linear range between 1 and 100 µg/mL for terpenes and between 10 and 1500 µg/mL for cannabinoids was determined.

Spectral trends in GC-EI-MS data obtained from the SWGDRUG mass spectral library and literature: A resource for the identification of unknown compounds

Rapid identification of new or emerging psychoactive substances remains a critical challenge in forensic drug chemistry laboratories. Current analytical protocols are well-designed for confirmation of known substances yet struggle when new compounds are encountered. Many laboratories initially attempt to classify new compounds using gas chromatography-electron ionization-mass spectrometry (GC-EI-MS). Though there is a large body of research focused on the analysis of illicit substances with GC-EI-MS, there is little high-level discussion of mass spectral trends for different classes of drugs. This manuscript compiles literature information and performs simple exploratory analyses on evaluated GC-EI-MS data to investigate mass spectral trends for illicit substance classes. Additionally, this work offers other important aspects: brief discussions of how each class of drugs is used; illustrations of EI mass spectra with proposed structures of commonly observed ions; and summaries of mass spectral trends that can help an analyst classify new illicit compounds.

ComMSnDB-An Automatable Strategy to Identify Compounds from MS Data Sets (Identification of Gypenosides as an Example)

Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino is a popular functional food and is also used as an important medicinal plant in China. Gypenoside, the main active constituent in G. pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino, belongs to dammarane-type triterpenoid saponins. Due to its high molecular weight and high polarity, it is difficult to obtain complete compound information for gypenoside extracts via mass spectrometry experiments. In this study, an automated targeted data postprocessing strategy called Compound MSⁿ Database (ComMSⁿDB) was designed and established to elucidate compounds in gypenoside extracts based on ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS). As a result, 18 types of and 199 main saponin constituents, including 47 potential novel compounds, were tentatively identified from different habitats. At the same time, 15 gypenoside standard compounds were used to verify the feasibility of the ComMSⁿDB strategy. These results demonstrated that ComMSⁿDB offers practical value for quick, automated, and effective compound identification.

Comprehending and improving cannabis specialized metabolism in the systems biology era

Cannabis sativa is a source of food, fiber and specialized metabolites such as cannabinoids, with psychoactive and pharmacological effects. Due to its expanding and increasingly-accepted use in medicine, cannabis cultivation is acquiring more importance and less social stigma. Humans initiated different domestication episodes whose later spread gave rise to a plethora of landrace cultivars. At present, breeders cross germplasms from different gene pools depending on their specific use. The fiber (hemp) and drug (marijuana) types of C. sativa differ in their cannabinoid chemical composition phenotype (chemotype) and also in the accumulation of terpenoid compounds that constitute a strain's particular flavor and scent. Cannabinoids are isoprenylated polyketides among which cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and (-)-trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol acid (THCA) have been well-documented for their many effects on humans. Here, we review the most studied specialized metabolic pathways in C. sativa, showing how terpenes and cannabinoids share both part of the isoprenoid pathway and the same biosynthetic compartmentalization (i.e. glandular trichomes of leaves and flowers). We enlist the several studies that have deciphered these pathways in this species including physical and genetic maps, QTL analyses and localization and enzymatic studies of cannabinoid and terpene synthases. In addition, new comparative modeling of cannabinoid synthases and phylogenetic trees are presented. We describe the genome sequencing initiatives of several accessions with the concomitant generation of next-generation genome maps and transcriptomic data. Very recently, proteomic characterizations and systems biology approaches such as those applying network theory or the integration of multi-omics data have increased the knowledge on gene function, enzyme diversity and metabolite content in C. sativa. In this revision we drift through the history, present and future of cannabis research and on how second- and third-generation sequencing technologies are bringing light to the field of cannabis specialized metabolism. We also discuss different biotechnological approaches for producing cannabinoids in engineered microorganisms.

Conversion of cannabidiol (CBD) to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) during protein precipitations prior to plasma samples analysis by chromatography - Troubles with reliable CBD quantitation when acidic precipitation agents are applied

The growing popularity of supplements containing cannabidiol (CBD), mainly CBD oils, in self-medication of humans and the increased interest in this compound in different preclinical and clinical trials stimulates the development of procedures of CBD analysis in plasma for the study of CBD pharmacology in people and animals or in establishing dose-therapeutic effect relationships of this compound. Preliminary removal of protein by its precipitation from plasma is still one of the willingly applied plasma sample preparation methods in many analytical procedures estimating plasma drug concentration, including CBD. The present paper shows that a significant amount of CBD transforms to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) in a hot GC injection system when acidic precipitation agents, such as TFA, TCA, HClO₄, H₂SO₄, ZnSO₄ or CHCl₃, are used for plasma protein precipitation. The transformation degree depends on the temperature of the GC injector, the concentration of the precipitation agent and the incubation time of plasma with the precipitating agent. At the CBD plasma concentration equal to 50 ng/ml, which is approximately the mean level for patients treated for epileptic syndromes, the CBD transformation degree can exceed 20%. For a reliable estimate of CBD in blood plasma, neutral precipitation agents (e.g. ACN, MeOH, acetone) should be used when plasma deproteinization precedes GC analysis. The presented results are important not only for analysts cooperating with pharmacologists and for medicine doctors examining the activity of CBD-containing drugs in the therapeutic process, but also for forensic scientists who may erroneously find innocent people guilty of using marijuana or its preparations.

Isolation, Purification, and Antimicrobial Characterization of Cannabidiolic Acid and Cannabidiol from Cannabis sativa L

The emergence of multi-drug resistant bacteria such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) causes a major threat to public health due to its limited therapeutic options. There is an urgent need for the development of new effective antimicrobial agents and alternative strategies that are effective against resistant bacteria. The parallel legalization of cannabis and its products has fueled research into its many therapeutic avenues in many countries around the world. This study aimed at the development of a reliable method for the extraction, purification, characterization, and quantification of cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and its decarboxylated form cannabidiol (CBD) present in the fiber type Cannabis sativa L. The two compounds were extracted by ethanol, purified on a C18 sep-pack column, and the extracts were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with ultraviolet (UV)-vis and ESI-MS (electrospray ionization mass spectrometry) detection. The antimicrobial effect of CBDA and CBD was also evaluated. CBD displayed a substantial inhibitory effect on Gram-positive bacteria with minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 1 to 2 µg/mL. Time kill analysis and minimal bactericidal concentration revealed potential bactericidal activity of CBDA and CBD. While cannabinoids showed a significant antimicrobial effect on the Gram-positive S. aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis, no activity was noticed on Gram-negative Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. CBDA presented a two-fold lower antimicrobial activity than its decarboxylated form, suggesting that the antimicrobial pharmacophore of the analyzed cannabinoids falls in the ability for permeabilizing the bacterial cell membrane and acting as a detergent-like agent. A synergy test performed on MRSA with CBD and a range of antibiotics did not indicate a synergetic effect, but noteworthy no antagonist influence either. CBD and CBDA manifested low hemolytic activity on human red blood cells. Likewise, the safety of CBD toward human keratinocyte cells presents no toxicity at a concentration of up to seven-fold higher than the antibacterial minimal inhibitory concentration. Similarly, both CBD and CBDA are well tolerated by mammals, including humans, and conserve a safe value limits for blood-contacting drug development. Overall, CBD exhibited a strong antimicrobial effect against Gram-positive strains and could serve as an alternative drug for tackling MRSA.