Social and emotional loneliness: A re-examination of weiss' typology of loneliness

Loneliness and the COVID-19 pandemic: implications for practice

Loneliness is a complex universal human experience. A variety of evidence indicates that prolonged loneliness can have a negative effect on an individual's long-term physical and psychological outcomes. Empirical evidence and systematic reviews show strong links between loneliness and ill health, particularly cardiovascular disease and mental health. Loneliness is increasing in frequency and severity. The issue of loneliness has been part of UK Government mandates since 2018; however, evidence suggests that, due to the pandemic, the need to focus on the issue may be even more significant. Assessing for loneliness can be challenging and many people do not want to report their feelings of loneliness. Interventions should aim to be preventive and help people create meaningful interactions. Useful interventions include person-centred interventions, cognitive therapy and group intervention therapy. There is a need for more evidence-based loneliness interventions. A knowledge of local and voluntary sectors is vital so health professionals can effectively support their patients.

A gradual separation from the world: commentary on a qualitative exploration of existential loneliness in old age

AIMS AND METHODS

Loneliness is a prevalent and significant issue. It has been identified as a particularly important physical and mental health risk for older people. This article critically explores and discusses a recent study that sought to qualitatively explore the lived experiences of existential loneliness in a large sample of older people living in retirement community contexts.

FINDINGS

The data pointed to complex, multilayered challenges, often brought about by ageing, that give rise to unique experiences of existential loneliness for many older people.

CONCLUSIONS

For clinical practitioners, understanding how older people experience existential loneliness is essential if we are to develop support mechanisms that compassionately and empathically respond to them.

Social and Emotional Loneliness: Their Relationship to Multiple Domains of Cognition in Later Life

Despite the fact that the literature suggests loneliness to undermine cognitive functioning in later life, no work has simultaneously examined the relationships between these constructs taking a multidimensional approach to the assessment of each. The present study explored relationships among social and emotional loneliness and both general crystallized (Gc) and general fluid (Gf) ability, as well as to several indices of everyday intellectual functioning in later life. Sequential regression analyses suggested that neither social nor emotional loneliness predicted Gc. However, only when eliminating health as a covariate was more social loneliness associated with lower scores for Gf. Surprisingly, more emotional loneliness was associated with higher scores for Gf. More social loneliness also predicted more everyday cognitive failures and with less positive lifestyle attitudes. These findings support a view of loneliness-cognition relationships in later life that reflects the multidimensional nature of each construct.

Experiences of Loneliness Across the Lifespan: A Systematic Review and Thematic Synthesis of Qualitative Studies

PURPOSE

Loneliness is a fundamentally subjective experience that is common at various life stages. Studies have qualitatively explored loneliness, but a comprehensive overview is lacking. This research therefore provides a fine-grained review of studies on loneliness experiences across the lifespan.

METHODS

A systematic review and thematic synthesis were performed on studies that qualitatively investigated experiences of loneliness in people of any age from non-clinical populations. Sensitivity analysis assessed the impact of lower-quality studies and specific age groups on the findings.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine studies of 1,321 participants aged between 7 and 103 were included. Fifteen descriptive themes and three overarching analytical themes were developed: (1) Loneliness is both psychological and contextual, (2) Loneliness centres on feelings of meaningful connection and painful disconnection, and (3) Loneliness can exist in a general, pervasive sense or can relate to specific other people or relationship types. Some features were particularly pertinent to children, younger adults, and older adults, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Loneliness involves a primarily aversive psychological experience of perceived disconnection which is linked to physical, personal, and socio-political contexts and can be pervasive or relate to specific relationships or relationship types. An awareness of context, life stage, and personal experiences is essential to understand loneliness.

The Impact of Academic Pressure and Peer Support on Adolescents' Loneliness: A Polynomial Regression and Response Surface Analysis

Purpose

To explore the impact of the match between academic pressure and peer support on adolescents' sense of loneliness and examine whether social connectedness played a mediating role, using a polynomial regression and response surface analysis.

Methods

A questionnaire survey was conducted with 1277 adolescents from two cities in Sichuan Province, China, to investigate their academic pressure, peer support, social connectedness, and sense of loneliness.

Results

(1) Adolescents' sense of loneliness positively correlated with their level of academic pressure and negatively correlated with their degree of peer support. (2) Social connectedness played a mediating role in the relationship between academic pressure, peer support, and sense of loneliness. (3) Adolescents with high academic pressure and low peer support had weaker social connectedness than those with low academic pressure and high peer support. (4) Adolescents with high academic pressure and high peer support had stronger social connectedness than those with low academic pressure and low peer support.

Discussion

The study revealed the mechanism through which a match (or mismatch) between academic pressure and peer support influenced adolescents' sense of loneliness and validated the mediating role of social connectedness. The study enriches the developmental theory of adolescent loneliness and provides research experience for future interventions targeting adolescent loneliness.

Randomised controlled trial of the Community Navigator programme to reduce loneliness and depression for adults with treatment-resistant depression in secondary community mental health services: trial protocol

BACKGROUND

New treatments are needed for people with treatment-resistant depression (TRD), who do not benefit from anti-depressants and many of whom do not recover fully with psychological treatments. The Community Navigator programme was co-produced with service users and practitioners. It is a novel social intervention which aims to reduce loneliness and thus improve health outcomes for people with TRD. Participants receive up to 10 individual meetings with a Community Navigator, who helps them to map their social world and set and enact goals to enhance their social connections and reduce loneliness. Participants may also access group meet-ups with others in the programme every 2 months, and may be offered modest financial support to enable activities to support social connections.

METHODS

A researcher-blind, multi-site, 1:1 randomised controlled trial with N = 306 participants will test the effectiveness of the Community Navigator programme for people with TRD in secondary community mental health teams (CMHTs). Our primary hypothesis is that people who are offered the Community Navigator programme as an addition to usual CMHT care will be less depressed, assessed using the PHQ-9 self-report measure, at 8-month, end-of-treatment follow-up, compared to a control group receiving usual CMHT care and a booklet with information about local social groups and activities. We will follow participants up at end-of-treatment and at 14 months, 6 months after end-of-treatment follow-up. Secondary outcomes include the following: loneliness, anxiety, personal recovery, self-efficacy, social network, social identities. We will collect data about health-related quality of life and service use to investigate the cost-effectiveness of the Community Navigator programme.

DISCUSSION

This trial will provide definitive evidence about the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the Community Navigator programme and whether it can be recommended for use in practice. The trial is due to finish in August 2025.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Prospectively registered on 8th July 2022 at: ISRCTN13205972.

The Effect of Fear of COVID-19 Infection and Anxiety on Loneliness: Moderated Mediation Effects of Gratitude

OBJECTIVE

This study was conducted to identify factors related to loneliness during the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and focused on how the fear of COVID-19 infection affects loneliness and the conditional effect of gratitude as a moderator in the relationship among the fear of COVID-19, anxiety, and loneliness.

METHODS

For the analysis of this study, a survey was conducted among 1,500 individuals aged 19 to 69 years living in three metropolitan areas in South Korea. Questionnaires included sociodemographic data, psychological experience and stress associated with COVID-19, Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-7, UCLA Loneliness Scale-3, and Gratitude Questionnaire-6. An analysis was conducted by applying SPSS PROCESS macro models 4 and 7.

RESULTS

First, anxiety mediated the relationship between the fear of COVID-19 infection and loneliness. Second, the effect of the fear of COVID-19 infection on loneliness through anxiety was moderated by gratitude. The higher the gratitude, the more the fear of COVID-19 infection is buffered in the path to anxiety, and the lower the indirect effect on loneliness.

CONCLUSION

This suggests that in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, interventions for psychological problems such as anxiety and loneliness can be carried out through gratitude, a significant protective variable.

Loneliness, Social Support, Social Trust, and Subjective Wellness in Low-Income Children: A Longitudinal Approach

The progress and development of society in every sense is possible by raising healthy individuals. To do so, it is necessary to ensure the physical and mental development of children in a healthy way. There are many variables that affect the physical and mental development of children. These variables are affected by individual factors, social structure, social interactions and cultural values. In addition, when these factors interact with each other, their effect on behavior and well-being may increase. Undoubtedly, one of the primary factors negatively affecting a child's physical and psychological development is the adverse economic conditions and hardships experienced by his/her family and consequently, by the child. Increasing poverty hinders children's access to resources, and thus negatively affects their mental health as well as their physical development. Furthermore, positive economic conditions pave the way for an improved environment, better nutrition, higher-quality education, elevated social status, more friends, reduced feelings of loneliness, and increased social support and trust and all of these positively contribute to psychological well-being. Therefore, based on the conviction that early interventions can be protective and screening is needed to determine the proper intervention, this study aims to investigate the relationship between psychological well-being, loneliness, social support and social trust, all of which affect the psychological health of children living in economically disadvantaged families. To this end, answers to the following questions were sought. Is there a significant relationship between the loneliness, social support, social trust and psychological well-being of the children from low-income families? Do the feelings of loneliness, social support and social trust of the children from low-income families significantly predict their psychological well-being?

Impact of partner phubbing on negative emotions: a daily diary study of mitigating factors

Interactions between romantic partners may be disturbed by a co-present mobile phone use when a partner ignores their interaction partner in favor of a smartphone. This common practice, called phubbing, promotes social rejection and exclusion, hence the partner who gets phubbed may report negative emotional experiences. However, these experiences may be buffered by a cognitive perception mechanism, when the partner’s behavior is still perceived as responsive (i.e., understanding or validating). Thus, we hypothesize that feeling understood or validated moderate the link between phubbing intensity and negative emotions. To test our hypotheses, we conducted a daily diary study over seven days, using a sample of N = 133 participants living with their partner. Multilevel modeling was applied, to examine between- and within-person processes. The findings indicate that perception of the partner as understanding and validating, despite the co-present mobile phone use, reduces the negative emotional experiences during phubbing, and the interaction effects indicate nuances between phubbing and understanding and validation by partner, which extend our theoretical comprehension and distinguish between the two as separate relationship-related constructs. Our research provides a unique insight into how mechanisms related to couple interactions may reduce negative experiences, a finding that may be useful in future interventions and couples' therapy.

Consumer loneliness: A systematic review and research agenda

Treading on the heels of the spread of the coronavirus, the "loneliness virus" has been capturing territories globally. Consumers are not immune to loneliness. Although academics and the general public have recognized the devastating effects of loneliness, the academic attention given to consumer loneliness (CL) is scattered and fragmentary. The purpose of this article is to systematically review the antecedents (predictors and alleviators) and consequences (consumer behaviors, emotions, preferences, attitudes, and cognition) of CL in various consumption contexts. This review also presents findings on CL as a mediator and moderator in consumer studies. This work adds to the growing body of CL literature by synthesizing the existing findings and knowledge. More importantly, we present a future research agenda by linking CL to significant research lines and detailed implications for practitioners in the marketplace.

Effects of reminiscence therapy on anxiety and depression during acute hospitalization in older patients: Controlled study

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Hospitalization due to acute illness in older patients is often associated with anxiety or depressive symptoms. In these circumstances, given that pharmacologic treatment should be avoided to reduce interactions with ongoing medication regimes, psychotherapy techniques should be considered. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of group reminiscence therapy (RT) on the reduction of anxiety and depressive symptoms in acutely hospitalized older patients.

METHODS

Controlled and prospective study conducted on the Acute Geriatric Unit of a university hospital. Patients included in the intervention group (RT Group) attended a group session focused on RT, whereas those included in the control group (UC) received usual hospital care. Exclusion criteria were severe cognitive impairment, impossibility to mobilize, and clinical/hemodynamic instability. The intervention was based on a multi-task daily group session of reminiscence activities. The severity of anxiety (Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, HAM-A), depressive symptoms (15-item Geriatric Depression Scale, GDS-15), loneliness (ESTE-II social loneliness scale), and fear of death (Collet-Lester scale) was assessed at admission and discharge in both groups.

RESULTS

The intervention was effective in reducing the proportion of patients with anxiety and depressive symptoms during hospitalization. The proportion of patients with moderate-severe anxiety at discharge was 32.1% in the UC and 13.4% in the RT Group (p < 0.001), whereas the proportion of patients with depressive symptoms at discharge was 49.1% in the UC and 19.5% in the RT Group (p < 0.001). The intervention was independently associated with benefits on anxiety levels (RR 2.45, 95% CI 1.83-3.28) and depression (RR 3.71, 95% CI 2.22-6.19) at discharge. No differences were found in loneliness or fear of death.

CONCLUSIONS

A group reminiscence activity reduces the proportion of patients with anxiety and depressive symptoms during hospitalization for an acute disease. Absolute changes in both anxiety and depression scores, even though significant, were relatively small.

Estimating the prevalence of social and emotional loneliness across the adult lifespan

Loneliness is associated with detrimental consequences for mental and physical health. Even though loneliness affects people of all ages, very few studies have examined its prevalence across the adult lifespan. Additionally, no study has examined the distinction between social and emotional loneliness across the lifespan, even though it has long been considered functionally important. To address these issues, the present study examined the prevalence of social and emotional loneliness across the adult lifespan based on two cohorts (2016/17 and 2017/18) of a nationally representative survey (N ~ 8000 per cohort, age range: 16 to ~ 90). We estimated how similar or distinct patterns of social and emotional loneliness were across the adult lifespan and their consistency across cohorts. The results consistently showed that social and emotional loneliness levels differ as a function of age. Emotional loneliness peaked in younger and older adulthood, whereas social loneliness was stable in early and middle adulthood, before dropping steeply in later stages of life. These findings update basic understanding of loneliness by demonstrating how the experience of different loneliness types may vary across the adult lifespan. In the longer term, the findings have potential societal and clinical importance by informing interventions that target specific loneliness subtypes and age groups.

A cross-sectional study of social media addiction and social and emotional loneliness in university students in Turkey

PURPOSE

This study investigates the relationships between social media addiction and social and emotional loneliness in university students.

METHODS

This is a descriptive, correlational study. Data were collected from 555 university students. The study data were then collected through an online survey. The data were analyzed using the descriptive statistics, Mann-Whitney U test, the Kruskal Wallis analysis, and Spearman correlation.

RESULTS

Higher and statistically significant levels of loneliness were found in males, single students, students displaying poor academic performance, and learners who perceived their economic situation as worse than the other groups (p ≤ 0.005). A positive and significant relationship association was noted between the aggregate social media scores of students and their total loneliness scores (r = 0.196 p = 0.000) (p < 0.05).

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Social skills training should be provided to young social media users. Young people should be offered social support resources and ways to reduce loneliness, such as listening to music, exercising, and doing yoga.

Beware the "loneliness gap"? Examining emerging inequalities and long-term risks of loneliness and isolation emerging from COVID-19

Emerging evidence suggests COVID lockdowns have not only increased the social problem of loneliness but widened the 'loneliness gap' between the most and least lonely people. Qualitative investigation can reveal why this gap might have increased, for whom, and whether the loneliness gap will remain long term. Using multi-wave qualitative survey data conducted during Australia's 2020 lockdown period and beyond, we examine personal experiences of interaction transitioning out of lockdown. We find substantial and uneven impacts of COVID lasting well beyond lockdown. Participants reported heightened loneliness attributable to: physical isolation, health anxieties, ceased activities, reduced connection quality, and poor motivation. COVID also created new interactive difficulties for singles, those with physical and mental disabilities, their carers, and those with low social capital. There was also reported 'pruning' of social networks (i.e. reduced bridging, increased bonding social capital), and evidence that increased digital interaction did not substitute for lost physical contact. Younger people also experienced isolating COVID-induced life disruptions (e.g. travel, university attendance etc). Findings suggest COVID has increased potential long-term inequalities in loneliness, highlight the post COVID risks faced by vulnerable groups, and suggest caution in advocating digital solutions as a panacea for diminished physical interaction in the post-pandemic world.

Loneliness in Autism and Its Association with Anxiety and Depression: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses

Objectives

This systematic review aimed to quantify differences in loneliness levels between autistic and neurotypical samples and investigate the association between loneliness and mental health in autistic individuals.

Methods

Three meta-analyses were conducted. Studies were methodologically appraised using established tools.

Results

Overall, 39 studies were included. The majority of these achieved moderate methodological quality ratings. The primary meta-analysis (N = 23) found autistic samples reported higher loneliness compared with neurotypical samples (Hedges’ g = .89). The meta-analyses on the associations between loneliness and anxiety (N = 14) and depression (N = 11) in autistic samples found significant pooled correlations (r = .29 and r = .48, respectively).

Conclusions

This review highlights numerous limitations within current autism and loneliness research. Nevertheless, loneliness in autism merits targeted clinical and research attention.

COVID-19 Peritraumatic Distress and Loneliness in Chinese Residents in North America: The Role of Contraction Worry

The current study examined the association of COVID-19 contraction worry for self and for family members with COVID-19 peritraumatic distress and loneliness in Chinese residents in North America. A sample of 943 Chinese residents (immigrants, citizens, visitors, and international students) in North America completed a cross-sectional online survey during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic (between January and February 2021). Univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) models identified possible sociodemographic variables that were included in the subsequent hierarchical regression models. According to the hierarchical regression models, self-contraction worry was significantly associated with both COVID-19 peritraumatic distress (B = −4.340, p < 0.001) and loneliness (B = −0.771, p = 0.006) after controlling for related sociodemographic covariates; however, family-contraction worry was not significantly associated with the outcome variables. Additionally, poorer health status and experienced discrimination significantly predicted higher COVID-19 peritraumatic distress, whereas poorer health status and perceived discrimination significantly predicted increased loneliness. The results highlighted the detrimental impacts of self-contraction worry on peritraumatic distress and loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic in Chinese residents in North America.

Alone in the COVID-19 lockdown: An exploratory study

Feelings of isolation have been prevalent worldwide since March 2020 due to COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns. This has prompted increased concerns about loneliness and related mental health problems. During the first UK COVID-19 lockdown, 71 participants were asked to share their high and low point stories from lockdown. These were analyzed using thematic analysis to explore how "aloneness" was experienced at this time. A deductive analyses supported three key facets of aloneness reported in the literature: emotional loneliness, social loneliness, and existential loneliness, as well as a more positive form of aloneness, solitude. An inductive analysis identified risk and protective factors for loneliness, comprising worry, lockdown changes, and poor mental health; and social contact, emotional contact, stability and simple life. The study highlights the importance of understanding how facets of aloneness interrelate, and how understanding risk and protective factors can help us to develop social and policy interventions to alleviate loneliness. In particular, solitude is proposed as a potential mechanism for alleviating loneliness, particularly existential loneliness, alongside more common social methods.

Lonely in Different Relationships: Bidirectional Effects between Parent- and Peer-Related Loneliness in Adolescence

Although it is assumed that loneliness in one relationship might put one at risk of experiencing loneliness in another relationship, this association has rarely been examined as such. In this longitudinal study, we examined the associations between peer- and parent-related loneliness in a sample of 3391 adolescents across three waves (M_{age Wave 1} = 14.53; 59.3% female). Using random intercept cross-lagged panel models, parent- and peer-related loneliness were found to be stable over time and were concurrently related to each other. Moreover, the state of peer-related loneliness predicted the state of parent-related loneliness one year later. Thereby, the current study provides limited evidence of a carry-over effect between relation-specific types of loneliness.

From Physical Distancing to Social Loneliness among Gay Men and Other Men Having Sex with Men in Belgium: Examining the Disruption of the Social Network and Social Support Structures

Since the start of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, levels of loneliness have increased among the general population and especially among sexual minorities, such as gay men and other men who have sex with men, who already experienced more problems with social isolation before the pandemic. We analyzed how the disruption of the social network and social support structures by containment measures impact loneliness among gay and other men having sex with men. Our sample consisted of gay and other men having sex with men who had in person communication with family as well as heterosexual friends and homosexual friends before the lockdown (N = 461). Multivariate regression analyses were performed with social provisions (social interaction and reliable alliance) and loneliness as dependent variables. A change from in-person communication with gay peers before the pandemic to remote-only or no communication with gay peers during the pandemic, mediated by change in social integration, was related to an increased feeling of loneliness during the pandemic compared with before the pandemic. There were some unexpected findings, which should be interpreted in the specific social context of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. On average, social integration and reliable alliance among MSM increased during the lockdown, even though in-person communication decreased and loneliness increased. Our results show it is critical to maintain a view of social support and social loneliness as lodged within larger social and cultural contexts that ultimately shape the mechanisms behind them.

Loneliness during COVID-19: Development and influencing factors

In early pandemic waves, when vaccination against COVID-19 was not yet an option, distancing and reduced social contact were the most effective measures to slow down the pandemic. Changes in frequency and forms of social contact have reduced the spread of the COVID-19 virus and thus saved lives, yet there is increasing evidence for negative side effects such as mental health issues. In the present study, we investigate the development of loneliness and its predictors to examine the role of changes in social networks due to social distancing and other COVID-19-related life changes. A total of 737 participants (age range = 18-81 years) completed an online survey in three waves during the last quarter of 2020 at one-month intervals. Latent growth and multilevel modeling revealed that emotional loneliness increased over time, while social loneliness remained stable. Moreover, socially lonely individuals were likely to also develop emotional loneliness over time. Increased social distancing and sanitary measures were accompanied by decreased social interactions and loss of individuals considered SOS contacts and confidants. Changes in specific social network indicators were differentially associated with changes in emotional vs social loneliness: Loss of friends considered confidants was associated with increasing emotional loneliness, whereas loss of friends considered SOS contacts and reduced overall social interactions were related to increasing social loneliness. Lastly, individuals with more family-and-friend SOS contacts, more friends as confidants and an overall higher number of social interactions were more protected from feeling socially or emotionally lonely. Study findings enhance the understanding of underlying mechanisms differentially contributing to social and emotional loneliness and offer practical suggestions to reduce mental-health side effects of social distancing.

The Impact of Nomophobia, Stress, and Loneliness on Smartphone Addiction among Young Adults during and after the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Israeli Case Analysis

Technological development in recent times has dramatically changed the way people live, interact with, and consume information. Since the emergence of the first iPhone in January 2007 until today, mobile phones are used daily for a range of purposes. Using mobile phones for various purposes intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic due to isolation or government lockdown regulations. However, along with the advantages of smartphone usage there are many disadvantages such as smartphone addiction and continuous exposure to digital screens, behaviors known as PSU—problematic smartphone use. This study explores the impact of several variables on PSU: loneliness, the need for social interaction, sleep hours, fear of losing phone access (nomophobia), and stress among young adults in Israel. The variables are examined with respect to two time periods: 1. During the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns (defined as “T1”) and 2. Following the end of the first wave of COVID-19 lockdowns (defined as “T2”). The results indicated that nomophobia, social affiliation, and sleep hours affect PSU. In addition, the indirect effect of the number of sleep hours on stress and PSU was found to be significant in T2 and in T1. The findings and their implications are discussed.

Exploring links between social identity, emotion regulation, and loneliness in those with and without a history of mental illness

OBJECTIVE

Emotion regulation and social identity theorizing provide two influential perspectives on loneliness. From an emotion regulation perspective, loneliness is understood as a negative emotional state that can be managed using emotion regulation strategies. A social identity perspective views loneliness as resulting from a loss or lack of important social groups and related identities. This study aimed to explore the relationships between key constructs drawn from both perspectives, with a view to understanding loneliness in adults with and without a history of mental illness.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Participants (N = 875) with a mental illness history (MH Hx, n = 217; M_age  = 45 years, 59% female) and without a mental illness history (No MH Hx, n = 658; M_age  = 47 years, 48% female) completed a survey comprising measures of group membership and connectedness, emotion regulation strategies, and loneliness.

RESULTS

The MH Hx group reported higher internal affect worsening strategy use and loneliness than those No MH Hx. Hierarchical regressions indicated that the unique contributions of emotion regulation strategies and social identity factors to loneliness were equivalent between the groups. Together, social identity and emotion regulation explained 37% of the variance in loneliness in the No MH Hx subsample and 35% in the MH Hx subsample.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that both emotion regulation and social identity had significant unique contributions to the reported loneliness of people when controlling for demographics and each other in those with and without a history of mental illness. Integration of the two frameworks may provide novel avenues for the prevention and management of loneliness.

PRACTITIONER POINTS

Individuals with a history of mental illness report more use of internal emotion worsening regulation strategies and greater loneliness than those with no such history, but there were no differences in social identity factors. Internal emotion worsening strategies and social support received from others explained the variance in reported loneliness for both those with and without a history of mental illness. Internal emotion improving strategies were significant for those with a history of mental illness, while social support given was significant for those without a history of mental illness. Screening clients for emotion regulation difficulties, social disconnectedness, and loneliness may provide clinicians with an indication of risk for developing psychological distress/disorders.

Young Adult Adaptability to the Social Challenges of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Protective Role of Friendships

The continuing COVID-19 pandemic enables assessment of the adaptability of young adults to non-normative stressors threatening their social-emotional wellbeing. Focusing specifically on a developmentally critical social challenge of restricted in-person contact, the goal of the current study was to examine the role of friendships in alleviating social-emotional problems. Data were collected via online surveys from an ethnically diverse sample (n = 1557) of 20 to 24-year-olds (62% cisgender female, 31% male, 7% gender diverse or gender questioning) in spring of 2021. Longitudinal data from an earlier time point involving an age-normative social challenge (transition out of high school) were used as a comparison. The comparisons between the transition from high school and the pandemic showed that whereas social anxiety and depressive symptoms increased, loneliness decreased. Participants also reported having slightly more friends and rated the overall quality of their friendships as somewhat higher. Regression analyses revealed that a greater number of friends over time and greater satisfaction with friend electronic communication during the pandemic were most robustly related to lower social and generalized anxiety as well as depressive symptoms, over and above earlier social-emotional wellbeing and a number of relevant correlates. Loneliness was protected by higher quality of friendships, greater contact with friends, as well as more frequent and satisfying electronic communication with friends. The results suggest that although young adults are facing emotional challenges during the continued pandemic, they are also able to adapt by keeping in touch with friends to decrease subjective sense of isolation. The findings have novel intervention implications to reduce loneliness.

Burnout in International Medical Students: Characterization of Professionalism and Loneliness as Predictive Factors of Burnout

BACKGROUND

Burnout is a common mental problem in medical students. For those who are following medical studies abroad there is a higher risk of suffering this syndrome, due to the combination of academic stress and the stress derived from their new living situation. This study was performed with the purpose of testing the following hypothesis: in medical students enrolled in medical programs abroad, abilities associated with professionalism and family support play a protective role in the prevention of suffering burnout.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was performed in the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Zagreb, where a fully English medical program is offered. The general version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI-GS) was used as a dependent variable, while Jefferson Scales of empathy, teamwork, and physician lifelong learning and the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults were used as predictive variables. In addition, information related to sex, country of birth, native language, age, academic achievement, and living situation were collected in a socio-demographic form. Linear regression models were applied to identify predictors of burnout.

RESULTS

In a sample composed of 188 medical students (38 Croatians and 144 foreigners from 28 countries), 18% of the global score in the MBI-GS was explained by lifelong learning and family loneliness. A separate analysis for each domain of the MBI-GS allowed the creation of three models: the first model explained 19% of the variance of the "exhaustion" domain by "country of birth", "living with parents", "academic year", and "cynicism"; a second model explained 24% of the variance of the "cynicism" domain by "academic year", "empathy", "lifelong learning", and "exhaustion"; and finally, a third model explained 24% of the variance of the "professional efficacy" domain by "lifelong learning", "family loneliness", and "cynicism". All obtained models presented an effect size between medium and large, as well as matching the required conditions for statistical inference.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings confirm the important role that family plays as a source of support for medical students. Empathy and lifelong learning, two specific elements of medical professionalism, appear as protective factors in the prevention of burnout in international students.

Emotional Loneliness Is Associated With a Risk of Dementia in a General Japanese Older Population: The Hisayama Study

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the association of loneliness and its component subscales with the risk of dementia in a general Japanese older population.

METHOD

A total of 1,141 community-dwelling Japanese residents aged ≥65 years without dementia were prospectively followed up for a median 5.0 years. We evaluated any loneliness and its component subscales-namely, social and emotional loneliness-by using the 6-item de Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale. Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) of each loneliness type on the risk of dementia controlling for demographic factors, lifestyle factors, physical factors, social isolation factors, and depression.

RESULTS

During the follow-up, 114 participants developed dementia. The age- and sex-adjusted incidence rate of dementia was significantly greater in participants with any loneliness and emotional loneliness than those without. The multivariable-adjusted HRs (95% confidence intervals) of participants with any loneliness and emotional loneliness on incident dementia were 1.61 (1.08-2.40) and 1.65 (1.07-2.54), respectively, as compared to those without. However, there was no significant association between social loneliness and dementia risk. In subgroup analyses of social isolation factors, excess risks of dementia associated with emotional loneliness were observed in participants who had a partner, lived with someone, or rarely communicated with relatives or friends, but such association was not significant in participants who had no partner, lived alone, or frequently communicated with friends or relatives.

DISCUSSION

The present study suggested that loneliness, especially emotional loneliness, was a significant risk factor for the development of dementia in the general older population in Japan.

Loneliness in Bereavement: Measurement Matters

The role of loneliness in the bereavement experience has been reported as substantial, with the death of a close person leaving a considerable void in the life of the bereaved. Yet, there is lack of agreement about its precise role and, notably, whether loneliness should be included as a core symptom for diagnosis of grief complications. The ongoing threat of heightened social isolation due to the COVID-19 pandemic underlines the need to understand the impact of loneliness, and to accurately chart its prevalence, intensity, duration, and associated difficulties in the context of bereavement. Assessment issues are central to this endeavor. In this article, we review the scientific literature to examine how loneliness after bereavement has been operationalized and measured. Sixty-three articles analyzing 51 independent datasets were reviewed. Results show major disparities: approximately half of the projects assessed loneliness by means of one of two validated scales (spanning different versions); the remainder included only single- or few-item measures. Diverse instructions, content and answer categories were used. While one size does not fit all, awareness of assessment options and dis/advantages may aid selection of the most appropriate measure, to suit the goals of a particular study and the specific groups under investigation. Our conclusion is that, in selecting a loneliness measure, health care professionals should come to their own well-informed decision, aided by the information provided in our review.

A gradual separation from the world: a qualitative exploration of existential loneliness in old age

This study sought to explore qualitatively experiences of existential loneliness (EL) in 80 older people living in retirement communities across the United Kingdom and Australia. Qualitative semi-structured interviews permitted in-depth exploration of issues such as biographical narrative, close relationships, loss, feelings of loneliness and retirement living. It was our intention to conduct a large-scale, deep-listening exercise that would provide further clues about EL in older people and the circumstances that give rise to such feelings. Data provided rich insight into older people's inner lives. Core themes identified loss of close attachments, lack of physical touch and intimacy, deterioration of health and body, and lack of an emotional language through which to express EL as central to older people's experiences. Furthermore, there was a suggestion that the move to retirement living was for many people inextricably connected to their experience of EL. Our data further support and extend the notion that EL can be thought of as a gradual sense of separation from the world and that ageing intensifies a myriad of social, emotional and physical circumstances that prompt its emergence. This sense of existential isolation need not be thought of as exclusive to those experiencing extreme frailty or who face death imminently – our data pointed to a clear and gradual emergence of EL throughout later life.

Impacts of therapeutic horticulture on happiness and loneliness in institutionalized clients with mental health conditions

Introduction

Therapeutic horticulture (TH) can be considered a non-pharmacological approach to support psychiatric treatments for the improvement of physical and mental health, but information is lacking on whether it has advantages as compared to more conventional occupational therapies (OTs).

Method

The study focused on institutionalized 25 clients attending TH among other OTs and 15 clients attending OT other than TH. The measures used were the ‘Subjective Happiness Scale’ (SHS) and the ‘Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults’ (SELSA-S), along with sociodemographic and clinical data. The study design was descriptive, observational and cross-sectional.

Results

Scores obtained from the SHS and SELSA-S were generally similar for both groups, although 40% of clients in the TH group perceived relaxation. These are in agreement with previous studies performed with chronic schizophrenia clients reporting that TH might effectively decrease depression/anxiety symptoms, but the feeling of hopelessness and quality of life did not change, probably due to long-term institutionalization and required medication that may limit other effects. Within the TH group, clients preferred specific horticultural tasks and more days/week attending activities decreased loneliness and increased happiness.

Conclusion

TH interventions as an integrative treatment option merits further study on both process and outcome evaluation, to maximize its effectiveness.

Socio-demographic characteristics associated with emotional and social loneliness among older adults

Background

International studies provide an overview of socio-demographic characteristics associated with loneliness among older adults, but few studies distinguished between emotional and social loneliness. This study examined socio-demographic characteristics associated with emotional and social loneliness.

Methods

Data of 2251 community-dwelling older adults, included at the baseline measure of the Urban Health Centers Europe (UHCE) project, were analysed. Loneliness was measured with the 6-item De Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to evaluate associations between age, sex, living situation, educational level, migration background, and loneliness.

Results

The mean age of participants was 79.7 years (SD = 5.6 years); 60.4% women. Emotional and social loneliness were reported by 29.2 and 26.7% of the participants; 13.6% experienced emotional and social loneliness simultaneously. Older age (OR: 1.16, 95% CI: 1.06–1.28), living without a partner (2.16, 95% CI: 1.73–2.70), and having a low educational level (OR: 1.82, 95% CI: 1.21–2.73), were associated with increased emotional loneliness. Women living with a partner were more prone to emotional loneliness than men living with a partner (OR: 1.78, 95% CI: 1.31–2.40). Older age (OR: 1.11, 95% CI: 1.00–1.22) and having a low educational level (OR: 1.77, 95% CI: 1.14–2.74) were associated with increased social loneliness. Men living without a partner were more prone to social loneliness than men living with a partner (OR: 1.94, 95% CI: 1.35–2.78).

Conclusions

Socio-demographic characteristics associated with emotional and social loneliness differed regarding sex and living situation. Researchers, policy makers, and healthcare professionals should be aware that emotional and social loneliness may affect older adults with different socio-demographic characteristics.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12877-021-02058-4.

Effects of personality disorders and attitudes towards social networking services: evidence from family business successors in the Arab world

Purpose

This paper examines the effect of personality disorders, namely loneliness and shyness, on the family business successors' attitude towards social networking services (SNS).

Design/methodology/approach

In this study the personality disorder and attitude towards using WhatsApp are analysed in a sample of 511 family business successors, aged 18 and up to more than 50 years. Participants completed questionnaires designed for the purposes of the study specifically using for loneliness factor the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russell et al., 1978) and for shyness the Sociability Scale (Cheek and Buss, 1981). We use two statistical methods: the first statistical technique is an exploratory factor analysis to show that shyness can be measured down into two dimensions (1) lack of confidence and (2) hesitancy, while loneliness also can be measured into the two dimensions: (1) amiability and (2) abandonment. The second statistical method uses structural equation modelling (SEM) to fit the data to the proposed model.

Findings

The results indicate that neither a lack of confidence nor amiability has a significant effect on the attitude towards instant messaging, while hesitancy and abandonment both have significant effects on attitude. Moreover, abandonment has a stronger effect on attitude than hesitancy.

Research limitations/implications

In this study were not included other related social disorders that other scholars normally study in such projects. For example, narcissism, addiction and socially anxious are very important and have results that conflict with ours.

Originality/value

The causal relations between the two independent factors of shyness and loneliness and the dependent factor of attitude towards using an Internet and SNS in family businesses from the Arab world have not yet been clearly and fully explored. This study aims to fill this gap through studying the impact of personality disorder (loneliness and shyness) on attitude to use SNS by the successors of family businesses.

Teacher support and the social classroom environment as predictors of student loneliness

This study examined the relationships between students’ perceptions of teacher support, the social classroom environment, school loneliness, and possible gender differences among 2099 first year upper secondary school students in Norway. Data were collected in the fall (t1) and spring (t2) of the school year. Results from structural equation modelling (SEM) analyses showed that perceived emotional and instrumental teacher support were directly related to students’ perceptions of the social classroom environment, and indirectly to student loneliness through the social classroom environment. While for boys, both types of teacher support were significantly related to these variables, only emotional teacher support was of significance to girls. The strongest contributing factor to students’ school loneliness was their perceptions of the social classroom environment. Some implications of this study are that a positive social classroom environment is an important safeguard against student loneliness, and that teachers can aid in preventing loneliness among students through facilitating a positive social environment in the class.

A quarantined lodging stay: The buffering effect of service quality

How do guests feel during their stay at quarantine lodging? This study draws on terror management theory and social exclusion theory to synthesize a model that highlights guests' perceptions about their experience under enforced isolation. The model articulates guests' feeling of anxiety and loneliness, whereas quality of service presents warmth and care that activates an anxiety buffer mechanism that mitigates the effect of anxiety. In turn guests' level of anxiety is further explained by an interaction between their health status and the length of stay. Results point to a conduit for studying the dark side of hospitality, opening up research avenues that could help assess broader social behavioral changes during the global pandemic, while offering operators revelations for lodging management during a crisis.

Factors Related to the Differential Development of Inter-Professional Collaboration Abilities in Medicine and Nursing Students

Introduction

For physicians and nurses, teamwork involves a set of communication and social skills, and specific training in interdisciplinary work in order to be able to work together cooperatively, sharing responsibilities, solving problems, and making decisions to carry out actions centered on patients' care. Recent studies demonstrate that in the absence of targeted interdisciplinary educational programs, the development of teamwork abilities is sensitive to the influence of the dominant work environment. The purpose of this study was to characterize the role that environmental and individual factors play in the development of teamwork in environments with a dominant hierarchical work model.

Methods

Questionnaires were distributed to 1,880 undergraduate students (980 medicine students and 900 nursing students) from three universities of Cusco city (Peru). The Jefferson Scale of Attitudes toward Physician-Nurse Collaboration was used as the main variable. The Jefferson Scales of Empathy and Lifelong Learning, the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults, the Scale of Life Satisfaction, sex, discipline, age, and academic semester were used as explanatory variables. After calculating internal reliability and normality of the main measures, descriptive, comparative, and correlation analyses were performed to determine variables influencing the teamwork score.

Results

A total of 1,518 (81%) surveys were returned fully completed. Adequate reliability was confirmed in all instruments. In the sample, nursing students showed greater inter-professional collaborative abilities than medicine students (p < 0.001). This attitudinal gap was higher in advanced semesters. A three-way ANOVA indicated differences in teamwork were associated with discipline (p < 0.001), sex (p < 0.01), and university (p < 0.001). However, main effects were associated only with discipline (η p2 = 0.14). Teamwork showed an inverse correlation with loneliness (ρ = -0.28; p < 0.001) and a positive correlation with empathy (ρ = + 0.49; p < 0.001) and lifelong learning (ρ = + 0.48; p < 0.001). Teamwork positively correlated with life satisfaction only in the medicine student group (ρ = + 0.15; p < 0.001).

Conclusion

These findings bring new evidence to support the main effect that social environments, in the absence of targeted interdisciplinary educational programs, play in the development of teamwork.

Loneliness and friendlessness among adolescents in 25 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean

BACKGROUND

Loneliness is a common health problem among the elderly but is not well understood in the adolescent population, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Adolescent loneliness can have adverse impacts on short- and long-term health status.

METHODS

This study examined rates of self-reported loneliness and friendlessness among 76,982 secondary school students in 25 LMICs in Latin America and the Caribbean who participated in the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS). After calculating the rates of reported loneliness and lack of close friends separately for nationally representative samples of boys and girls from each country, we used meta-analysis to pool results for prevalence rates and associations across all 25 countries and territories.

RESULTS

About 1 in 6 students (18.1% [95% CI: 16.4%, 20.0%]) reported being lonely most or all of the time and/or having no close friends, including 19.9% of girls and 16.2% of boys. Girls were more likely than boys to report being lonely most or all of the time (14.6% vs. 9.2%, p < .05), but boys were more likely than girls to report that they had zero close friends (8.7% vs. 7.2%, p < .05). However, the majority of students who reported being lonely did not report having no close friends, and the majority of students who reported having no close friends did not report being lonely most or all of the time.

CONCLUSIONS

Asking adolescents about both loneliness and friendships may capture the burden of social isolation among males and females better than a single question about loneliness. Successful interventions for reducing social isolation must be rooted in communities and integrated into comprehensive school and community health plans.

The Stability and Change of Loneliness Across the Life Span: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies

Individuals experience loneliness when they perceive a deficiency in the quality or quantity of their social relationships. In the present meta-analysis, we compiled data from 75 longitudinal studies conducted in Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America (N = 83, 679) to examine the rank-order and mean-level development of loneliness across the life span. Data were analyzed using two- and three-level meta-analyses and generalized additive mixed models. The results indicate that the rank order of loneliness is as stable as the rank order of personality traits and follows an inverted U-shaped trajectory across the life span. Regarding mean-level development, loneliness was found to decrease throughout childhood and to remain essentially stable from adolescence to oldest old age. Thus, in contrast to other personality characteristics, changes in loneliness are not generally related to age. Implications for theory are discussed.

Depressive symptoms predict increased social and emotional loneliness in older adults

Objectives: Explorations of relationships between loneliness and depression have focused on loneliness as a uni-dimensional construct. We hypothesised that reciprocal relationships may exist between depressive symptomatology and social and emotional subtypes of loneliness.Methods: Using data from 373 adults aged over 50, who participated in an observational cohort study, we employed a cross-lagged approach within a Structural Equation Modelling framework, to investigate reciprocal links between depressive symptomatology, and social and emotional loneliness, across two waves of data collection, two years apart (controlling for age, sex, education, comorbidities, social network index, and perceived stress).Results: Both depressive symptomatology and loneliness decreased slightly between waves. Auto-regressive effects were strong for all three variables of interest. Cross-lagged pathways were evident, such that depressive symptomatology at baseline predicted both emotional (β = 0.26, p < 0.05) and social (β = 0.17, p < 0.05) loneliness at follow-up. Neither emotional (β = 0.07, p > 0.05) nor social (β = 0.05, p > 0.05) loneliness at baseline predicted depressive symptomatology at follow-up.Conclusions: Results challenge existing understanding of the associations between loneliness and depression. Further investigation of emotional and social loneliness in individuals with depressive disorders is warranted. Findings are discussed in relation to mechanisms that may explain the relationships observed, and possible implications.

Alcohol consumption, life satisfaction and mental health among Norwegian college and university students

OBJECTIVE

High-level alcohol consumption is common in, and central to, the student community. Among adults, high-level alcohol consumption, and sometimes also low, has been associated with poorer social integration and mental health. We aimed to investigate how alcohol consumption relates to life satisfaction and mental health among students in higher education.

METHODS

Data from the Norwegian study of students' health and well-being (SHoT, 2014, n = 9632) were used. Associations between alcohol consumption (AUDIT; abstainers, low risk, risky and hazardous consumption) and life satisfaction and mental health complaints, as well as number of close friends, and social and emotional loneliness were investigated using linear regression models. Crude models and models adjusted for age, gender and relationship status were conducted.

RESULTS

Students reporting hazardous consumption reported lower life satisfaction, more mental health complaints, and more emotional and social loneliness than students with low risk consumption. Students reporting risky consumption reported slightly reduced life satisfaction and more mental health complaints, but more close friends and less social loneliness. Abstainers did not report reduced life satisfaction or more mental health complaints, despite reporting fewer close friends and more social loneliness.

CONCLUSION

High-level alcohol consumption among students might indicate increased risk of several problems in the future - but also currently. Our findings further imply that the quality of friendships might be more important for life satisfaction and mental health than the number of friends, but also that social integration in student communities might be more difficult for students who do not drink.

Loneliness in adolescence: Confirmatory factor analysis of the relational provisions loneliness questionnaire (RPLQ) in a Portuguese sample

The present study assesses the factor structure, psychometric adequacy, and invariance across sex and age of the Relational Provisions Loneliness Questionnaire (RPLQ). Discriminant validity with an external criterion was also tested. In a sample of Portuguese adolescents, from 7th to 9th grade ( N = 817), Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) were conducted to test a four-factor model of loneliness (lack of integration and/or intimacy in peer group and/or family). Results evidenced empirical support for the structure of the RPLQ loneliness scale, which fitted very well the proposed model, and provided adequate fit to the Portuguese data. There was substantial support for the construct validity (factorial, convergent, and discriminant) and reliability of the RPLQ. Measurement invariance (configural, metric, and scalar) was established across sex and age. Finally, it was assured discriminant validity, provided by the contrast with the social functioning dimensions in peer group. Overall, our findings support the conceptualization of loneliness in adolescence by peer- and family-related loneliness through lack of integration and intimacy. In a single instrument, the RPLQ loneliness scale combines measures of four important aspects of adolescents’ social life. This seems to be an adequate instrument to be used in the study of adolescents’ loneliness, in its different forms and across relational contexts.

Quality not quantity: loneliness subtypes, psychological trauma, and mental health in the US adult population

PURPOSE

Loneliness is a recognised public-health concern that is traditionally regarded as a unidimensional construct. Theories of loneliness predict the existence of subtypes of loneliness. In this study, latent class analysis (LCA) was used to test for the presence of loneliness subtypes and to examine their association with multiple mental health variables.

METHODS

A nationally representative sample of US adults (N = 1839) completed the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale, along with self-report measures of childhood and adulthood trauma, psychological wellbeing, major depression, and generalized anxiety.

RESULTS

When treated as a unidimensional construct, 17.1% of US adults aged 18-70 were classified as lonely. However, the LCA results identified four loneliness classes which varied quantitatively and qualitatively: 'low' (52.8%), 'social' (8.2%), 'emotional' (26.6%), and 'social and emotional' (12.4%) loneliness. The 'social and emotional' class were characterised by the highest levels of psychological distress, followed by the 'emotional' class. The 'social' loneliness class had similar mental health scores as the 'low' loneliness class. Childhood and adulthood trauma were independently related to the most distressed loneliness classes.

CONCLUSIONS

Current findings provide support for the presence of subtypes of loneliness and show that they have unique associations with mental health status. Recognition of these subtypes of loneliness revealed that the number of US adults aged 18-70 experiencing loneliness was twice as high as what was estimated when loneliness was conceptualized as a unidimensional construct. The perceived quality, not the quantity, of interpersonal connections was associated with poor mental health.

Mental Health and Proximal Stressors in Transgender Men and Women

This paper explores the subjective perception of some personal and interpersonal aspects of the lives of transgender people and the relationship they have with their mental health. One hundred and twenty transgender people (60 men and 60 women) participated in semi-structured interviews. Following quantitative methodology, analysis highlighted that social loneliness is the main predictor of lower levels of mental health (anxiety and depression) for both genders and recognized romantic loneliness as the strongest factor among transgender men. In both cases, higher levels of loneliness were associated with lower levels of mental health. The results have guided us to improve institutional and social responses and have provided an opportunity to promote the mental health of transgender people.

Predictors of loneliness among the left-behind children of migrant workers in Indonesia

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to compare loneliness between the left-behind children of migrant workers and the non-left-behind ones, and identify the most significant predictors of loneliness among the left-behind children.

Design/methodology/approach

Incidental sampling was performed to select 629 participants aged 11–16 from 5 schools in the rural areas of Karawang and Lombok in Indonesia. They filled in paper-and-pencil self-report inventories.

Findings

Left-behind children were significantly lonelier than their counterparts were. Emotional loneliness was more affected by parental absence compared to social loneliness. Left-behind children would be more susceptible to experience loneliness if they had more access to entertainment gadgets, experienced less support and intimacy from friends, had been left by their migrant parents more than once, were female, had low self-esteem, experienced emotional difficulties and rarely communicated with their parents.

Research limitations/implications

Qualitative research was needed to provide more elaborative explanation about the findings.

Practical implications

Parents needed to consider the psychological cost and benefit of working abroad to their children. Governments could intervene by limiting the duration and frequency of work among the migrant workers.

Social implications

Some beneficial implications to prevent and reduce loneliness among left-behind children were provided, such as by maintaining the frequency and quality of communication with the children, motivating and guiding the children to interact with their peers and spend less time on entertainment gadgets, as well as encouraging the children to engage in several positive activities to enhance their self-esteem.

Originality/value

This study enriched the understanding about complex relationship between parental presence and adolescents’ mental health despite the fact that adolescents seemed to be more interested in relationships with peers.

Genetic Contributions to Loneliness and Their Relevance to the Evolutionary Theory of Loneliness

Loneliness is a negative and distressing emotional state that arises from a discrepancy between one's desired and achieved levels of social connectedness. The evolutionary theory of loneliness (ETL) posits that experiencing loneliness is an inherited adaptation that signals that salutary social relations are endangered or damaged and prompts people to reconnect to significant others. The basic tenets of the ETL has led researchers to examine the genetic underpinnings of loneliness. The current review provides an updated overview of genetic studies on loneliness and discusses the importance of genetic research for the ETL. The most recent studies suggest that the many genes that contribute to a small degree to differences in loneliness partially overlap with genes that contribute to neuroticism, but not with depression. In addition, the genetic studies discussed in this review show that genes are unlikely to have a direct effect on loneliness. Instead, environmental factors determine in a dynamic fashion how genes that contribute to loneliness are expressed. Future research on epigenetic processes, such as DNA methylation, can further elucidate the dynamic interplay between genes and the environment and how this interplay contributes to loneliness.

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (UCLA LS-R) in individuals over 65

GOALS

The UCLA LS-R is the most extensively used scale to assess loneliness. However, few studies examine the scale's use on older individuals. The goal of the study is to analyse the suitability of the scale´s structure for assessing older individuals.

METHOD

The UCLA LS-R scale was administered to a random sample of 409 community-dwelling residents of Madrid (53% women) aged 65-84 years (obtained from the MentDis_ICF65+ study). Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the factor structure of the UCLA LS-R.

RESULTS

The internal consistency of the scale obtained a Cronbach's alpha of .85. All the analysed models of factor structure of the UCLA LS-R achieved a fairly good fit and RMSEA values over .80. The models that best fit the empirical data are those of Hojat (1982) and Borges et al. (2008).

CONCLUSION

The data suggest an equivalent effectiveness of UCLA LS-R in adults under 65 and over 65, which may indicate a similar structure of the loneliness construct in both populations. This outcome is consistent with the idea that loneliness has two dimensions: emotional loneliness and social loneliness. The use of short measures that are easy to apply and interpret should help primary care professionals identify loneliness problems in older individuals sooner and more accurately.

Measurement equivalence between men and women in the abbreviated Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA)

Health practitioners, policy-makers, and psychologists point to legitimate concerns about the negative impact of loneliness. To help resolve such negative impact, we need to better understand the psychometric structure of loneliness. Men’s and women’s differing social roles may mean that they experience different sources of loneliness. After matching via exact matching, we compared men and women’s scores (N = 273) on the abbreviated form of the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA) using confirmatory factor analysis and measurement invariance testing. We replicated the three-factor structure of the SELSA, thereby providing further evidence for differing etiologies of family, romantic, and social loneliness. We found no good evidence for gender differences in the structure of the questionnaire answers, indicating that the SELSA can be used to further illuminate the implications of loneliness for men and women.