Butyltin compounds in sediment and molluscs from the shipping strait between Denmark and Sweden

Evidence that offshore wind farms might affect marine sediment quality and microbial communities

Offshore wind power is a typical example of clean energy production and plays a critical role in achieving carbon neutrality. Offshore wind farms can have an impact on the marine environment, especially sedimentary environments, but their influence on sediments remain largely unknown. This study, which uses the control-impact principle to define different areas, investigated the characteristics of marine sediments under the Putidao offshore wind farm in Bohai Bay, China. We used chemical and microbiological observations to evaluate sediment quality and microbial community structure. According to both the geo-accumulation index (I_geo) and contamination factor (CF) indexes, copper, chromium and zinc were the major contaminants in the offshore wind farm sediments. The pollution load index (PLI) index showed that the various sites on the wind farm were only lightly polluted compared with baseline values. Closer to the wind farm's center, the metal concentrations started to rise. The physicochemical features of the sediments could better explain changes in the microorganisms present, and screening the microbiomes showed a correlation with heavy metal levels, linking the relative abundance of microorganisms to the sediment quality index. This comprehensive study fills a knowledge gap in China and adds to our understanding of how to assess the sedimentary environments of offshore wind farms.

Assessing the Efficacy of a Sediment Remediation Program Using Benthic and Pelagic Copepod Bioassays

Tributyltin is an organotin chemical that has been commonly used in ship antifouling paints. Despite the global total prohibition of tributyltin-based paint in 2008, tributyltin continues to be found at toxic levels in areas of high maritime traffic such as ports and harbors. A remediation program was conducted at a New Zealand port to reduce tributyltin and copper concentrations to acceptable values. The present study assessed the efficacy of the program using a combination of chemical analyses and copepod bioassays. Sediment and water samples were collected at 3 locations along a spatial gradient within the port, and concentrations of various organotin compounds and trace metal levels were measured pre- and postremediation. The toxicity of sediment and elutriate samples was estimated by benthic and pelagic copepod bioassays. Although acute toxicity in sediment samples was reduced following remediation, reproductive success was still affected for the benthic copepod. This approach combining chemical analysis and bioassays is promising for assessing the efficacy of remediation processes at contaminated marine sites. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:492-499. © 2019 SETAC.

Bioaccumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by arctic and temperate benthic species

Increasing oil and gas activities may substantially increase chemical stress to benthic ecosystems in the Arctic, and it is necessary to evaluate such environmental risks in these systems. Risk assessment procedures for oil-related compounds (e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [PAHs]) should address differences in exposure between Arctic and temperate benthos. We compare for the first time the bioaccumulation of PAHs by Arctic benthic invertebrate species with that of temperate species, based on their biota-sediment accumulation factors (BSAFs). Measured PAH BSAFs were generally higher in temperate bivalves (Limecola balthica) than in Arctic bivalves (Macoma calcarea), whereas BSAFs in Arctic polychaetes (Nephtys ciliata) were higher than in temperate polychaetes (Alitta virens). Differences in measured BSAFs were explained by species-specific feeding modes and traits. However, modeled BSAFs revealed that steady state was not likely to be reached in the 28-d tests for all PAHs and organisms. Due to the low numbers of individuals, most species-specific parameters were too uncertain to reveal differences between Arctic and temperate species. The results of the present study suggest that data from temperate species could be used as a surrogate for Arctic species in risk assessment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:883-895. © 2019 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.

From TBT to booster biocides: Levels and impacts of antifouling along coastal areas of Panama

Antifouling biocides in surface sediments and gastropod tissues were assessed for the first time along coastal areas of Panama under the influence of maritime activities, including one of the world's busiest shipping zones: the Panama Canal. Imposex incidence was also evaluated in five muricid species distributed along six coastal areas of Panama. This TBT-related biological alteration was detected in three species, including the first report in Purpura panama. Levels of organotins (TBT, DBT, and MBT) in gastropod tissues and surficial sediments ranged from <5 to 104 ng Sn g^-1 and <1-149 ng Sn g^-1, respectively. In addition, fresh TBT inputs were observed in areas considered as moderate to highly contaminated mainly by inputs from fishing and leisure boats. Regarding booster biocides, TCMTB and dichlofluanid were not detected in any sample, while irgarol 1051, diuron and DCOIT levels ranged from <0.08 to 2.8 ng g^-1, <0.75-14.1 ng g^-1, and <0.38-81.6 ng g^-1, respectively. The highest level of TBT (149 ng Sn g^-1) and irgarol 1051 (2.8 ng g^-1), as well as relevant level of DCOIT (5.7 ng g^-1), were detected in a marina used by recreational boats. Additionally, relatively high diuron values (14.1 ng g^-1) were also detected in the Panama Canal associate to a commercial port. DCOIT concentrations were associated with the presence of antifouling paint particles in sediments obtained nearby shipyard or boat maintenance sites. The highest levels of TBT, irgarol 1051, and diuron exceeded international sediment quality guidelines indicating that toxic effects could be expected in coastal areas of Panama. Thus, the simultaneous impacts produced by new and old generations of antifouling paints highlight a serious environmental issue in Panamanian coastal areas.

The importance of environmental factors and matrices in the adsorption, desorption, and toxicity of butyltins: a review

Butyltins (BTs) are considered as a group of the most important organometallic compounds in industry and agriculture. Due to their widespread use, large amounts of BTs including tributyltin (TBT), dibutyltin (DBT), and monobutyltin (MBT) have entered into the environment, and subsequently causing detrimental effects on humans and aquatic organisms. This work provides a critical review of recent studies on the adsorption, desorption, bioaccumulation, and toxicity of BTs that can notably influence the distribution of BTs in the environment. Influence of environmental factors (e.g., pH and salinity) and adsorbents in the matrices (e.g., minerals, organic carbons, and quartz) on the adsorption, desorption, and toxicity of BTs is particularly addressed.

Total tin and organotin speciation in historic layers of antifouling paint on leisure boat hulls

Despite their ban on small vessels in 1989 in the EU, organotin compounds (OTCs) are still being released into the environment due to their presence in historic paint layers on leisure boats. 23 paint samples scraped from recreational boats from three countries around the Baltic Sea were analyzed for total tin (Sn) and OTCs. Two antifouling paint products were also subjected to the same analyses. A new method for the detection of Sn in paint flake samples was developed and found to yield more accurate results compared to four different acid digestion methods. A new method was also developed for the extraction of OTCs from ground paint flakes. This endeavor revealed that existing methods for organotin analysis of sediment may not have full recoveries of OTCs if paint flakes are present in the sample. The hull paint samples had Sn concentrations ranging from 25 to 18,000 mg/kg paint and results showed that tributyltin (TBT) was detected in all samples with concentrations as high as 4.7 g (as Sn)/kg paint. TBT was however not always the major OTC. Triphenyltin (TPhT) was abundant in many samples, especially in those originating from Finland. Several other compounds such as monobutyltin (MBT), dibutyltin (DBT), tetrabutyltin (TeBT), monophenyltin (MPhT) and diphenyltin (DPhT) were also detected. These could be the result of degradation occurring on the hull or of impurities in the paint products as they were also identified in the two analyzed paint products. A linear correlation (r² = 0.934) was found between the total tin content and the sum of all detected OTCs. The detection of tin can therefore be used to indicate the presence of OTCs on leisure boats.

Pollutant Concentrations and Toxic Effects on the Red Alga Ceramium tenuicorne of Sediments from Natural Harbors and Small Boat Harbors on the West Coast of Sweden

This investigation set out to analyze the toxicity of surface sediments in a number of natural harbors and small boat harbors on the west coast of Sweden. This was done with the growth inhibition method with Ceramium tenuicorne. Also, concentrations of copper (Cu), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), irgarol, organotin compounds, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the sediments were analyzed. The small boat harbors were heavily polluted by Cu, Zn, butyltins, and PAHs, and to a lesser extent by Pb. The Cu, Pb, Zn, and butyltins probably originated from their past and/or present use in antifouling paints, whereas the PAHs probably had multiple sources, including boat motor exhausts. The measured toxicity of the sediment was generally related to their Cu, Zn, and butyltin content, although other toxic substances than those analyzed here probably contributed to the toxicity in some of the harbors. The natural harbor sediments contained less pollutants and were less toxic than the small boat harbor sediments. Nevertheless, our data indicate that the boating pressure today may be high enough to produce toxic effects even in natural harbors in pristine areas. The strongest relationship between toxicity and the major pollutants was obtained when the sediment toxicity was expressed as gram wet weight per liter compared with gram dry weight per liter and gram total organic carbon per liter. Hence, for pollutants that can be elutriated with natural sea water, sediment toxicity expressed as gram wet weight per liter appears preferable.

Pleasure boatyard soils are often highly contaminated

The contamination in pleasure boatyards has been investigated. Measured concentrations of copper, zinc, lead, mercury, cadmium, tributyltin (TBT), the 16 most common polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (∑16 PAHs), and the seven most common polychlorinated biphenyls (∑7 PCBs) from investigations at 34 boatyards along the Swedish coast have been compiled. The maximum concentrations were 7,700 for Cu, 10,200, for Zn, 40,100 for Pb, 188 for Hg, 18 for Cd, 107 for TBT, 630 for carcinogenic PAHs, 1,480 for ∑16 PAHs, and 3.8 mg/kg DW for ∑7 PCB; all 10-2,000 higher than the Swedish environmental qualitative guidelines. In addition, the mean of the median values found at the 34 places shows that the lower guidance value for sensitive use of land was exceeded for the ∑7 PCBs, carcinogenic PAHs, TBT, Pb, Hg, and Cu by a factor of 380, 6.8, 3.6, 2.9, 2.2 and 1.7, respectively. The even higher guideline value for industrial use was exceeded for the ∑7 PCBs and TBT by a factor of 15 and 1.8, respectively. TBT, PAHs, Pb, Cd, and Hg are prioritized substances in the European Water Framework Directive and should be phased out as quickly as possible. Because of the risk of leakage from boatyards, precautions should be taken. The high concentrations measured are considered to be dangerous for the environment and human health and highlight the urgent need for developing and enforcing pleasure boat maintenance guidelines to minimize further soil and nearby water contamination.

Impact of rapid urbanisation and industrialisation on river sediment metal contamination

This study aimed at evidencing contaminant inputs from a rapidly growing population and the accompanying anthropogenic activities to river sediments. The Fez metropolitan area and its impacts on the Sebou's sediments (the main Moroccan river) were chosen as a case study. The Fez agglomeration is surrounded by the river Fez, receiving the wastewaters of this developing city and then flowing into the Sebou. The sediment cores from the Fez and Sebou Rivers were extracted and analysed for major elements, butyltins and toxic metals. Normalised enrichment factors and geoaccumulation index were calculated. Toxicity risk was assessed by two sets of sediment quality guideline (SQG) indices. A moderate level of contamination by butyltins was observed, with monobutyltin being the dominant species across all sites and depths. The lowest level of metal pollution was identified in the Sebou's sediments in upstream of Fez city, whilst the Fez' sediments were heavily polluted and exhibited bottom-up accumulation trends, which is a clear signature of recent inputs from the untreated wastewaters of Fez city. Consequently, the sediments of Fez and Sebou at the downstream of the confluence were found to be potentially toxic, according to the SQG levels. This finding is concerned with aquatic organisms, as well as to the riverside population, which is certainly exposed to these pollutants through the daily use of water. This study suggests that although Morocco has adopted environmental regulations aiming at restricting pollutant discharges into the natural ecosystems, such regulations are neither well respected by the main polluters nor efficiently enforced by the authorities.

Baseline of the butyltin distribution in surface sediments (0-20 cm) of the Elbe estuary (Germany, 2011)

The concentrations of the butyltin (BT) species tributyltin (TBT), dibutyltin (DBT), and monobutyltin (MBT) were measured in the surface sediments (0-20 cm) at 29 sites of the Elbe estuary in 2011. TBT values ranged from 'undetectable' to 41 ng Sn g(-1) dry weight (d.w.) with the two highest values measured in the inner section of the estuary near the port of Hamburg (32 and 41 ng Sn g(-1) d.w.). TBT, DBT, and MBT showed significant decreases towards the estuarine mouth (Spearman's rho -0.660, -0.685, and -0.583, respectively, p<0.001). The degradation of TBT, assessed by the BT degradation index (BDI), showed a rising trend from the port of Hamburg towards the mouth of the estuary, though not a significant one (Spearman's correlation, p=0.066). Annual sedimentation rates did not show any significant correlations (Spearman's correlation) to BT pollution or to the butyltin degradation index (BDI).

Biomarker responses and accumulation of hazardous substances in mussels (Mytilus trossulus) transplanted along a pollution gradient close to an oil terminal in the Gulf of Finland (Baltic Sea)

Baltic Sea blue mussels (Mytilus trossulus) were used as sentinel organisms to detect the biological effects of chemical contamination in the low salinity environment. Mussels naturally adapted to a salinity of ca. 6.0 PSU were caged for 30 days at four sites along an assumed pollution gradient (salinity ca. 4.5 PSU) in the vicinity of Finland's largest oil refinery and harbor Kilpilahti in the Gulf of Finland. Tissue concentrations and accumulation rates of especially organic contaminants (PAHs, PCBs and organotins) were clearly elevated at the innermost coastal stations near the harbor area. Biological effects of contaminant exposure on caged mussels were evaluated by measuring a suite of biomarkers including catalase, glutathione S-transferase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase, lipid peroxidation, acetylcholinesterase activity and lysosomal membrane stability. Mussels transplanted near the harbor area were able to elevate their antioxidant defense in response to environmental contamination. Reduced morphometric condition index and soft tissue growth rate together with increased lipid peroxidation and low lysosomal membrane stability were also observed at the most contaminated site. The results suggest that caging of M. trossulus for four weeks at lower salinity is a feasible method for the detection of environmental pollution also in low salinity areas of the Baltic Sea.

Tributyltin (TBT) increases TNFα mRNA expression and induces apoptosis in the murine macrophage cell line in vitro

OBJECTIVE

Tributyltin (TBT) compounds have been widely used as antifouling agents for shipbottom paint. The immune system is a target of TBT intoxication. We evaluated the effects of TBT chloride in macrophages, which have critical roles in the immune system, using a murine macrophage lineage cell line, J774.1,in vitro.

METHODS

We examined tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) andc-jun mRNA expression in J774.1 cells. The effects of TBT on the apoptosis of J774.1 cells were examined by determining the percentage of TUNEL-positive cells and caspase-3 activity.

RESULTS

The mean values of the viabilities of J774.1 cells exposed to TBT decreased dose-dependently. The relative mRNA expression of TNFα increased dose-dependently, however, that of IL-1β was not significantly different among the groups. The mean percentage of TUNEL-positive cells increased dose-dependently. Increases in the caspase-3 activities of J774.1 cells were observed in the groups exposed to higher concentrations of TBT. The mean value of relative mRNA expression of c-Jun transcription factor increased dose-dependently.

CONCLUSIONS

The increases in the percentage of TUNEL-positive cells and in caspase-3 activity suggested that exposure to TBT induces apoptosis of J774.1 cells. The increases in the mRNA expression of TNFα andc-jun by TBT may be related to apoptosis in macrophages.

Effects of various pollutant mixtures on immune responses of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) collected at a salinity gradient in Danish coastal waters

The Baltic Sea is a semi-enclosed sea with a steady salinity gradient (3‰-30‰). Organisms have adapted to such low salinities, but are suspected to be more susceptible to stress. Within the frame of the integrated environmental monitoring BONUS + project "BEAST" the applicability of immune responses of the blue mussel was investigated in Danish coastal waters. The sampling sites were characterised by a salinity range (11-19‰) and different mixtures of contaminants (metals, PAHs and POPs), according to chemical analysis of mussel tissues. Variation partitioning (redundancy analysis) was applied to decompose salinity and contamination effects. The results indicated that cellular immune responses (total and differential haemocyte count, phagocytic activity and apoptosis) were mainly influenced by contaminants, whereas humoral factors (haemolytic activity) were mainly impacted by salinity. Hence, cellular immune functions may be suitable as biomarkers in monitoring programmes for the Baltic Sea and other geographic regions with salinity variances of the studied range.

Intake and potential health risk of butyltin compounds from seafood consumption in Korea

Concentrations of butyltin compounds (BTs) were determined in 47 species of seafood commonly consumed in Korea to investigate intakes of BTs from seafood consumption and the potential health risks to the Korean population. The concentrations of BTs (the sum of dibutyltin and tributyltin) in seafood ranged from less than the limit of detection to 96.3 ng/g wet weight, which are levels similar to those reported for other countries. The intake of BTs from seafood consumption by the general population was estimated to be 17.2 ng/kg body weight/day. Fish accounted for 50% of the total intakes of BT, and the next contributor was cephalopods (26%). The estimated intakes for males and females were 18.6 and 15.7 ng/ kg body weight/day, respectively. Among the age groups investigated, children (<2 years and 3-6 years) had higher intakes of BTs compared with adults. The estimated intake of BTs for Korean population groups was 5-8% of the tolerable daily intake of 250 ng/ kg body weight/day set by the European Food Safety Authority. Our results suggest that the Korean population is not expected to exceed the threshold value for adverse health effects.

Organotin compounds in surface sediments from seaports on the Gulf of Gdańsk (southern Baltic coast)

Sediment samples were collected in two Polish ports of international significance--the Port of Gdańsk and the Port of Gdynia (Gulf of Gdańsk, Baltic Sea)--in order to assess their butyltin and phenyltin contamination; this was done in 2008, just after the total ban on using harmful organotins in antifouling paints on ships came into force. Altogether, 21 sampling stations were chosen to present a diversity of port sites: from port canals and shipyards to anchorages and dumping sites. The organic carbon content and grain size of all the sediment samples were determined, and some environmental parameters (oxygen content, salinity) were measured as well. Total concentrations of butyltin compounds in sediment samples were very different and ranged between 1 and 18,520 ng Sn g(-1) d.w. Phenyltin contents were distinctly lower and ranged from below the limit of detection (most samples) to 660 ng Sn g(-1) d.w. The highest concentrations of organotins were found in the shipyards, the maximum total organotin content (19,180 ng Sn g(-1) d.w.) being found in the Gdańsk Ship Repair Yard 'Remontowa'. Butyltin degradation indices indicate a recent tributyltin input into the port sediments. The results obtained from this work prove that the international ban on using organotins may not be enough to protect the marine environment. It is necessary to monitor organotin contamination in ports and establish concentration limits of these compounds for the disposal of dredged material at sea.

Combinatorial materials research applied to the development of new surface coatings XV: an investigation of polysiloxane anti-fouling/fouling-release coatings containing tethered quaternary ammonium salt groups

As part of ongoing efforts aimed at the development of extensive structure−property relationships for moisture-curable polysiloxane coatings containing tethered quaternary ammonium salt (QAS) moieties for potential application as environmental friendly coatings to combat marine biofouling, a combinatorial/high-throughput (C/HT) study was conducted that was focused on four different compositional variables. The coatings that were investigated were derived from solution blends of a silanol-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (HO-PDMS-OH), QAS-functional alkoxysilane, and methyltriacetoxysilane. The compositional variables investigated were alkoxysilane functionality of the QAS-functional silane, chain length of the monovalent alkyl group attached to the QAS nitrogen atom, concentration of the QAS-functional alkoxysilane, and molecular weight of the HO-PDMS-OH. Of these variables, the composition of the alkoxysilane functionality of the QAS-functional silane was a unique variable that had not been previously investigated. The antifouling (AF) and fouling-release (FR) characteristics of the 24 unique coating compositions were characterized using HT assays based on three different marine microorganisms, namely, the two bacteria, Cellulophaga lytica and Halomonas pacifica, and the diatom, Navicula incerta. Coatings surfaces were characterized by surface energy, water contact angle hysteresis, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). A wide variety of responses were obtained over the compositional space investigated. ANOVA analysis showed that the compositional variables and their interactions significantly influenced AF/FR behaviors toward individual marine microorganisms. It was also found that utilization of the ethoxysilane-functional QASs provided enhanced AF character compared to coatings based on methoxysilane-functional analogues. This was attributed to enhanced surface segregation of QAS groups at the coating-air interface and confirmed by phase images using AFM.

Antifouling strategies: history and regulation, ecological impacts and mitigation

Biofouling increases drag on marine vessels resulting in higher fuel consumption and can also facilitate the transport of harmful non-indigenous species (NIS). Antifouling technologies incorporating biocides (e.g., copper and tributyltin) have been developed to prevent settlement of organisms on vessels, but their widespread use has introduced high levels of contamination into the environment and raised concerns about their toxic effects on marine communities. The recent global ban on tributyltin (1 January 2008) and increasing regulation of copper have prompted research and development of non-toxic paints. This review synthesises existing information regarding the ecological impact of biocides in a wide range of organisms and highlights directions for the management of antifouling paints. We focus particularly on representatives of the recent past (copper and tributyltin) and present (copper and 'booster') biocides. We identify knowledge gaps in antifouling research and provide recommendations relating to the regulation and phasing-out of copper.

In vitro screening of organotin compounds and sediment extracts for cytotoxicity to fish cells

The present study reports an in vitro screening method for contaminants in sediment samples utilizing an RTG-2 cell line. This technique integrates cytotoxicity testing with analytical chemistry with the aim of achieving a toxicity evaluation of the sediment sample. The toxic effect of individual organotin (OT) compounds and their presence in the sediment sample is the focus of the present study; however, other contaminants are also discussed. The following OT compounds: tributyltin (TBT), dibutyltin (DBT), monobutyltin (MBT), triphenyltin (TPT), diphenyltin (DPT), and a sediment solvent extract are exposed to the RTG-2 fish cell line. Both the alamar blue (AB) and neutral red (NR) assays are used to assess cytotoxicity after 24-h and 96-h exposure. Methodology for preparation of a sediment solvent extract suitable for biological testing and analytical determination is also described. With the RTG-2 cells, the AB and NR assays had comparable sensitivity for each individual OT compound exposure after 24 h, with TPT being the most toxic compound tested. The individual OT compound concentrations required to induce a 50% toxic effect on the cells (369 ng ml⁻¹ TBT, 1,905 ng ml⁻¹ DBT) did not equate to the concentrations of these contaminants present in the sediment extract that induced a 50% effect on the cells (294 ng ml⁻¹ TBT, 109 ng ml⁻¹ DBT). The solvent extract therefore exhibited a greater toxicity, and this suggests that the toxic effects observed were not due to OT compounds alone. The presence of other contaminants in the solvent extract is confirmed with chemical analysis, warranting further toxicity testing of contaminant mixtures and exposure to the cell line to further elucidate a complete toxicity evaluation.

Comparison of toxicity and release rates of Cu and Zn from anti-fouling paints leached in natural and artificial brackish seawater

Biocide-containing anti-fouling paints are regulated and approved according to the added active ingredients, such as Cu. Biocide-free paints are considered to be less environmentally damaging and do not need an approval. Zn, a common ingredient in paints with the potential of causing adverse effects has received only minor attention. Laboratory experiments were conducted in artificial brackish seawater (ASW) and natural brackish seawater (NSW) to quantify release rates of Cu and Zn from biocide-containing and biocide-free labeled eroding anti-fouling paints used on commercial vessels as well as leisure boats. In addition, organisms from three trophic levels, the crustacean Nitocra spinipes, the macroalga Ceramium tenuicorne and the bacteria Vibrio fischeri, were exposed to Cu and Zn to determine the toxicity of these metals. The release rate of Cu in NSW was higher from the paints for professional use (3.2-3.6 microg cm(-)(2)d(-1)) than from the biocide leaching leisure boat paint (1.1 microg cm(-)(2)d(-1)). Biocide-free paints did leach considerably more Zn (4.4-8.2 microg cm(-)(2)d(-1)) than biocide-containing leisure boat paint (3.0 microg cm(-)(2)d(-1)) and ship paints (0.7-2.0 microg cm(-)(2)d(-1)). In ASW the release rates of both metals were notably higher than in NSW for most tested paints. The macroalga was the most sensitive species to both Cu (EC(50)=6.4 microg l(-1)) and Zn (EC(50)=25 microg l(-1)) compared to the crustacean (Cu, LC(50)=2000 microg l(-1) Zn, LC(50)=890 microg l(-1)), and the bacteria (Cu, EC(50)=800 microg l(-1) and Zn, EC(50)=2000 microg l(-1)). The results suggest that the amounts of Zn and Cu leached from anti-fouling paints may attain toxic concentrations in areas with high boat density. To fully account for potential ecological risk associated with anti-fouling paints, Zn as well as active ingredients should be considered in the regulatory process.

Concentrations of organotin compounds in various fish species in the Finnish lake waters and Finnish coast of the Baltic Sea

Organotin compounds (OTCs) leaching from the antifouling paints used in boats and ships have contaminated many water areas worldwide. The purpose of this study was to obtain a general view of the organotin contamination in fish in Finnish lake areas and Finnish coast of the Baltic Sea using perch as the main indicator species. Perch sampling covered areas presumed as less contaminated and areas suspected as more contaminated. Besides perch, 12 other species were sampled from sites presumed as less contaminated. OTCs measured were mono-, di- and tributyltin, mono-, di-, and triphenyltin and dioctyltin. The sum concentration of OTCs (SigmaOTCs) in perch in the least contaminated areas of the Baltic Sea were around 20 ng/g fresh weight (fw) and less than 10 ng/g fw in lake areas. In heavily contaminated areas of the Baltic Sea 150-500 ng/g fw in perch were detected. In lake areas the maximum SigmaOTCs in perch was only 30 ng/g fw. With regard to the other species in the Baltic Sea, salmon, sprat, flounder, whitefish, vendace and lamprey contained low concentrations (SigmaOTCs mainly less than 20 ng/g fw), whereas in pike, pike-perch, burbot and bream concentrations were higher. SigmaOTCs in lake fish were generally lower than in the Baltic Sea. In a distance gradient study, SigmaOTCs in perch decreased quickly from nearly 200 ng/g fw at a contaminated harbor area to 35 ng/g fw during a distance of 5 km. Further decrease was slower and reached 15 ng/g fw at 100 km. In a size dependence study triphenyltin showed better correlation with the fish length than tributyltin for all species studied, i.e. for perch (0.16 vs 0.26), pike-perch (0.13 vs 0.24) and roach (0.46 vs 0.80). High correlation for roach may be partly explained by smaller number of samples collected and small length range.

A complex investigation of the extent of pollution in sediments of the Sava River: part 2: persistent organic pollutants

Sediment pollution of the biggest Danube tributary, the Sava River, was investigated within the sixth framework European Union project "Sava River Basin: Sustainable Use, Management and Protection of Resources" (SARIB). The extent of pollution was estimated by determining the amount of inorganic and persistent organic pollutants in sediment samples at 20 selected sampling sites along the Sava River. For the purpose of clarity, the findings are presented and published separately (part I: selected elements and part II: persistent organic pollutants). This study presents an investigation into the presence of organic pollutants in the Sava River sediment. According to the Water Framework Directive, the following persistent organic pollutants were investigated: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), selected chlorinated pesticides and organotin compounds. The results reveal that PAHs were present in moderate concentrations (sum of 16 PAHs: up to 4,000 ng g(-1)) and their concentrations increased downstream. Concentrations of PCB were low (sum of seven indicator PCBs: below 4 ng g(-1)) and among the pesticides analyzed only p,p-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane was found in moderate concentrations at two sampling sites in Croatia (up to 3 ng g(-1)) and hexachlorobenzene was found in a high concentration in the city of Belgrade (91 ng g(-1)), although the use of these persistent pesticides has been banned for decades. Repeated sampling at the same location revealed point pollution near Belgrade. Among the organic pollutants surveyed, organotin compounds were not detected. Overall results reveal the presence of persistent organic pollutants in 20 of the Sava River sediments tested that is, in general, comparable or lower than the levels in the Danube River and other moderately polluted European rivers.

Temporal trend of butyltins in seawater, sediments, and mussels from Busan Harbor of Korea between 2002 and 2007: tracking the effectiveness of tributylin regulation

Butyltins were determined in seawater, sediments, and mussels (Mytilus edulis) collected from Busan Harbor, the largest commercial harbor in Korea, to assess the contamination status and the effectiveness of tributylin (TBT) restriction. TBT concentrations were found to be 7.6 +/- 8.3 ng Sn/L in seawater, 387 +/- 606 ng Sn/g dry weight (wt) in sediments, and 322 +/- 167 ng Sn/g dry wt in mussels, and are comparable to those in the largest harbors worldwide. TBT levels were highest at locations near shipyards and related facilities. Busan Harbor was characterized by the long-term history of butyltin contamination, based on the lowered TBT/DBT ratios in environmental matrices. The temporal trend of TBT levels decreased significantly in seawater and mussels from 2002 to 2007, probably as a consequence of the legislative action in Korea (MOE Regulation 154/2000). However, TBT in sediments did not show any trend, suggesting a long half-life for TBT, about 17 years, in sediments.

Butyltin compounds and their relation with organic matter in marine sediments from San Vicente Bay-Chile

Tributyltin and its degradation products, mono-and dibutyltin have been determined in sediments collected in some representative sites in San Vicente Bay, Chile. The organic matter contents of sediments and water collected simultaneously from the same sampling sites were also determined. High levels of total organic carbon were found in sediments, especially in those from the northern part of the bay (1.80-8.87%). Good correlations were found between total organic carbon and the oxidizable and refractory carbon fractions. Among the butyltin species determined, TBT presented the highest levels, ranging from 14 to 1,560 ng Sn g(-1) dry weight. Concentration ratios of TBT to DBT ranged between 1.33 and 3.10, showing a high degree of contamination in sediments of this Chilean bay. All data obtained were analysed by the chemometric method of principal components analysis. A strong correlation was found between TBT and DBT concentrations in sediments, the different organic matter contents in sediments and water. In marine organisms only TBT was detected, containing the filterer organism Semele solida higher level than Perumytilus purpuratus and Pyura chilensis (220, 150 and 120 ng Sn g(-1) dry weight, respectively). For the alga Rodoficea iridae the TBT concentration was 60 ng Sn g(-1) dw. Comparatively, these values are higher than those reported for the same kind of marine organisms worldwide. The different samples from San Vicente Bay were found to be contaminated by TBT. This contamination can be attributed to the different anthropogenic activities taking place in the bay.

Bioassay-directed fractionation of marine sediment solvent extracts from the east coast of Ireland

Crude solvent extracts were prepared from three sediment sites in Ireland namely Bull Lagoon, Dunmore East and Dublin Port. These were assayed with Tisbe battagliai and the Microtox system. The extracts were chemically characterised using a variety of analytical techniques for a suite of organic contaminants. Metals and organic contaminant concentration data are reported for the three sites. On the basis of determined toxicity and chemical analysis of these crude extracts, a further bioassay-directed fractionation (BDF) employing the Dunmore East crude organic extract was conducted in addition to chemical analysis. For the crude extracts, T. battagliai and Microtox system demonstrated an order of decreasing toxicity for each of the three sites to be Dublin Port>Dunmore East>Bull Lagoon. Microtox system EC10 values after 30min exposure were 1.08%, 11.6% and 26.9% solvent extract for these sites, respectively. Fractionation of the Dunmore East extract revealed that fraction 1 was the most toxic fraction to both the T. battagliai and the Microtox system demonstrating EC50's after 48 h and 30 min of 44.7% and 16.8% solvent extract for the T. battagliai and Microtox assays, respectively. T. battagliai however did show increased sensitivity to fraction 3 when comparing EC10 values and demonstrated an EC10 value of 17.8% solvent extract after 48h. Fraction 1 was shown to contain the highest quantity of the butyltins, in particular TBT in relation to fractions 2 and 3. A useful BDF technique was developed and employed in this study.

Cellular energy allocation in Hediste diversicolor exposed to sediment contaminants

Environmental contaminants released into water tend to accumulate in sediment, leading to exposure for sediment-dwelling organisms. This study aimed to clarify whether chronic (56 d) exposure to a mixture of environmentally relevant concentrations of contaminants (tributyltin [TBT] and perfluorononanoic acid [PFNA]) spiked in clean sediment would affect the sediment-dwelling polychaete Hediste diversicolor. Endpoints were burial time, biomass change, and cellular energy allocation (CEA). Sediments were spiked with these two contaminants to produce different levels of contamination. Chemical analyses of the sediment following the exposure indicated that the spiking procedure was only partially successful and treatments were grouped into four categories according to contaminant concentrations: "background," "low," "moderate," and "high." No significant differences were found between treatments with respect to burial time, biomass change, or energy storage fractions (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) in the polychaetes. A significant increase in cellular respiration was found for polychaetes in "moderate" and "high" treatment groups compared to the "background" treatment group. This resulted in significantly lower cellular energy allocation values for "moderate" and "high" treatment groups compared to "background." Although the effects were not marked, the results show that sediment-dwelling organisms may be affected following chronic exposure to environmental contaminants. There is a need to clarify whether chronic exposures exert a negative effect on sediment-dwelling organisms.

The content of butyl- and phenyltin derivatives in the sediment from the Port of Gdansk

Harbor sediments containing large deposits of organotin compounds constitute a potential threat to the marine environment. Samples of harbor sediments were collected twice in the years 2003 and 2005 from the following locations: Ziółkowskiego, Siarkowe, Wiślane, Weglowe, Chemików and Paliw Płynnych Quays. The cores of 25cm length sliced into 2- and 5-cm segments were analyzed. After drying and homogenization, samples were split into two granulometric fractions, i.e. <2.00 and <0.063mm. The dominant fraction in whole sediment, i.e. fraction grain diameter <2.00mm, was sand (grain diameter 2.00-0.063mm). However, the highest concentrations of butyltin (BT) and phenyltin (PT) compounds were found in the fine sediment fraction. The mean values of tributyltin (TBT), dibutyltin (DBT) and monobutyltin (MBT) in the analyzed samples in the <2.00mm fraction were 2144.9, 434.7 and 148.1ngSng(-1)d.w., respectively, while the corresponding mean values in the <0.063mm fraction were 6556.4, 1593.7 and 450.0ngSng(-1)d.w. The mean concentrations of monophenyltin (MPhT) have been estimated at 29.0 and 49.9ngSng(-1)d.w. for the <2.00 and <0.063mm fraction sizes, respectively. The estimated content levels of diphenyltin (DPhT) and triphenyltin (TPhT) were in most cases below the detection limit of the applied method. The sediment cores collected from the locations characterized by high industrialization and intense exploitation (Wiślane, Weglowe Quays) contained the highest concentrations of BT and PT.

Environmental levels, toxicity and human exposure to tributyltin (TBT)-contaminated marine environment. a review. b_antizar@hotmail.com

Tributyltin (TBT) is a toxic chemical used for various industrial purposes such as slime control in paper mills, disinfection of circulating industrial cooling waters, antifouling agents, and the preservation of wood. Due to its widespread use as an antifouling agent in boat paints, TBT is a common contaminant of marine and freshwater ecosystems exceeding acute and chronic toxicity levels. TBT is the most significant pesticide in marine and freshwaters in Europe and consequently its environmental level, fate, toxicity and human exposure are of current concern. Thus, the European Union has decided to specifically include TBT compounds in its list of priority compounds in water in order to control its fate in natural systems, due to their toxic, persistent, bioaccumulative and endocrine disruptive characteristics. Additionally, the International Maritime Organization has called for a global treaty that bans the application of TBT-based paints starting 1 of January 2003, and total prohibition by 1 of January 2008. This paper reviews the state of the science regarding TBT, with special attention paid to the environmental levels, toxicity, and human exposure. TBT compounds have been detected in a number of environmental samples. In humans, organotin compounds have been detected in blood and in the liver. As for other persistent organic pollutants, dietary intake is most probably the main route of exposure to TBT compounds for the general population. However, data concerning TBT levels in foodstuffs are scarce. It is concluded that investigations on experimental toxicity, dietary intake, potential human health effects and development of new sustainable technologies to remove TBT compounds are clearly necessary.

Organotin compounds and selected metals in the marine environment of Northern Adriatic sea

The extent of pollution with organotin compounds and Cd, Pb, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cr, Mn, V, Co and Al was investigated in sediments and mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from the Slovenian costal area of the Northern Adriatic Sea. Sampling was performed in Marina Portoroz, Dockyard Izola, non exposed area of the Bay of Mesecev zaliv and in Mariculture Secovlje. Mussels were taken in the summer and winter time, while sediments were collected during the winter sampling. Organotin compounds were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and metals by flame or electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. The accuracies of the analytical procedures were checked by the analysis of standard reference materials CRM 477 mussel tissue and PACS 2 marine sediment (organotin compounds) and SRM 2976 mussel tissue and CRM 320 river sediment (metals). Good agreements between certified and determined values were obtained. Normalization procedure to Al was applied to estimate the anthropogenic inputs of metals in sediments. The analyses of sediments demonstrated moderate pollution with organotin compounds in Marina Portoroz and in Dockyard Izola. Concentrations of tributyltin species were higher than those of dibutyltin and monobutyltin. In mussels substantial contamination with tributyltin was observed in Marina Porotroz and Dockyard Izola. The extent of pollution was higher in the winter time. The analysis of metals in sediments exhibited elevated concentrations in Marina Portoroz and Dockyard Izola. Data from the normalization procedure indicated the anthropogenic inputs of Cu, Zn and Cr in Marina Portoroz and Mn in Bay of Mesecev zaliv and Dockyard Izola. Mussels, as accumulators of pollutants, in general contained higher metal concentrations during winter time in Dockyard Izola.

Garlic oil prevents tributyltin-induced oxidative damage in vivo and in vitro

Tributyltin (TBT) can be transported to the human body by contaminated seafood. Presently, there is no known effective strategy to eliminate TBT's toxic effects from contaminated food. The present study was conducted to investigate the ability of garlic oil (GO) to prevent TBT-induced oxidative damage in vivo as well as in vitro. The results follow: both reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and malondialdehyde content decreased in mice pretreated with GO, the number of cells with damaged DNA in unprotected mice increased significantly compared with that in GO-protected mice (comet assay), and the alleviation of the depletion of cortical thymocytes and damage to nucleoli and mitochondria in GO-protected mice was observed. In human FL (human amniotic cells; American Type Culture Collection) cell studies, TBT-induced intracellular ROS generation was significantly inhibited after FL cells were pretreated with GO, and the TBT-induced cytotoxic effects were also prevented by GO. The results led to the first observation that GO was effective in reducing TBT-induced oxidative damage both in vivo and in vitro. The possible protective mechanism may stem from the considerable ability of GO to scavenge ROS. We conclude that GO could be an effective agent or food supplement in reducing the toxicity of TBT.

Distribution of butyltin and derivatives in oyster shells and trapped sediments of two estuaries in Cantabria (Northern Spain)

Distribution of butyltin compounds (BTs) and derivatives (monobutyltin, MBT; dibutyltin, DBT and tributyltin, TBT) was analysed in Crassostrea gigas oyster shells and the sediments trapped in the shell chambers, from two different estuaries in Cantabria (Northern Spain), with very different environmental conditions, where previous data have not been reported. Inorganic tin analysis in oyster shells was performed in order to study the degradation of BTs. Shell thickening and losses in biological growth are related with the presence of TBT, and were determined using three morphological indexes. Total BTs concentrations, expressed as Sn, ranged from 18.0 ng g(-1) to 176.7 ng g(-1) in sediments, and from 2.4 ng g(-1) to 11.1 ng g(-1) in oyster shells. Total inorganic tin concentrations ranged from 1775.0 ng g(-1) to 4781.3 ng g(-1) in oyster shells. The amount of BTs in oyster shells has been associated with the concentrations in the sediments trapped in the shell chambers. Partition coefficients between oyster sediments and oyster shells show the affinity of BTs by the sediments and the higher inorganic tin in oyster shells does not seem to be related to the BTs pollution.

Sources and fate of butyltins in the St. Lawrence Estuary ecosystem

Butyltins (BTs) were determined in sediment, zooplankton, benthic fish and invertebrates in the St. Lawrence Estuary and its mixing zone with the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Canada) in an attempt to assess sources and fate of these compounds in a large ecosystem before the enforcement of the world-wide ban of TBT-based antifouling paints. All BTs (MBT, DBT and TBT) were found along the studied area (450 km) where the traffic of large vessels occurs around the year. Concentrations of total butyltins (BTs) in surface sediment were below 6 ng Sn g(-1) d.w. Total BTs concentrations found in zooplankton samples at the mouth of the Saguenay Fjord were the highest (793 ng Sn g(-1) d.w.), indicating the influence of the Fjord on the St. Lawrence contamination. Although a relatively low contamination level was measured in sediment, total BTs concentrations ranged from 9 to 489 ng Sn g(-1) d.w. for benthic organisms. Biota-sediment accumulation factors (BSAFs), calculated on the basis of the organic carbon content in the sediment (concentrations normalized to 1% Corg), ranged from 0.9 to 98.3, and are an indicator of an important source of BTs from the Saguenay Fjord particulate matter. This may be explained by the fact that when TBT is released in a large and deep well stratified coastal environment, it could bind to the suspended particulate matter and then be taken in charge by water column organisms and may be mostly metabolised before it reaches bottom sediment. Sediment is not considered as the main contributor to the contamination of fish and invertebrates. It is expected that any reduction of direct inputs of TBT from ship hulls in a near future should result in a rapid reduction of butyltins in the St. Lawrence ecosystem.

Subacute administration of tributyltin chloride modulates neurotransmitters and their metabolites in discrete brain regions of maternal mice and their F1 offspring

Tributyltin (TBT) compounds have been used as anti-fouling agents and the central nervous system is one of its target organs. TBT-induced modulations of neurotransmitters in the brains of adult mice have been reported. However, little is known about the developmental neurotoxicity of TBT. In this study, we evaluated the effects of TBT on neurotransmitters and their metabolites in discrete brain regions of female ICR mice and their offspring. Pregnant ICR mice were exposed to TBT chloride at concentrations of 0, 15 or 50 ppm in water or 125 ppm in food. Male offspring were sacrificed at one, two and three weeks after birth. The concentrations of norepinephrine, dopamine (DA), dihydoxyphenylacetic acid, homovanillic acid (HVA), serotonin (5-HT), and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) were determined in different brain regions by HPLC. All offspring from the 125 ppm group died immediately after birth. A significant decrease in the body weight of the TBT-treated F1 groups compared to the control group was observed in the first week. Significant increases compared to the controls were observed for the DA concentration in the striatum of the 50 ppm F1 group, and for the HVA concentration in the cerebrum and the 5-HT concentration in the medulla oblongata of the 15 and 50 ppm F1 groups in the third week. At three weeks of age, the neurotransmitters and their metabolites may be useful indexes for developmental neurotoxicity. For the dams, a significant decrease in the 5-HT concentration was observed in the cerebellum, medulla, midbrain and striatum of the 125 ppm group compared to the control group. A significant decrease in the 5-HIAA concentration was also observed in the cerebellum, midbrain and striatum of the dams in the 125 ppm group compared to the control. TBT may induce a decrease in the synthesis of 5-HT in the dams. The discrepancy between dams and offspring may be due to several factors such as age, dose, route, sex and pregnancy.

Health status of Mya arenaria bivalves collected from contaminated sites in Canada (Saguenay Fjord) and Denmark (Odense Fjord) during their reproductive period

The purpose of this study was to examine the health status and gametogenetic activity in Mya arenaria clams collected at various sites in the St. Lawrence Estuary (Quebec, Canada) and in the Odense Fjord (Denmark). Clam soft tissues were analyzed for metals/metalloids and organotin compounds to confirm their exposure to these contaminants. Their health status was assessed by a test battery of biomarkers designed to measure the early biological effects of contaminants, which include expression of defence mechanisms such as xenobiotic conjugation (glutathione S-transferase), expression of stress proteins (i.e., heme oxygenase and metallothioneins), changes in gametogenetic activity, and individual morphometric characteristics. Clam tissues were also examined for the presence of oxidative damage to lipids, formation of DNA strand breaks, and alterations in heme metabolism. The results showed that clams sampled from sites with either ferry activity or intensive boat traffic in marinas were contaminated by metals/metalloids such as Ag, Al, As, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sn, V, and Zn. The clams also contained relatively high amounts of tributyltin (TBT) in their tissues (in the ng TBT/g range for both areas), with digestive glands containing more organotins than did gonadal tissues. Moreover, clams collected from TBT-contaminated sites had higher amounts of tin-heme adducts and lower total heme in their digestive glands. Condition factor, age distribution, and sex ratio were significantly altered in clams from impacted sites in the Saguenay Fjord and accompanied by an increased male/female sex ratio. Gametogenetic activity was also negatively affected, as revealed by reductions in gonadosomatic index, maturation index, aspartate transcarbamylase activity, and vitellogenin-like proteins. The Saguenay Fjord clams displayed a complex pattern of stress responses and damage such as increased heme oxygenase activity, phase 2 conjugation enzyme activity, lipid peroxidation, and altered DNA strand breaks. The integration of biomarker response data into a biomarker index at the whole-individual level (morphometric characteristics) and for various organs (gill, digestive gland, and gonad) revealed that, relative to the control site, morphological characteristics and gonadal activity were most affected at the most contaminated site, while the effects were more pronounced in the digestive gland and gill at moderately impacted sites. We conclude that the health status of M. arenaria clams at these contaminated sites is compromised, with obvious disruption of reproductive activity.

Organotin accumulation in an estuarine food chain: comparing field measurements with model estimations

The bioaccumulation model OMEGA (optimal modelling for ecotoxicological applications) is used to explore accumulation of organotins in the Western Scheldt food chain, consisting of herbi-detritivores, primary and secondary carnivorous fish and a piscivorous bird. Organotins studied are tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT) and the respective di- and mono-organotin metabolites. Empirical elimination rate constants are compared to model predictions for organic substances and metals. It is found that field bioaccumulation ratios are higher than predicted based on elimination kinetics relevant for organic compounds. The results indicate that uptake of organotins mainly occurs via hydrophobic mechanisms, whereas elimination may occur via metal-like kinetics. This results in very low elimination rates, which are comparable to model predictions for metals.

Butyltin species in benthic and pelagic organisms of the Saguenay Fjord (Canada) and Imposex occurrence in common whelk (Buccinum undatum)

The distribution and accumulation of butyltins in various tissues of 13 benthic and pelagic species living in the sub-Arctic Saguenay Fjord (Canada) were investigated. Butyltin contamination was ubiquitous in this ecosystem with tributyltin (TBT) biota to sediment accumulation factors (BSAF) ranging between 0.22 and 11, but without any important biomagnification between trophic levels. The large range of butyltin compounds accumulating within different tissues of the species collected from all trophic levels was from 7 to 1238 ng Sn g(-1) d.w. and indicates an exceptional contamination level only found in northern coastal areas exposed to an intensive traffic of commercial ships. Results show that bioaccumulation in organisms depends on three main factors: (1) the actual contamination level in their habitat, (2) their assimilation pathway by water, sediment or diet, and (3) their ability to metabolize TBT and excrete metabolites. By their lack of an efficient TBT degradation system, bivalves are subject to accumulate more butyltins (from 890 to 993 ng Sn g(-1) d.w. for TBT and from n.d to 138 ng Sn g(-1) d.w. for metabolites) whereas most burrow-dwelling organisms are able to degrade TBT and their butyltin levels ranged from 86 to 239 ng Sn g(-1) d.w. for TBT and from 7 to 106 ng Sn g(-1) d.w. for metabolites. Acadian redfish (Sebastes fasciatus) feeding preferentially on shrimps and small crustaceans rich in TBT showed a contamination level about three times higher than eelpout (Licodes vahlii). The latter species living in contact with the sediment and feeding on worms and other burrowing species had a lower proportion of TBT in their tissues. Finally, deleterious effects of butyltins in the Saguenay Fjord were assessed by the significant occurrence of Imposex in common whelk (Bucinum undatum) in two sites from Baie des Ha! Ha!. Results revealed that the effects of Imposex were accentuated close to the source of contamination, at Port-Alfred harbour, since the total of imposexed whelks collected at site A (the mouth of Baie des Ha! Ha!) was 12.5% and reached 52.6% at site B (Port Alfred). Although the incidence or frequency of imposex was low in site A compared to site B, the relative penile length index (RPL) values, a measure of the degree or severity of imposex, was similar at both sites indicating the presence of TBT with higher concentrations in site B.

The BEEP project in the Baltic Sea: overview of results and outline for a regional biological effects monitoring strategy

Field studies in the framework of the EU funded BEEP project (Biological Effects of Environmental Pollution in Marine Coastal Ecosystems, 2001-2004) aimed at validating and intercalibrating a battery of biomarkers of contaminant exposure and effects in selected indicator species in the Mediterranean, the North Atlantic and the Baltic Seas. Major strategic goals of the BEEP project were the development of a sensitive and cost-efficient biological effects monitoring approach, delivery of information and advice to end-user groups, and the implementation of a network of biomarker researchers around Europe. Based on the main results obtained in the Baltic Sea component of the BEEP the present paper summarises and assesses the applicability of biomarkers for different regions and species in this sea area. Moreover, a general strategy and some practical considerations for the monitoring of biological effects in the Baltic Sea are outlined.

Monitoring biological effects of pollution in the Baltic Sea: neglected--but still wanted?

In the Baltic Sea, studies regarding biological effects of contaminants are relatively few, partly due to political and economical reasons, specific hydrographic characteristics, and a strong eutrophication-targeted research focus during the past three decades. The development of a monitoring strategy concerning biological effects and its implementation into environmental monitoring programmes in the Baltic Sea is lagging behind the progress currently taking place in most of western and southern Europe. The pan-European project BEEP (Biological Effects of Environmental Pollution on Marine Coastal Ecosystems, 2001-2004) included the Baltic Sea as one of the target areas for the evaluation of a suite of biological effects indicators in European coastal waters. The main aims of the BEEP project are described and how the expected outcome for the Baltic Sea could provide the needed "baseline" information and expertise for a biological effect monitoring and contribute to harmonise environmental monitoring programmes within the EU.

Accumulation and trophic transfer of organotins in a marine food web from the Danish coastal waters

The presence of organotin compounds, e.g., tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPhT) including the di- and monosubstituted breakdown products, was studied in a representative marine food web in order to assess the accumulation potential at different trophic levels in Danish coastal waters. This included samples of two species of seaweed, four species of invertebrates, four species of fish, five species of birds and two species of mammals. All organisms were sampled away from harbour areas and the organotin concentrations found in this study can therefore be considered to reflect a general level in organisms living in Danish coastal waters. All the samples analysed contained organotin compounds. The highest hepatic concentrations of butyltins were found in flounder (60-259 ng g-1 wet weight [ww], as Sn), eider duck (12-202 ng g-1 ww) and harbour porpoise (134-2283 ng g-1 ww). The lowest concentrations were found in seaweed and a plant-feeding bird. TPhT or its degradation products were also found in most of the samples with the highest concentrations in flounder (9.8-74 ng g-1 ww), cod (23-28 ng g-1 ww) and great black-backed gull (19-24 ng g-1 ww). This indicates an input of TPhT in the region, probably from the use as antifouling agent. A high variance in accumulation potential was found between the species, even between species at the same trophic level, which probably reflects the species-specific differences in exposure routes and the capabilities to metabolise and eliminate the organotin compounds. This study gives evidence of the importance of biomagnification of butyltin in harbour porpoises and, to a lesser extent, in fish and birds.

Accumulation of organotin compounds and mercury in harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) from the Danish waters and West Greenland

The concentrations of butyltin (summation operatorBT=TBT+DBT+MBT) and mercury (Hg) were determined in the liver of 35 harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), which were found dead along the coastlines or caught as by-catch in the Danish North Sea and the Inner Danish waters. In addition, three harbour porpoises hunted in West Greenland were analysed. High levels of butyltin and mercury, within the range of 68-4605 mg BT/kg ww and 0.22-92 mg Hg/kg ww, were found in the liver of the Danish harbour porpoises and both substances tend to accumulate with age. The levels in the harbour porpoise from West Greenland were 2.0-18 mg BT/kg ww and 6.3-6.9 mg Hg/kg ww, respectively. The concentrations of butyltin and mercury were both found to be higher in stranded than in by-caught harbour porpoises but only the butyltin concentration was significantly higher in stranded porpoises in the age group 1-5 years. These substances are suspected of inducing adverse effects on immune and endocrine systems in mammals and they may thereby pose a threat to the animals. This study suggests that organotin compounds are also important, when assessing the risks of contaminants on the health and viability of harbour porpoises in Danish waters.

Effects of tributyltin (TBT) on the seagrass Ruppia maritima

The effects of tributyltin (TBT) on the seagrass Ruppia maritima were studied in two growth experiments. Plants were sampled at stations in Odense Fjord and Lunkebugten, Denmark, and replanted in reference sediment without TBT, reference sediment spiked with TBT, and in impacted sediment sampled in the highly TBT contaminated (7-57 microg kg (-1) dw) Odense Fjord. Plant performance was studied at weekly intervals for 3-4 weeks, by measuring net photosynthetic activity, respiration, relative growth rate (RGR) and number of leaves. Net photosynthetic activity in plants from spiked and impacted sediment was reduced by up to 60% relative to reference plants. Respiration both increased and decreased in response to TBT exposure, while RGR was generally lower in plants from contaminated sediments (reduced by 8-25%). The effects of spiked and impacted sediment differed between the experiments, which could be partly explained by the bioavailability of TBT in the two treatments, but also by adaptation of the plants from Odense Fjord to TBT. Measurements of enhanced TBT concentrations in the sediments in Odense Fjord suggest an impact of TBT on R. maritima is possible under in situ conditions.

Organotin compounds in the liver tissue of marine mammals from the Polish coast of the Baltic Sea

Butyltins (BTs) and phenyltins (PhTs) were determined in the livers of marine mammals found by-caught or stranded along the Polish coast of the Baltic Sea. During the investigation an original analytical method was developed. Butyltin compounds were detected in all the liver samples, whereas phenyltins were not detected in any of the samples. The total concentrations of BTs ranged from 43.9 to 7698 ng(Sn) x g(-1) dry weight. Age-related trends to accumulate BTs in immature porpoises were found. At the same time there were no male-female differences in BTs concentrations observed. No statistically significant spatial distribution differences were found between the locations corresponding to the open Baltic Sea waters and inside the Gulf of Gdańsk, which is characterized by high maritime activity. In comparison to butyltin levels in marine mammals from other geographic regions, the samples analyzed indicate a significant degree of tributyltin pollution along the Polish coast of the Baltic Sea. On the basis of a literature review, higher BT levels are usually found in waters close to highly industrialized areas, such as Japan, Hong Kong, and the United States.

Evidence for endocrine disruption in invertebrates

The issue of endocrine disruption (ED) in invertebrates has generated remarkably little interest in the past compared to research with aquatic vertebrates in this area. However, with more than 95% of all known species in the animal kingdom, invertebrates constitute a very important part of the global biodiversity with key species for the structure and function of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Despite the fact that ED in invertebrates has been investigated on a smaller scale than in vertebrates, invertebrates provide some of the best documented examples for deleterious effects in wildlife populations following an exposure to endocrine-active substances. The article provides an overview of the diversity in endocrine systems of invertebrates. The principal susceptibility of invertebrates to endocrine-active compounds is demonstrated with the case studies of tributyltin effects in mollusks and of insect growth regulators, the latter as purposely synthesized endocrine disrupters. The additional evidence for ED in invertebrates from laboratory and field studies is summarized as an update and amendment of the EDIETA report from 1998. Finally, conclusions about the scale and implications of the observed effects are drawn and research needs are defined.