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Mittal E, Prasad GVRK, Upadhyay S, Sadadiwala J, Olive AJ, Yang G, Sassetti CM, Philips JA. Mycobacterium tuberculosis virulence lipid PDIM inhibits autophagy in mice. Nat Microbiol 2024:10.1038/s41564-024-01797-5. [PMID: 39242815 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-024-01797-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 09/09/2024]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infects several lung macrophage populations, which have distinct abilities to restrict Mtb. What enables Mtb survival in certain macrophage populations is not well understood. Here we used transposon sequencing analysis of Mtb in wild-type and autophagy-deficient mouse macrophages lacking ATG5 or ATG7, and found that Mtb genes involved in phthiocerol dimycocerosate (PDIM) virulence lipid synthesis confer resistance to autophagy. Using ppsD mutant Mtb, we found that PDIM inhibits LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP) by inhibiting phagosome recruitment of NADPH oxidase. In mice, PDIM protected Mtb from LAP and classical autophagy. During acute infection, PDIM was dispensable for Mtb survival in alveolar macrophages but required for survival in non-alveolar macrophages in an autophagy-dependent manner. During chronic infection, autophagy-deficient mice succumbed to infection with PDIM-deficient Mtb, with impairments in B-cell accumulation in lymphoid follicles. These findings demonstrate that PDIM contributes to Mtb virulence and immune evasion, revealing a contributory role for autophagy in B-cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekansh Mittal
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA.
| | - G V R Krishna Prasad
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Sandeep Upadhyay
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Jully Sadadiwala
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Andrew J Olive
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Guozhe Yang
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Christopher M Sassetti
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Jennifer A Philips
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA.
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA.
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2
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Ettel P, Weichhart T. Not just sugar: metabolic control of neutrophil development and effector functions. J Leukoc Biol 2024; 116:487-510. [PMID: 38450755 DOI: 10.1093/jleuko/qiae057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
The mammalian immune system is constantly surveying our tissues to clear pathogens and maintain tissue homeostasis. In order to fulfill these tasks, immune cells take up nutrients to supply energy for survival and for directly regulating effector functions via their cellular metabolism, a process now known as immunometabolism. Neutrophilic granulocytes, the most abundant leukocytes in the human body, have a short half-life and are permanently needed in the defense against pathogens. According to a long-standing view, neutrophils were thought to primarily fuel their metabolic demands via glycolysis. Yet, this view has been challenged, as other metabolic pathways recently emerged to contribute to neutrophil homeostasis and effector functions. In particular during neutrophilic development, the pentose phosphate pathway, glycogen synthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, and fatty acid oxidation crucially promote neutrophil maturation. At steady state, both glucose and lipid metabolism sustain neutrophil survival and maintain the intracellular redox balance. This review aims to comprehensively discuss how neutrophilic metabolism adapts during development, which metabolic pathways fuel their functionality, and how these processes are reconfigured in case of various diseases. We provide several examples of hereditary diseases, in which mutations in metabolic enzymes validate their critical role for neutrophil function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Ettel
- Institute for Medical Genetics, Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Weichhart
- Institute for Medical Genetics, Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 10, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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3
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Irvine EB, Nikolov A, Khan MZ, Peters JM, Lu R, Sixsmith J, Wallace A, van Woudenbergh E, Shin S, Karpinski W, Hsiao JC, Casadevall A, Bryson BD, Cavacini L, Grace PS, Alter G, Fortune SM. Fc-engineered antibodies promote neutrophil-dependent control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Nat Microbiol 2024; 9:2369-2382. [PMID: 39174703 PMCID: PMC11371646 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-024-01777-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
Mounting evidence indicates that antibodies can contribute towards control of tuberculosis (TB). However, the underlying mechanisms of humoral immune protection and whether antibodies can be exploited in therapeutic strategies to combat TB are relatively understudied. Here we engineered the receptor-binding Fc (fragment crystallizable) region of an antibody recognizing the Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) capsule, to define antibody Fc-mediated mechanism(s) of Mtb restriction. We generated 52 Fc variants that either promote or inhibit specific antibody effector functions, rationally building antibodies with enhanced capacity to promote Mtb restriction in a human whole-blood model of infection. While there is likely no singular Fc profile that universally drives control of Mtb, here we found that several Fc-engineered antibodies drove Mtb restriction in a neutrophil-dependent manner. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis showed that a restrictive Fc-engineered antibody promoted neutrophil survival and expression of cell-intrinsic antimicrobial programs. These data show the potential of Fc-engineered antibodies as therapeutics able to harness the protective functions of neutrophils to promote control of TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward B Irvine
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Angel Nikolov
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Mehak Z Khan
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Joshua M Peters
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Richard Lu
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Jaimie Sixsmith
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Aaron Wallace
- MassBiologics of the University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Sally Shin
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Jeff C Hsiao
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Bryan D Bryson
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lisa Cavacini
- MassBiologics of the University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Patricia S Grace
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Galit Alter
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Division of Infectious Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Sarah M Fortune
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
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4
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Ektnitphong V, Dias BRS, Campos PC, Shiloh MU. An alveolus lung-on-a-chip model of Mycobacterium fortuitum lung infection. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.08.30.610530. [PMID: 39257817 PMCID: PMC11383683 DOI: 10.1101/2024.08.30.610530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2024]
Abstract
Lung disease due to non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) is rising in incidence. While both two dimensional cell culture and animal models exist for NTM infections, a major knowledge gap is the early responses of human alveolar and innate immune cells to NTM within the human alveolar microenvironment. Here we describe development of a humanized, three-dimensional, alveolus lung-on-a-chip (ALoC) model of Mycobacterium fortuitum lung infection that incorporates only primary human cells such as pulmonary vascular endothelial cells in a vascular channel, and type I and II alveolar cells and monocyte-derived macrophages in an alveolar channel along an air-liquid interface. M. fortuitum introduced into the alveolar channel primarily infected macrophages, with rare bacteria inside alveolar cells. Bulk-RNA sequencing of infected chips revealed marked upregulation of transcripts for cytokines, chemokines and secreted protease inhibitors (SERPINs). Our results demonstrate how a humanized ALoC system can identify critical early immune and epithelial responses to M. fortuitum infection. We envision potential application of the ALoC to other NTM and for studies of new antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Ektnitphong
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Y9.308, Dallas, TX 75390-9113
| | - Beatriz R S Dias
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Y9.308, Dallas, TX 75390-9113
| | - Priscila C Campos
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Y9.308, Dallas, TX 75390-9113
| | - Michael U Shiloh
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Y9.308, Dallas, TX 75390-9113
- Department of Microbiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Y9.308, Dallas, TX 75390-9113
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5
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Zheng Q, Li Z, Zhou Y, Li Y, Gong M, Sun H, Deng X, Ma Y. Heparin-Binding Hemagglutinin of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Inhibits Autophagy via Toll-like Receptor 4 and Drives M2 Polarization in Macrophages. J Infect Dis 2024; 230:323-335. [PMID: 38266152 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiae030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tuberculosis (TB), predominantly caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infection, remains a prominent global health challenge. Macrophages are the frontline defense against MTB, relying on autophagy for intracellular bacterial clearance. However, MTB can combat and evade autophagy, and it influences macrophage polarization, facilitating immune evasion and promoting infection. We previously found that heparin-binding hemagglutinin (HBHA) inhibits autophagy in A549 cells; however, its role in macrophage autophagy and polarization remains unclear. METHODS Bacterial cultures, cell cultures, Western blotting, immunofluorescence, macrophage infection assays, siRNA knockdown, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were used to investigate HBHA's impact on macrophages and its relevance in Mycobacterium infection. RESULTS HBHA inhibited macrophage autophagy. Expression of recombinant HBHA in Mycobacterium smegmatis (rMS-HBHA) inhibited autophagy, promoting bacterial survival within macrophages. Conversely, HBHA knockout in the Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) mutant (BCG-ΔHBHA) activated autophagy and reduced bacterial survival. Mechanistic investigations revealed that HBHA may inhibit macrophage autophagy through the Toll-like receptor 4-dependent PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathway. Furthermore, HBHA induced macrophage M2 polarization. CONCLUSIONS Mycobacterium may exploit HBHA to suppress the antimicrobial immune response in macrophages, facilitating intracellular survival and immune evasion through autophagy inhibition and M2 polarization induction. Our findings may help identify novel therapeutic targets and develop more effective treatments against MTB infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Zheng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Second Medical Center and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital
| | - Zhi Li
- Laboratory of Toxicant Analysis, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences
| | - Yu Zhou
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Second Medical Center and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital
| | - Yuru Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Second Medical Center and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital
| | - Meiliang Gong
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Second Medical Center and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital
| | - Heqiang Sun
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Second Medical Center and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital
| | - Xinli Deng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Second Medical Center and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital
| | - Yueyun Ma
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Air Force Medical Center, Beijing, China
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6
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Ravesloot-Chávez MM, Van Dis E, Fox D, Anaya Sanchez A, Espich S, Nguyenla XH, Rawal SL, Samani H, Ballinger MA, Thomas H, Kotov D, Vance R, Nachman MW, Stanley SA. Tuberculosis susceptibility in genetically diverse mice reveals functional diversity of neutrophils. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.06.29.547125. [PMID: 39211107 PMCID: PMC11361191 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.29.547125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a heterogenous disease in humans with individuals exhibiting a wide range of susceptibility. This heterogeneity is not captured by standard laboratory mouse lines. We used a new collection of 19 wild-derived inbred mouse lines collected from diverse geographic sites to identify novel phenotypes during Mycobacterium tuberculosis ( Mtb ) infection. Wild derived mice have heterogenous immune responses to infection that result in differential ability to control disease at early timepoints. Correlation analysis with multiple parameters including sex, weight, and cellular immune responses in the lungs revealed that enhanced control of infection is associated with increased numbers of CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells and B cells. Surprisingly, we did not observe strong correlations between IFN-γ production and control of infection. Although in most lines high neutrophils were associated with susceptibility, we identified a mouse line that harbors high neutrophils numbers yet controls infection. Using single-cell RNA sequencing, we identified a novel neutrophil signature associated with failure to control infection.
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7
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Wei J, Ning H, Ramos‐Espinosa O, Eickhoff CS, Hou R, Wang Q, Fu M, Liu EY, Fan D, Hoft DF, Liu J. Tristetraprolin mediates immune evasion of mycobacterial infection in macrophages. FASEB Bioadv 2024; 6:249-262. [PMID: 39114448 PMCID: PMC11301268 DOI: 10.1096/fba.2024-00022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Immune evasion of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) facilitates intracellular bacterial growth. The mechanisms of immune evasion, however, are still not fully understood. In this study, we reveal that tristetraprolin (TTP), one of the best characterized RNA-binding proteins controlling the stability of targeted mRNAs, mediates innate immune evasion of mycobacteria. We found that TTP knockout mice displayed reduced bacterial burden in the early stage after Mtb aerosol challenge. Macrophages deficient in TTP also showed an inhibition in intracellular mycobacterial growth. Live mycobacteria induced TTP protein expression in macrophages, which was blocked by the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin. Rapamycin and AZD8055 specifically blocked 4EBP1 phosphorylation in infected macrophages and suppressed intracellular BCG growth. Rapamycin promoted TTP protein degradation through the ubiquitination pathway, whereas the proteasome inhibitor MG-132 blocked rapamycin function and thus stabilized TTP protein. TTP induction suppressed the expression of iNOS/TNF-α/IL-12/IL-23, and weakened protective immune responses in macrophages, whereas rapamycin enhanced the bactericidal effects through TTP inhibition. Moreover, blocking TTP binding increased the expression of TNF-α and iNOS and suppressed intracellular mycobacterial growth. Overall, our study reveals a novel role for RNA-binding protein TTP in Mtb immune evasion mechanisms and provides a potential target for host-directed therapy against tuberculosis (TB).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Wei
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal MedicineSaint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis UniversitySt. LouisMissouriUSA
| | - Huan Ning
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal MedicineSaint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis UniversitySt. LouisMissouriUSA
| | - Octavio Ramos‐Espinosa
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal MedicineSaint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis UniversitySt. LouisMissouriUSA
| | - Christopher S. Eickhoff
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal MedicineSaint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis UniversitySt. LouisMissouriUSA
| | - Rong Hou
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal MedicineSaint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis UniversitySt. LouisMissouriUSA
| | - Qinghong Wang
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal MedicineSaint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis UniversitySt. LouisMissouriUSA
| | - Mingui Fu
- Shock/Trauma Research Center, Department of Basic Medical Science, School of MedicineUniversity of Missouri‐Kansas CityKansas CityMissouriUSA
| | - Ethan Y. Liu
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal MedicineSaint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis UniversitySt. LouisMissouriUSA
| | - Daping Fan
- Department of Cell Biology and AnatomyUniversity of South Carolina School of MedicineColumbiaSouth CarolinaUSA
| | - Daniel F. Hoft
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal MedicineSaint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis UniversitySt. LouisMissouriUSA
| | - Jianguo Liu
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal MedicineSaint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis UniversitySt. LouisMissouriUSA
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8
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Yue C, Lu W, Fan S, Huang Z, Yang J, Dong H, Zhang X, Shang Y, Lai W, Li D, Dong T, Yuan A, Wu J, Kang L, Hu Y. Nanoparticles for inducing Gaucher disease-like damage in cancer cells. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 19:1203-1215. [PMID: 38740934 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-024-01668-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Nutrient avidity is one of the most distinctive features of tumours. However, nutrient deprivation has yielded limited clinical benefits. In Gaucher disease, an inherited metabolic disorder, cells produce cholesteryl-glucoside which accumulates in lysosomes and causes cell damage. Here we develop a nanoparticle (AbCholB) to emulate natural-lipoprotein-carried cholesterol and initiate Gaucher disease-like damage in cancer cells. AbCholB is composed of a phenylboronic-acid-modified cholesterol (CholB) and albumin. Cancer cells uptake the nanoparticles into lysosomes, where CholB reacts with glucose and generates a cholesteryl-glucoside-like structure that resists degradation and aggregates into microscale crystals, causing Gaucher disease-like damage in a glucose-dependent manner. In addition, the nutrient-sensing function of mTOR is suppressed. It is observed that normal cells escape severe damage due to their inferior ability to compete for nutrients compared with cancer cells. This work provides a bioinspired strategy to selectively impede the metabolic action of cancer cells by taking advantage of their nutrient avidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyan Yue
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Wenjing Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shuxin Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhusheng Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jiaying Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hong Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaojun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yuxin Shang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Wenjia Lai
- CAS Key Laboratory of Standardization and Measurement for Nanotechnology, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Dandan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Tiejun Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ahu Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jinhui Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lifeng Kang
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Yiqiao Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Institute of Drug R&D, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
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9
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Li D, Jiang Y, Cui Z, Ma M, Zhu F, Li G, Yang H, Li S, Zhang T, Chen D, Ma W. Lactobacillus acidophilus protects against Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis infection by regulating the autophagy of macrophages and maintaining gut microbiota homeostasis in C57BL/6 mice. mSystems 2024; 9:e0048424. [PMID: 38934644 PMCID: PMC11265446 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00484-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (C. p), a facultative intracellular bacterium, is an important zoonotic pathogen that causes abscesses and pyogenic granulomas. The relationship between gut microbiota and host health or diseases has received increasing attention. However, the role of gut microbiota in the process of C. p infection is still unclear. In this study, we established a C. p infection model in C57BL/6 mice and examined the impact of preemptive oral administration Lactobacillus acidophilus (L. acidophilus) on infection. Our findings revealed that C. p infection led to pronounced pathological alterations in the liver and kidneys, characterized by abscess formation, intense inflammatory responses, and bacterial overload. Remarkably, these deleterious effects were greatly relieved by oral administration of L. acidophilus before infection with C. p. Additionally, we further found that during C. p infection, peritoneal macrophages (PMs) of mice orally administered with L. acidophilus accumulated more rapidly at sites of infection. Furthermore, our results showed that PMs from mice with oral L. acidophilus administration showed a stronger C. p clearance effect, and this was mediated by high expression of LC3-II protein. Meanwhile, oral administration of L. acidophilus protected the gut microbiota disorder in C57BL/6 mice caused by C. p infection. In summary, our study demonstrates that oral administration of L. acidophilus confers effective protection against C. p infection in C57BL/6 mice by modulating macrophage autophagy, thereby augmenting bacterial clearance and preserving gut microbiota and function stability. These findings position L. acidophilus as a viable probiotic candidate for the clinical prevention of C. p infection. IMPORTANCE Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (C. p) is known to induce a range of chronic diseases in both animals and humans. Currently, clinical treatment for C. p infection mainly relies on antibiotic therapy or surgical intervention. However, excessive use of antibiotics may increase the risk of drug-resistant strains, and the effectiveness of treatment remains unsatisfactory. Furthermore, surgical procedures do not completely eradicate pathogens and can easily cause environmental pollution. Probiotic interventions are receiving increasing attention for improving the body's immune system and maintaining health. In this study, we established a C. p infection model in C57BL/6 mice to explore the impact of Lactobacillus acidophilus during C. p infection. Our results showed that L. acidophilus effectively protected against C. p infection by regulating the autophagy of macrophages and maintaining intestinal microbiota homeostasis. This study may provide a new strategy for the prevention of C. p infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dengliang Li
- Veterinary Immunology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yuecai Jiang
- Veterinary Immunology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhanding Cui
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Mengzhen Ma
- Veterinary Immunology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Fang Zhu
- Veterinary Immunology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Guanhua Li
- Veterinary Immunology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Haoyue Yang
- Veterinary Immunology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shaofei Li
- Veterinary Immunology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Tianliang Zhang
- Shaanxi Qianyang Saanen dairy goats Development Co., Ltd, Qianyang, Shaanxi, China
| | - Dekun Chen
- Veterinary Immunology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wentao Ma
- Veterinary Immunology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
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10
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Naik SK, McNehlan ME, Mreyoud Y, Kinsella RL, Smirnov A, Sur Chowdhury C, McKee SR, Dubey N, Woodson R, Kreamalmeyer D, Stallings CL. Type I IFN signaling in the absence of IRGM1 promotes M. tuberculosis replication in immune cells by suppressing T cell responses. Mucosal Immunol 2024:S1933-0219(24)00068-0. [PMID: 39038752 DOI: 10.1016/j.mucimm.2024.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/24/2024]
Abstract
Polymorphisms in the IRGM gene are associated with susceptibility to tuberculosis in humans. A murine ortholog of Irgm, Irgm1, is also essential for controlling Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection in mice. Multiple processes have been associated with IRGM1 activity that could impact the host response to Mtb infection, including roles in autophagy-mediated pathogen clearance and expansion of activated T cells. However, what IRGM1-mediated pathway is necessary to control Mtb infection in vivo and the mechanistic basis for this control remains unknown. We dissected the contribution of IRGM1 to immune control of Mtb pathogenesis in vivo and found that Irgm1 deletion leads to higher levels of IRGM3-dependent type I interferon signaling. The increased type I interferon signaling precludes T cell expansion during Mtb infection. The absence of Mtb-specific T cell expansion in Irgm1-/- mice results in uncontrolled Mtb infection in neutrophils and alveolar macrophages, which directly contributes to susceptibility to infection. Together, our studies reveal that IRGM1 is required to promote T cell-mediated control of Mtb infection in neutrophils, which is essential for the survival of Mtb-infected mice. These studies also uncover new ways type I interferon signaling can impact TH1 immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumanta K Naik
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | - Michael E McNehlan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Yassin Mreyoud
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Rachel L Kinsella
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Asya Smirnov
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Chanchal Sur Chowdhury
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Samuel R McKee
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Neha Dubey
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Reilly Woodson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Darren Kreamalmeyer
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Christina L Stallings
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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11
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Paddar MA, Wang F, Trosdal ES, Hendrix E, He Y, Salemi M, Mudd M, Jia J, Duque TLA, Javed R, Phinney B, Deretic V. Noncanonical roles of ATG5 and membrane atg8ylation in retromer assembly and function. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.07.10.602886. [PMID: 39026874 PMCID: PMC11257513 DOI: 10.1101/2024.07.10.602886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
ATG5 is one of the core autophagy proteins with additional functions such as noncanonical membrane atg8ylation, which among a growing number of biological outputs includes control of tuberculosis in animal models. Here we show that ATG5 associates with retromer's core components VPS26, VPS29 and VPS35 and modulates retromer function. Knockout of ATG5 blocked trafficking of a key glucose transporter sorted by the retromer, GLUT1, to the plasma membrane. Knockouts of other genes essential for membrane atg8ylation, of which ATG5 is a component, affected GLUT1 sorting, indicating that membrane atg8ylation as a process affects retromer function and endosomal sorting. The contribution of membrane atg8ylation to retromer function in GLUT1 sorting was independent of canonical autophagy. These findings expand the scope of membrane atg8ylation to specific sorting processes in the cell dependent on the retromer and its known interactors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masroor Ahmad Paddar
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Fulong Wang
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Einar S Trosdal
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Emily Hendrix
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Yi He
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Michelle Salemi
- Proteomics Core Facility, UC Davis Genome Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Michal Mudd
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Jingyue Jia
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Thabata L A Duque
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Ruheena Javed
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Brett Phinney
- Proteomics Core Facility, UC Davis Genome Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
- Lead Contact
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12
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Mukhopadhyay S, Pahuja I, Okieh AA, Pandey D, Yadav V, Bhaskar A, Dwivedi VP. Bergenin potentiates BCG efficacy by enriching mycobacteria-specific adaptive memory responses via the Akt-Foxo-Stat4 axis. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2024; 147:102517. [PMID: 38733881 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2024.102517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
The extensive inability of the BCG vaccine to produce long-term immune protection has not only accelerated the disease burden but also progressed towards the onset of drug resistance. In our previous study, we have reported the promising effects of Bergenin (Berg) in imparting significant protection as an adjunct immunomodulator against tuberculosis (TB). In congruence with our investigations, we delineated the impact of Berg on T cells, wherein it enhanced adaptive memory responses by modulating key transcription factors, STAT4 and Akt. We translated this finding into the vaccine model of TB and observed a notable reduction in the burden of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) in BCG-Berg co-immunized mice as compared to BCG vaccination. Moreover, Berg, along with BCG, also aided in a heightened proinflammatory response milieu that corroborates the host protective immune response against TB. Furthermore, this response aligns with the escalated central and resident memory responses by modulating the Akt-Foxo-Stat4 axis, which plays a crucial role in enhancing the vaccine efficacy of BCG. These findings showcase the utilization of immunomodulator Berg as an immunoprophylactic agent to upgrade immunological memory, making it a more effective defender against TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suparba Mukhopadhyay
- Immunobiology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Isha Pahuja
- Immunobiology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Ahmed Abdallah Okieh
- Immunobiology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Darshana Pandey
- Immunobiology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India; Department of Microbiology, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh, Haryana, India
| | - Vinod Yadav
- Department of Microbiology, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh, Haryana, India
| | - Ashima Bhaskar
- Immunobiology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India.
| | - Ved Prakash Dwivedi
- Immunobiology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India.
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13
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Guallar-Garrido S, Soldati T. Exploring host-pathogen interactions in the Dictyostelium discoideum-Mycobacterium marinum infection model of tuberculosis. Dis Model Mech 2024; 17:dmm050698. [PMID: 39037280 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.050698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a pathogenic mycobacterium that causes tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is a significant global health concern that poses numerous clinical challenges, particularly in terms of finding effective treatments for patients. Throughout evolution, host immune cells have developed cell-autonomous defence strategies to restrain and eliminate mycobacteria. Concurrently, mycobacteria have evolved an array of virulence factors to counteract these host defences, resulting in a dynamic interaction between host and pathogen. Here, we review recent findings, including those arising from the use of the amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum as a model to investigate key mycobacterial infection pathways. D. discoideum serves as a scalable and genetically tractable model for human phagocytes, providing valuable insights into the intricate mechanisms of host-pathogen interactions. We also highlight certain similarities between M. tuberculosis and Mycobacterium marinum, and the use of M. marinum to more safely investigate mycobacteria in D. discoideum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Guallar-Garrido
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Geneva, 30 quai Ernest-Ansermet, Science II, 1211 Geneva-4, Switzerland
| | - Thierry Soldati
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Geneva, 30 quai Ernest-Ansermet, Science II, 1211 Geneva-4, Switzerland
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14
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Andrews JT, Zhang Z, Prasad GVRK, Huey F, Nazarova EV, Wang J, Ranaraja A, Weinkopff T, Li LX, Mu S, Birrer MJ, Huang SCC, Zhang N, Argüello RJ, Philips JA, Mattila JT, Huang L. Metabolically active neutrophils represent a permissive niche for Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mucosal Immunol 2024:S1933-0219(24)00048-5. [PMID: 38844208 DOI: 10.1016/j.mucimm.2024.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb)-infected neutrophils are often found in the airways of patients with active tuberculosis (TB), and excessive recruitment of neutrophils to the lung is linked to increased bacterial burden and aggravated pathology in TB. The basis for the permissiveness of neutrophils for Mtb and the ability to be pathogenic in TB has been elusive. Here, we identified metabolic and functional features of neutrophils that contribute to their permissiveness in Mtb infection. Using single-cell metabolic and transcriptional analyses, we found that neutrophils in the Mtb-infected lung displayed elevated mitochondrial metabolism, which was largely attributed to the induction of activated neutrophils with enhanced metabolic activities. The activated neutrophil subpopulation was also identified in the lung granulomas from Mtb-infected non-human primates. Functionally, activated neutrophils harbored more viable bacteria and displayed enhanced lipid uptake and accumulation. Surprisingly, we found that interferon-γ promoted the activation of lung neutrophils during Mtb infection. Lastly, perturbation of lipid uptake pathways selectively compromised Mtb survival in activated neutrophils. These findings suggest that neutrophil heterogeneity and metabolic diversity are key to their permissiveness for Mtb and that metabolic pathways in neutrophils represent potential host-directed therapeutics in TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Tucker Andrews
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Zijing Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA; Winthrop P. Rockefeller Cancer Institute, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - G V R Krishna Prasad
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Fischer Huey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Evgeniya V Nazarova
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Jocelyn Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Ananya Ranaraja
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Tiffany Weinkopff
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Lin-Xi Li
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Shengyu Mu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Michael J Birrer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA; Winthrop P. Rockefeller Cancer Institute, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Stanley Ching-Cheng Huang
- Pelotonia Institute for Immuno-Oncology, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA; Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Nan Zhang
- Immunology, Metastasis & Microenvironment Program, Ellen and Ronald Caplan Cancer Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Rafael J Argüello
- Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, INSERM, CIML, Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Marseille, France
| | - Jennifer A Philips
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Joshua T Mattila
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Lu Huang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA.
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15
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Gao Y, Chen S, Jiao S, Fan Y, Li X, Tan N, Fang J, Xu L, Huang Y, Zhao J, Guo S, Liu T, Xu W. ATG5-regulated CCL2/MCP-1 production in myeloid cells selectively modulates anti-malarial CD4 + Th1 responses. Autophagy 2024; 20:1398-1417. [PMID: 38368631 PMCID: PMC11210915 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2024.2319512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Parasite-specific CD4+ Th1 cell responses are the predominant immune effector for controlling malaria infection; however, the underlying regulatory mechanisms remain largely unknown. This study demonstrated that ATG5 deficiency in myeloid cells can significantly inhibit the growth of rodent blood-stage malarial parasites by selectively enhancing parasite-specific CD4+ Th1 cell responses. This effect was independent of ATG5-mediated canonical and non-canonical autophagy. Mechanistically, ATG5 deficiency suppressed FAS-mediated apoptosis of LY6G- ITGAM/CD11b+ ADGRE1/F4/80- cells and subsequently increased CCL2/MCP-1 production in parasite-infected mice. LY6G- ITGAM+ ADGRE1- cell-derived CCL2 selectively interacted with CCR2 on CD4+ Th1 cells for their optimized responses through the JAK2-STAT4 pathway. The administration of recombinant CCL2 significantly promoted parasite-specific CD4+ Th1 responses and suppressed malaria infection. Conclusively, our study highlights the previously unrecognized role of ATG5 in modulating myeloid cells apoptosis and sequentially affecting CCL2 production, which selectively promotes CD4+ Th1 cell responses. Our findings provide new insights into the development of immune interventions and effective anti-malarial vaccines.Abbreviations: ATG5: autophagy related 5; CBA: cytometric bead array; CCL2/MCP-1: C-C motif chemokine ligand 2; IgG: immunoglobulin G; IL6: interleukin 6; IL10: interleukin 10; IL12: interleukin 12; MFI: mean fluorescence intensity; JAK2: Janus kinase 2; LAP: LC3-associated phagocytosis; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3; pRBCs: parasitized red blood cells; RUBCN: RUN domain and cysteine-rich domain containing, Beclin 1-interacting protein; STAT4: signal transducer and activator of transcription 4; Th1: T helper 1 cell; Tfh: follicular helper cell; ULK1: unc-51 like kinase 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanli Gao
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Suilin Chen
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
- Clinical Laboratory Diagnostic Center, General Hospital of Xinjiang Military Region, Urumqi, China
| | - Shiming Jiao
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Yongling Fan
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Xiuxiu Li
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
- The School of Medicine, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Nie Tan
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Jiaqin Fang
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Luming Xu
- Provincial Key Laboratory of Immune Regulation and Immunotherapy, School of Laboratory Medicine and Biotechnology, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yi Huang
- Biomedical Analysis Center, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Jing Zhao
- Biomedical Analysis Center, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Shuai Guo
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Taiping Liu
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Extreme Environmental Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing, China
| | - Wenyue Xu
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
- The School of Medicine, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Extreme Environmental Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing, China
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16
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Cui X, Wang YT. Function of autophagy genes in innate immune defense against mucosal pathogens. Curr Opin Microbiol 2024; 79:102456. [PMID: 38554450 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2024.102456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024]
Abstract
Mucosal immunity is posed to constantly interact with commensal microbes and invading pathogens. As a fundamental cell biological pathway affecting immune response, autophagy regulates the interaction between mucosal immunity and microbes through multiple mechanisms, including direct elimination of microbes, control of inflammation, antigen presentation and lymphocyte homeostasis, and secretion of immune mediators. Some of these physiologically important functions do not involve canonical degradative autophagy but rely on certain autophagy genes and their 'autophagy gene-specific functions.' Here, we review the relationship between autophagy and important mucosal pathogens, including influenza virus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Salmonella enterica, Citrobacter rodentium, norovirus, and herpes simplex virus, with a particular focus on distinguishing the canonical versus gene-specific mechanisms of autophagy genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Cui
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ya-Ting Wang
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; SXMU-Tsinghua Collaborative Innovation Center for Frontier Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, China.
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17
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Wei L, Liu L, Meng Z, Qi K, Gao X, Feng J, Luo J. Recognition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by macrophage Toll-like receptor and its role in autophagy. Inflamm Res 2024; 73:753-770. [PMID: 38563966 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-024-01864-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The pathogen responsible for tuberculosis is called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Its interaction with macrophages has a significant impact on the onset and progression of the disease. METHODS The respiratory pathway allows Mycobacterium tuberculosis to enter the body's lungs where it battles immune cells before being infected latently or actively. In the progress of tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis activates the body's immune system and creates inflammatory factors, which cause tissue inflammation to infiltrate and the creation of granulomas, which seriously harms the body. Toll-like receptors of macrophage can mediate host recognition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, initiate immune responses, and participate in macrophage autophagy. New host-directed therapeutic approaches targeting autophagy for drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis have emerged, providing new ideas for the effective treatment of tuberculosis. CONCLUSIONS In-depth understanding of the mechanisms by which macrophage autophagy interacts with intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis, as well as the study of potent and specific autophagy-regulating molecules, will lead to much-needed advances in drug discovery and vaccine design, which will improve the prevention and treatment of human tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linna Wei
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Liping Liu
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Zudi Meng
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Kai Qi
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Xuehan Gao
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Jihong Feng
- Department of Oncology, Lishui People's Hospital, Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Lishui, 323000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Junmin Luo
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China.
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18
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Cossart P, Hacker J, Holden DH, Normark S, Vogel J. Meeting report 'Microbiology 2023: from single cell to microbiome and host', an international interacademy conference in Würzburg. MICROLIFE 2024; 5:uqae008. [PMID: 38665235 PMCID: PMC11044969 DOI: 10.1093/femsml/uqae008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
On September 20-22 September 2023, the international conference 'Microbiology 2023: from single cell to microbiome and host' convened microbiologists from across the globe for a very successful symposium, showcasing cutting-edge research in the field. Invited lecturers delivered exceptional presentations covering a wide range of topics, with a major emphasis on phages and microbiomes, on the relevant bacteria within these ecosystems, and their multifaceted roles in diverse environments. Discussions also spanned the intricate analysis of fundamental bacterial processes, such as cell division, stress resistance, and interactions with phages. Organized by four renowned Academies, the German Leopoldina, the French Académie des sciences, the Royal Society UK, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the symposium provided a dynamic platform for experts to share insights and discoveries, leaving participants inspired and eager to integrate new knowledge into their respective projects. The success of Microbiology 2023 prompted the decision to host the next quadrennial academic meeting in Sweden. This choice underscores the commitment to fostering international collaboration and advancing the frontiers of microbiological knowledge. The transition to Sweden promises to be an exciting step in the ongoing global dialogue and specific collaborations on microbiology, a field where researchers will continue to push the boundaries of knowledge, understanding, and innovation not only in health and disease but also in ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jörg Hacker
- German National Academy of Science Leopoldina, Jägerberg 1, D-06108 Halle, Germany
| | - David H Holden
- Department of Infectious Disease, Centre for Bacterial Resistance Biology, Flowers Building, South Kensington Campus, Exhibition Road, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Staffan Normark
- Karolinska Institute, Tumor-och-cellbiologi, C1 Microbial Pathogenesis, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jörg Vogel
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute for Molecular Infection Biology (IMIB), University of Würzburg, D-97080 Würzburg, Germany
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research (HIRI), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Josef-Schneider-Str2/Gebaude D15; É. D-97080 Würzburg, Germany
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19
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Tang X, Walter E, Wohleb E, Fan Y, Wang C. ATG5 (autophagy related 5) in microglia controls hippocampal neurogenesis in Alzheimer disease. Autophagy 2024; 20:847-862. [PMID: 37915255 PMCID: PMC11062374 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2023.2277634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Macroautophagy/autophagy is the intracellular degradation process of cytoplasmic content and damaged organelles. Autophagy is strongly associated with the progression of Alzheimer disease (AD). Microglia are brain-resident macrophages, and recent studies indicate that autophagy in microglia protects neurons from neurodegeneration. Postnatal neurogenesis, the generation of new neurons from adult neural stem cells (NSCs), is impaired in AD patients as well as in AD animal models. However, the extent to which microglial autophagy influences adult NSCs and neurogenesis in AD animal models has not been studied. Here, we showed that conditional knock out (cKO) of Atg5 (autophagy related 5) in microglia inhibited postnatal neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus, but not in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of a 5×FAD mouse model. Interestingly, the protection of neurogenesis by Atg5 in microglia was only observed in female AD mice. To confirm the roles of autophagy in microglia for postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis, we generated additional cKO mice to delete autophagy essential genes Rb1cc1 or Atg14 in microglia. However, these rb1cc1 cKO and atg14 cKO mice did not exhibit neurogenesis defects in the context of a female AD mouse model. Last, we used the CSF1R antagonist to deplete ATG5-deficient microglia and this intervention restored neurogenesis in the hippocampus of 5×FAD mice. These results indicate that microglial ATG5 is essential to maintain postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis in a mouse model of AD. Our findings further support the notion that ATG5 in microglia supports NSC health and may prevent neurodegeneration.Abbreviations: 5×FAD: familial Alzheimer disease; Aβ: β-amyloid; AD: Alzheimer disease; AIF1: allograft inflammatory factor 1; ATG: autophagy related; BrdU: 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine; CA: Cornu Ammonis; cKO: conditional knock out; CSF1R: colony stimulating factor 1 receptor; Ctrl: control; DCX: doublecortin; DG: dentate gyrus; GFAP: glial fibrillary acidic protein; GZ: granular zone; H&E: hematoxylin and eosin; IF: immunofluorescence; LD: lipid droplet; LDAM: lipid droplets accumulated microglia; LPS: lipopolysaccharides; MAP1LC3B/LC3: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; NSCs: neural stem cells; RB1CC1: RB1-inducible coiled-coil 1; SOX2: SRY (sex determining region Y)-box 2; SGZ: subgranular zone; SVZ: subventricular zone; WT: wild type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Tang
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Cincinnati College Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Ellen Walter
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Cincinnati College Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Eric Wohleb
- Department of Pharmacology & Systems Physiology, University of Cincinnati College Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Yanbo Fan
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Cincinnati College Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Chenran Wang
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Cincinnati College Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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20
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Shang JN, Yu CG, Li R, Xi Y, Jian YJ, Xu N, Chen S. The nonautophagic functions of autophagy-related proteins. Autophagy 2024; 20:720-734. [PMID: 37682088 PMCID: PMC11062363 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2023.2254664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
ABBREVIATIONS ATG: autophagy related; BECN1: beclin 1; cAMP: cyclic adenosine monophosphate; dsDNA: double-stranded DNA; EMT: epithelial-mesenchymal transition; IFN: interferon; ISCs: intestinal stem cells; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MAPK/JNK: mitogen-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinases; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; STING1: stimulator of interferon response cGAMP interactor 1; UVRAG: UV radiation resistance associated; VPS: vacuolar protein sorting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Ni Shang
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
| | - Chen-Ge Yu
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
| | - Rui Li
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
| | - Yan Xi
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
| | - Yue Jenny Jian
- Nanjing Foreign Language School, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Nan Xu
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
| | - Su Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Metabolism and Health, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University School of Medicine, Kaifeng, Henan, PR China
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21
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Tyagi S, Sadhu S, Sharma T, Paul A, Pandey M, Nain VK, Rathore DK, Chatterjee S, Awasthi A, Pandey AK. VapC12 ribonuclease toxin modulates host immune response during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1302163. [PMID: 38515752 PMCID: PMC10955575 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1302163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Mechanistic understanding of antibiotic persistence is a prerequisite in controlling the emergence of MDR cases in Tuberculosis (TB). We have reported that the cholesterol-induced activation of VapC12 ribonuclease is critical for disease persistence in TB. In this study, we observed that relative to the wild type, mice infected with ΔvapC12 induced a pro-inflammatory response, had a higher pathogen load, and responded better to the anti-TB treatment. In a high-dose infection model, all the mice infected with ΔvapC12 succumbed early to the disease. Finally, we reported that the above phenotype of ΔvapC12 was dependent on the presence of the TLR4 receptor. Overall, the data suggests that failure of a timely resolution of the early inflammation by the ΔvapC12 infected mice led to hyperinflammation, altered T-cell response and high bacterial load. In conclusion, our findings suggest the role of the VapC12 toxin in modulating the innate immune response of the host in ways that favor the long-term survival of the pathogen inside the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaifali Tyagi
- Mycobacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Srikanth Sadhu
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Taruna Sharma
- Mycobacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Abhijit Paul
- Complex Analysis Laboratory, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Manitosh Pandey
- Mycobacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Vaibhav Kumar Nain
- Mycobacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Deepak Kumar Rathore
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Samrat Chatterjee
- Complex Analysis Laboratory, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Amit Awasthi
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Amit Kumar Pandey
- Mycobacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India
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22
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Bhatnagar A, Chopra U, Raja S, Das KD, Mahalingam S, Chakravortty D, Srinivasula SM. TLR-mediated aggresome-like induced structures comprise antimicrobial peptides and attenuate intracellular bacterial survival. Mol Biol Cell 2024; 35:ar34. [PMID: 38170582 PMCID: PMC10916861 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e23-09-0347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Immune cells employ diverse mechanisms for host defense. Macrophages, in response to TLR activation, assemble aggresome-like induced structures (ALIS). Our group has shown TLR4-signaling transcriptionally upregulates p62/sequestome1, which assembles ALIS. We have demonstrated that TLR4-mediated autophagy is, in fact, selective-autophagy of ALIS. We hypothesize that TLR-mediated autophagy and ALIS contribute to host-defense. Here we show that ALIS are assembled in macrophages upon exposure to different bacteria. These structures are associated with pathogen-containing phagosomes. Importantly, we present evidence of increased bacterial burden, where ALIS assembly is prevented with p62-specific siRNA. We have employed 3D-super-resolution structured illumination microscopy (3D-SR-SIM) and mass-spectrometric (MS) analyses to gain insight into the assembly of ALIS. Ultra-structural analyses of known constituents of ALIS (p62, ubiquitin, LC3) reveal that ALIS are organized structures with distinct patterns of alignment. Furthermore, MS-analyses of ALIS identified, among others, several proteins of known antimicrobial properties. We have validated MS data by testing the association of some of these molecules (Bst2, IFITM2, IFITM3) with ALIS and the phagocytosed-bacteria. We surmise that AMPs enrichment in ALIS leads to their delivery to bacteria-containing phagosomes and restricts the bacteria. Our findings in this paper support hitherto unknown functions of ALIS in host-defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anushree Bhatnagar
- School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Maruthamala PO, Vithura, Thiruvananthapuram 695551, Kerala, India
| | - Umesh Chopra
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Sebastian Raja
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology-Madras, Chennai 600036, India
| | - Krishanu Dey Das
- School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Maruthamala PO, Vithura, Thiruvananthapuram 695551, Kerala, India
| | - S. Mahalingam
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology-Madras, Chennai 600036, India
| | - Dipshikha Chakravortty
- School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Maruthamala PO, Vithura, Thiruvananthapuram 695551, Kerala, India
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Srinivasa Murty Srinivasula
- School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Maruthamala PO, Vithura, Thiruvananthapuram 695551, Kerala, India
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23
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Feng S, McNehlan ME, Kinsella RL, Sur Chowdhury C, Chavez SM, Naik SK, McKee SR, Van Winkle JA, Dubey N, Samuels A, Swain A, Cui X, Hendrix SV, Woodson R, Kreamalmeyer D, Smirnov A, Artyomov MN, Virgin HW, Wang YT, Stallings CL. Autophagy promotes efficient T cell responses to restrict high-dose Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in mice. Nat Microbiol 2024; 9:684-697. [PMID: 38413834 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-024-01608-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
Although autophagy sequesters Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) in in vitro cultured macrophages, loss of autophagy in macrophages in vivo does not result in susceptibility to a standard low-dose Mtb infection until late during infection, leaving open questions regarding the protective role of autophagy during Mtb infection. Here we report that loss of autophagy in lung macrophages and dendritic cells results in acute susceptibility of mice to high-dose Mtb infection, a model mimicking active tuberculosis. Rather than observing a role for autophagy in controlling Mtb replication in macrophages, we find that autophagy suppresses macrophage responses to Mtb that otherwise result in accumulation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and subsequent defects in T cell responses. Our finding that the pathogen-plus-susceptibility gene interaction is dependent on dose has important implications both for understanding how Mtb infections in humans lead to a spectrum of outcomes and for the potential use of autophagy modulators in clinical medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siwei Feng
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Michael E McNehlan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rachel L Kinsella
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Chanchal Sur Chowdhury
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Sthefany M Chavez
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Sumanta K Naik
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Samuel R McKee
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Jacob A Van Winkle
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Neha Dubey
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Amanda Samuels
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Amanda Swain
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Xiaoyan Cui
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Skyler V Hendrix
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Reilly Woodson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Darren Kreamalmeyer
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Asya Smirnov
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Maxim N Artyomov
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Herbert W Virgin
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Ya-Ting Wang
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- SXMU-Tsinghua Collaborative Innovation Center for Frontier Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China.
| | - Christina L Stallings
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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24
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Grigsby SJ, Prasad GVRK, Wallach JB, Mittal E, Hsu FF, Schnappinger D, Philips JA. CpsA mediates infection of recruited lung myeloid cells by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Cell Rep 2024; 43:113607. [PMID: 38127624 PMCID: PMC10900767 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) possesses an arsenal of virulence factors to evade host immunity. Previously, we showed that the Mtb protein CpsA, which protects Mtb against the host NADPH oxidase, is required in mice during the first 3 weeks of infection but is thereafter dispensable for full virulence. Using flow cytometry, we find that ΔcpsA Mtb is retained in alveolar macrophages, impaired in recruiting and disseminating into monocyte-derived cells, and more likely to be localized in airway cells than wild-type Mtb. The lungs of ΔcpsA-infected mice also have markedly fewer antigen-specific T cells, indicating a delay in adaptive immunity. Thus, we conclude that CpsA promotes dissemination of Mtb from alveolar macrophages and the airways and generation of an adaptive immune response. Our studies of ΔcpsA Mtb show that a more effective innate immune response against Mtb can be undermined by a corresponding delay in the adaptive immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Grigsby
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - G V R Krishna Prasad
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Joshua B Wallach
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, NY, USA
| | - Ekansh Mittal
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Fong-Fu Hsu
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, & Lipid Research, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Dirk Schnappinger
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, NY, USA
| | - Jennifer A Philips
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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25
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Aguilera MO, Delgui LR, Reggiori F, Romano PS, Colombo MI. Autophagy as an innate immunity response against pathogens: a Tango dance. FEBS Lett 2024; 598:140-166. [PMID: 38101809 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Intracellular infections as well as changes in the cell nutritional environment are main events that trigger cellular stress responses. One crucial cell response to stress conditions is autophagy. During the last 30 years, several scenarios involving autophagy induction or inhibition over the course of an intracellular invasion by pathogens have been uncovered. In this review, we will present how this knowledge was gained by studying different microorganisms. We intend to discuss how the cell, via autophagy, tries to repel these attacks with the objective of destroying the intruder, but also how some pathogens have developed strategies to subvert this. These two fates can be compared with a Tango, a dance originated in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in which the partner dancers are in close connection. One of them is the leader, embracing and involving the partner, but the follower may respond escaping from the leader. This joint dance is indeed highly synchronized and controlled, perfectly reflecting the interaction between autophagy and microorganism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milton O Aguilera
- Laboratorio de Mecanismos Moleculares Implicados en el Tráfico Vesicular y la Autofagia-Instituto de Histología y Embriología (IHEM), Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina
- Facultad de Odontología, Microbiología, Parasitología e Inmunología, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Laura R Delgui
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Centro Universitario M5502JMA, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (UNCuyo), Mendoza, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (UNCuyo), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Fulvio Reggiori
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Denmark
- Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies (AIAS), Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Patricia S Romano
- Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y la célula hospedadora - Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Centro Universitario M5502JMA, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (UNCuyo), Mendoza, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Centro Universitario M5502JMA, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (UNCuyo), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - María I Colombo
- Laboratorio de Mecanismos Moleculares Implicados en el Tráfico Vesicular y la Autofagia-Instituto de Histología y Embriología (IHEM), Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Centro Universitario M5502JMA, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (UNCuyo), Mendoza, Argentina
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26
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McAllaster MR, Bhushan J, Balce DR, Orvedahl A, Park A, Hwang S, Sullender ME, Sibley LD, Virgin HW. Autophagy gene-dependent intracellular immunity triggered by interferon-γ. mBio 2023; 14:e0233223. [PMID: 37905813 PMCID: PMC10746157 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02332-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Interferon-γ (IFNγ) is a critical mediator of cell-intrinsic immunity to intracellular pathogens. Understanding the complex cellular mechanisms supporting robust interferon-γ-induced host defenses could aid in developing new therapeutics to treat infections. Here, we examined the impact of autophagy genes in the interferon-γ-induced host response. We demonstrate that genes within the autophagy pathway including Wipi2, Atg9, and Gate-16, as well as ubiquitin ligase complex genes Cul3 and Klhl9 are required for IFNγ-induced inhibition of murine norovirus (norovirus hereinafter) replication in mouse cells. WIPI2 and GATE-16 were also required for IFNγ-mediated restriction of parasite growth within the Toxoplasma gondii parasitophorous vacuole in human cells. Furthermore, we found that perturbation of UFMylation pathway components led to more robust IFNγ-induced inhibition of norovirus via regulation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Enhancing or inhibiting these dynamic cellular components could serve as a strategy to control intracellular pathogens and maintain an effective immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R. McAllaster
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Vir Biotechnology, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Jaya Bhushan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Dale R. Balce
- Vir Biotechnology, San Francisco, California, USA
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Anthony Orvedahl
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Arnold Park
- Vir Biotechnology, San Francisco, California, USA
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | | | - Meagan E. Sullender
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences & Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Herbert W. Virgin
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
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27
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Kotov DI, Lee OV, Ji DX, Jaye DL, Suliman S, Gabay C, Vance RE. Immunosuppression is a conserved driver of tuberculosis susceptibility. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.10.27.564420. [PMID: 37961447 PMCID: PMC10634924 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.27.564420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis ( Mtb ) causes 1.6 million deaths a year 1 . However, no individual mouse model fully recapitulates the hallmarks of human tuberculosis disease. Here we report that a comparison across three different susceptible mouse models identifies Mtb -induced gene signatures that predict active TB disease in humans significantly better than a signature from the standard C57BL/6 mouse model. An increase in lung myeloid cells, including neutrophils, was conserved across the susceptible mouse models, mimicking the neutrophilic inflammation observed in humans 2,3 . Myeloid cells in the susceptible models and non-human primates exhibited high expression of immunosuppressive molecules including the IL-1 receptor antagonist, which inhibits IL-1 signaling. Prior reports have suggested that excessive IL-1 signaling impairs Mtb control 4-6 . By contrast, we found that enhancement of IL-1 signaling via deletion of IL-1 receptor antagonist promoted bacterial control in all three susceptible mouse models. IL-1 signaling enhanced cytokine production by lymphoid and stromal cells, suggesting a mechanism for IL-1 signaling in promoting Mtb control. Thus, we propose that myeloid cell expression of immunosuppressive molecules is a conserved mechanism exacerbating Mtb disease in mice, non-human primates, and humans.
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28
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Bullen CK, Singh AK, Krug S, Lun S, Thakur P, Srikrishna G, Bishai WR. MDA5 RNA-sensing pathway activation by Mycobacterium tuberculosis promotes innate immune subversion and pathogen survival. JCI Insight 2023; 8:e166242. [PMID: 37725440 PMCID: PMC10619499 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.166242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Host cytosolic sensing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) RNA by the RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) family perturbs innate immune control within macrophages; however, a distinct role of MDA5, a member of the RLR family, in M. tuberculosis pathogenesis has yet to be fully elucidated. To further define the role of MDA5 in M. tuberculosis pathogenesis, we evaluated M. tuberculosis intracellular growth and innate immune responses in WT and Mda5-/- macrophages. Transfection of M. tuberculosis RNA strongly induced proinflammatory cytokine production in WT macrophages, which was abrogated in Mda5-/- macrophages. M. tuberculosis infection in macrophages induced MDA5 protein expression, accompanied by an increase in MDA5 activation as assessed by multimer formation. IFN-γ-primed Mda5-/- macrophages effectively contained intracellular M. tuberculosis proliferation to a markedly greater degree than WT macrophages. Further comparisons of WT versus Mda5-/- macrophages revealed that during M. tuberculosis infection MDA5 contributed to IL-1β production and inflammasome activation and that loss of MDA5 led to a substantial increase in autophagy. In the mouse TB model, loss of MDA5 conferred host survival benefits with a concomitant reduction in M. tuberculosis bacillary burden. These data reveal that loss of MDA5 is host protective during M. tuberculosis infection in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that M. tuberculosis exploits MDA5 to subvert immune containment.
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29
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Naik SK, McNehlan ME, Mreyoud Y, Kinsella RL, Smirnov A, Chowdhury CS, McKee SR, Dubey N, Woodson R, Kreamalmeyer D, Stallings CL. Type I IFN signaling in the absence of IRGM1 promotes M. tuberculosis replication in immune cells by suppressing T cell responses. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.10.03.560720. [PMID: 37873329 PMCID: PMC10592944 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.03.560720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Polymorphisms in the IRGM gene are associated with susceptibility to tuberculosis in humans. A murine ortholog of Irgm, Irgm1, is also essential for controlling Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection in mice. Multiple processes have been associated with IRGM1 activity that could impact the host response to Mtb infection, including roles in autophagy-mediated pathogen clearance and expansion of activated T cells. However, what IRGM1-mediated pathway is necessary to control Mtb infection in vivo and the mechanistic basis for this control remains unknown. We dissected the contribution of IRGM1 to immune control of Mtb pathogenesis in vivo and found that Irgm1 deletion leads to higher levels of IRGM3-dependent type I interferon signaling. The increased type I interferon signaling precludes T cell expansion during Mtb infection. The absence of Mtb-specific T cell expansion in Irgm1-/- mice results in uncontrolled Mtb infection in neutrophils and alveolar macrophages, which directly contributes to susceptibility to infection. Together, our studies reveal that IRGM1 is required to promote T cell-mediated control of Mtb infection in neutrophils, which is essential for the survival of Mtb-infected mice. These studies also uncover new ways type I interferon signaling can impact TH1 immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumanta K. Naik
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Michael E. McNehlan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Yassin Mreyoud
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Rachel L. Kinsella
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Asya Smirnov
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Chanchal Sur Chowdhury
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Samuel R. McKee
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Neha Dubey
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Reilly Woodson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Darren Kreamalmeyer
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Christina L. Stallings
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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30
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Mayer-Barber KD. Granulocytes subsets and their divergent functions in host resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis - a 'tipping-point' model of disease exacerbation. Curr Opin Immunol 2023; 84:102365. [PMID: 37437471 PMCID: PMC10543468 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2023.102365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Granulocytes are innate immune effector cells with essential functions in host resistance to bacterial infections. I will discuss emerging evidence that during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, counter-intuitively, eosinophils are host-protective while neutrophils are host detrimental. Additionally, I will propose a 'tipping-point' model in which neutrophils are an integral part of a feedforward loop driving tuberculosis disease exacerbation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin D Mayer-Barber
- Inflammation and Innate Immunity Unit, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, 20892, USA.
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Yang J, Zhang L, Qiao W, Luo Y. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Pathogenesis and therapeutic targets. MedComm (Beijing) 2023; 4:e353. [PMID: 37674971 PMCID: PMC10477518 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a significant public health concern in the 21st century, especially due to drug resistance, coinfection with diseases like immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and coronavirus disease 2019, and the lengthy and costly treatment protocols. In this review, we summarize the pathogenesis of TB infection, therapeutic targets, and corresponding modulators, including first-line medications, current clinical trial drugs and molecules in preclinical assessment. Understanding the mechanisms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection and important biological targets can lead to innovative treatments. While most antitubercular agents target pathogen-related processes, host-directed therapy (HDT) modalities addressing immune defense, survival mechanisms, and immunopathology also hold promise. Mtb's adaptation to the human host involves manipulating host cellular mechanisms, and HDT aims to disrupt this manipulation to enhance treatment effectiveness. Our review provides valuable insights for future anti-TB drug development efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxing Yang
- Center of Infectious Diseases and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengduChina
| | - Laiying Zhang
- Center of Infectious Diseases and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengduChina
| | - Wenliang Qiao
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, West China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengduSichuanChina
- Lung Cancer Center, West China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengduSichuanChina
| | - Youfu Luo
- Center of Infectious Diseases and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengduChina
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32
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Deretic V. Atg8ylation as a host-protective mechanism against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. FRONTIERS IN TUBERCULOSIS 2023; 1:1275882. [PMID: 37901138 PMCID: PMC10612523 DOI: 10.3389/ftubr.2023.1275882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2023]
Abstract
Nearly two decades have passed since the first report on autophagy acting as a cell-autonomous defense against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This helped usher a new area of research within the field of host-pathogen interactions and led to the recognition of autophagy as an immunological mechanism. Interest grew in the fundamental mechanisms of antimicrobial autophagy and in the prophylactic and therapeutic potential for tuberculosis. However, puzzling in vivo data have begun to emerge in murine models of M. tuberculosis infection. The control of infection in mice affirmed the effects of certain autophagy genes, specifically ATG5, but not of other ATGs. Recent studies with a more complete inactivation of ATG genes now show that multiple ATG genes are indeed necessary for protection against M. tuberculosis. These particular ATG genes are involved in the process of membrane atg8ylation. Atg8ylation in mammalian cells is a broad response to membrane stress, damage and remodeling of which canonical autophagy is one of the multiple downstream outputs. The current developments clarify the controversies and open new avenues for both fundamental and translational studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
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33
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Kinsella RL, Kimmey JM, Smirnov A, Woodson R, Gaggioli MR, Chavez SM, Kreamalmeyer D, Stallings CL. Autophagy prevents early proinflammatory responses and neutrophil recruitment during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection without affecting pathogen burden in macrophages. PLoS Biol 2023; 21:e3002159. [PMID: 37319285 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The immune response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection determines tuberculosis disease outcomes, yet we have an incomplete understanding of what immune factors contribute to a protective immune response. Neutrophilic inflammation has been associated with poor disease prognosis in humans and in animal models during M. tuberculosis infection and, therefore, must be tightly regulated. ATG5 is an essential autophagy protein that is required in innate immune cells to control neutrophil-dominated inflammation and promote survival during M. tuberculosis infection; however, the mechanistic basis for how ATG5 regulates neutrophil recruitment is unknown. To interrogate what innate immune cells require ATG5 to control neutrophil recruitment during M. tuberculosis infection, we used different mouse strains that conditionally delete Atg5 in specific cell types. We found that ATG5 is required in CD11c+ cells (lung macrophages and dendritic cells) to control the production of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines during M. tuberculosis infection, which would otherwise promote neutrophil recruitment. This role for ATG5 is autophagy dependent, but independent of mitophagy, LC3-associated phagocytosis, and inflammasome activation, which are the most well-characterized ways that autophagy proteins regulate inflammation. In addition to the increased proinflammatory cytokine production from macrophages during M. tuberculosis infection, loss of ATG5 in innate immune cells also results in an early induction of TH17 responses. Despite prior published in vitro cell culture experiments supporting a role for autophagy in controlling M. tuberculosis replication in macrophages, the effects of autophagy on inflammatory responses occur without changes in M. tuberculosis burden in macrophages. These findings reveal new roles for autophagy proteins in lung resident macrophages and dendritic cells that are required to suppress inflammatory responses that are associated with poor control of M. tuberculosis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel L Kinsella
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Jacqueline M Kimmey
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Asya Smirnov
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Reilly Woodson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Margaret R Gaggioli
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Sthefany M Chavez
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Darren Kreamalmeyer
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Christina L Stallings
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women's Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
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34
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Morrison HM, Craft J, Rivera-Lugo R, Johnson JR, Golovkine GR, Bell SL, Dodd CE, Van Dis E, Beatty WL, Margolis SR, Repasy T, Shaker I, Lee AY, Vance RE, Stanley SA, Watson RO, Krogan NJ, Portnoy DA, Penn BH, Cox JS. Deficiency in Galectin-3, -8, and -9 impairs immunity to chronic Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection but not acute infection with multiple intracellular pathogens. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011088. [PMID: 37352334 PMCID: PMC10325092 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophages employ an array of pattern recognition receptors to detect and eliminate intracellular pathogens that access the cytosol. The cytosolic carbohydrate sensors Galectin-3, -8, and -9 (Gal-3, Gal-8, and Gal-9) recognize damaged pathogen-containing phagosomes, and Gal-3 and Gal-8 are reported to restrict bacterial growth via autophagy in cultured cells. However, the contribution of these galectins to host resistance during bacterial infection in vivo remains unclear. We found that Gal-9 binds directly to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (Stm) and localizes to Mtb in macrophages. To determine the combined contribution of membrane damage-sensing galectins to immunity, we generated Gal-3, -8, and -9 triple knockout (TKO) mice. Mtb infection of primary macrophages from TKO mice resulted in defective autophagic flux but normal bacterial replication. Surprisingly, these mice had no discernable defect in resistance to acute infection with Mtb, Stm or Listeria monocytogenes, and had only modest impairments in bacterial growth restriction and CD4 T cell activation during chronic Mtb infection. Collectively, these findings indicate that while Gal-3, -8, and -9 respond to an array of intracellular pathogens, together these membrane damage-sensing galectins play a limited role in host resistance to bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huntly M. Morrison
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Julia Craft
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Rafael Rivera-Lugo
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Jeffery R. Johnson
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco; Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI), University of California, San Francisco; Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Guillaume R. Golovkine
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Samantha L. Bell
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M Health, School of Medicine, Bryan, Texas, United States of America
| | - Claire E. Dodd
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Erik Van Dis
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Wandy L. Beatty
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Shally R. Margolis
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Teresa Repasy
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Isaac Shaker
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Angus Y. Lee
- Cancer Research Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Russell E. Vance
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Sarah A. Stanley
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- School of Public Health, Division of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Robert O. Watson
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M Health, School of Medicine, Bryan, Texas, United States of America
| | - Nevan J. Krogan
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco; Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI), University of California, San Francisco; Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Daniel A. Portnoy
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Bennett H. Penn
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Jeffery S. Cox
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
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35
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Wang F, Peters R, Jia J, Mudd M, Salemi M, Allers L, Javed R, Duque TLA, Paddar MA, Trosdal ES, Phinney B, Deretic V. ATG5 provides host protection acting as a switch in the atg8ylation cascade between autophagy and secretion. Dev Cell 2023; 58:866-884.e8. [PMID: 37054706 PMCID: PMC10205698 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2023.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
ATG5 is a part of the E3 ligase directing lipidation of ATG8 proteins, a process central to membrane atg8ylation and canonical autophagy. Loss of Atg5 in myeloid cells causes early mortality in murine models of tuberculosis. This in vivo phenotype is specific to ATG5. Here, we show using human cell lines that absence of ATG5, but not of other ATGs directing canonical autophagy, promotes lysosomal exocytosis and secretion of extracellular vesicles and, in murine Atg5fl/fl LysM-Cre neutrophils, their excessive degranulation. This is due to lysosomal disrepair in ATG5 knockout cells and the sequestration by an alternative conjugation complex, ATG12-ATG3, of ESCRT protein ALIX, which acts in membrane repair and exosome secretion. These findings reveal a previously undescribed function of ATG5 in its host-protective role in murine experimental models of tuberculosis and emphasize the significance of the branching aspects of the atg8ylation conjugation cascade beyond the canonical autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fulong Wang
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Ryan Peters
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Jingyue Jia
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Michal Mudd
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Michelle Salemi
- Proteomics Core Facility, UC Davis Genome Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Lee Allers
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Ruheena Javed
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Thabata L A Duque
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Masroor A Paddar
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Einar S Trosdal
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Brett Phinney
- Proteomics Core Facility, UC Davis Genome Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
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36
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA.
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA.
| | - Fulong Wang
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA
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37
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Aylan B, Bernard EM, Pellegrino E, Botella L, Fearns A, Athanasiadi N, Bussi C, Santucci P, Gutierrez MG. ATG7 and ATG14 restrict cytosolic and phagosomal Mycobacterium tuberculosis replication in human macrophages. Nat Microbiol 2023; 8:803-818. [PMID: 36959508 PMCID: PMC10159855 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-023-01335-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is a cellular innate-immune defence mechanism against intracellular microorganisms, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). How canonical and non-canonical autophagy function to control Mtb infection in phagosomes and the cytosol remains unresolved. Macrophages are the main host cell in humans for Mtb. Here we studied the contributions of canonical and non-canonical autophagy in the genetically tractable human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived macrophages (iPSDM), using a set of Mtb mutants generated in the same genetic background of the common lab strain H37Rv. We monitored replication of Mtb mutants that are either unable to trigger canonical autophagy (Mtb ΔesxBA) or reportedly unable to block non-canonical autophagy (Mtb ΔcpsA) in iPSDM lacking either ATG7 or ATG14 using single-cell high-content imaging. We report that deletion of ATG7 by CRISPR-Cas9 in iPSDM resulted in increased replication of wild-type Mtb but not of Mtb ΔesxBA or Mtb ΔcpsA. We show that deletion of ATG14 resulted in increased replication of both Mtb wild type and the mutant Mtb ΔesxBA. Using Mtb reporters and quantitative imaging, we identified a role for ATG14 in regulating fusion of phagosomes containing Mtb with lysosomes, thereby enabling intracellular bacteria restriction. We conclude that ATG7 and ATG14 are both required for restricting Mtb replication in human macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beren Aylan
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Elliott M Bernard
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
- Department of Immunobiology, University of Lausanne, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Enrica Pellegrino
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Laure Botella
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Antony Fearns
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Natalia Athanasiadi
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Claudio Bussi
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Pierre Santucci
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
- Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, LISM, Marseille, France
| | - Maximiliano G Gutierrez
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK.
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38
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Golovkine GR, Roberts AW, Morrison HM, Rivera-Lugo R, McCall RM, Nilsson H, Garelis NE, Repasy T, Cronce M, Budzik J, Van Dis E, Popov LM, Mitchell G, Zalpuri R, Jorgens D, Cox JS. Autophagy restricts Mycobacterium tuberculosis during acute infection in mice. Nat Microbiol 2023; 8:819-832. [PMID: 37037941 PMCID: PMC11027733 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-023-01354-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
Whether or not autophagy has a role in defence against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection remains unresolved. Previously, conditional knockdown of the core autophagy component ATG5 in myeloid cells was reported to confer extreme susceptibility to M. tuberculosis in mice, whereas depletion of other autophagy factors had no effect on infection. We show that doubling cre gene dosage to more robustly deplete ATG16L1 or ATG7 resulted in increased M. tuberculosis growth and host susceptibility in mice, although ATG5-depleted mice are more sensitive than ATG16L1- or ATG7-depleted mice. We imaged individual macrophages infected with M. tuberculosis and identified a shift from apoptosis to rapid necrosis in autophagy-depleted cells. This effect was dependent on phagosome permeabilization by M. tuberculosis. We monitored infected cells by electron microscopy, showing that autophagy protects the host macrophage by partially reducing mycobacterial access to the cytosol. We conclude that autophagy has an important role in defence against M. tuberculosis in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume R Golovkine
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Evotec, Toulouse, France
| | - Allison W Roberts
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Huntly M Morrison
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Rafael Rivera-Lugo
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Rita M McCall
- Department of Plant & Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Hannah Nilsson
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Nicholas E Garelis
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Teresa Repasy
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Bio-Rad Laboratories, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Michael Cronce
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- UC Berkeley-UCSF Graduate program in Bioengineering, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan Budzik
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Erik Van Dis
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Lauren M Popov
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Novome Biotechnologies, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Gabriel Mitchell
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Open Innovation @ NITD, Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases, Emeryville, CA, USA
| | - Reena Zalpuri
- Electron Microscope Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Danielle Jorgens
- Electron Microscope Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Jeffery S Cox
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
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Ivanova T, Mariienko Y, Mehterov N, Kazakova M, Sbirkov Y, Todorova K, Hayrabedyan S, Sarafian V. Autophagy and SARS-CoV-2-Old Players in New Games. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:7734. [PMID: 37175443 PMCID: PMC10178552 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24097734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
At present it is well-defined that autophagy is a fundamental process essential for cell life but its pro-viral and anti-viral role has been stated out with the COVID pandemic. However, viruses in turn have evolved diverse adaptive strategies to cope with autophagy driven host defense, either by blocking or hijacking the autophagy machinery for their own benefit. The mechanisms underlying autophagy modulation are presented in the current review which summarizes the accumulated knowledge on the crosstalk between autophagy and viral infections, with a particular emphasizes on SARS-CoV-2. The different types of autophagy related to infections and their molecular mechanisms are focused in the context of inflammation. In particular, SARS-CoV-2 entry, replication and disease pathogenesis are discussed. Models to study autophagy and to formulate novel treatment approaches and pharmacological modulation to fight COVID-19 are debated. The SARS-CoV-2-autophagy interplay is presented, revealing the complex dynamics and the molecular machinery of autophagy. The new molecular targets and strategies to treat COVID-19 effectively are envisaged. In conclusion, our finding underline the importance of development new treatment strategies and pharmacological modulation of autophagy to fight COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsvetomira Ivanova
- Department of Medical Biology, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
- Research Institute, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
| | - Yuliia Mariienko
- Institute of Biology and Immunology of Reproduction, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Nikolay Mehterov
- Department of Medical Biology, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
- Research Institute, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
| | - Maria Kazakova
- Department of Medical Biology, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
- Research Institute, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
| | - Yordan Sbirkov
- Department of Medical Biology, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
- Research Institute, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
| | - Krassimira Todorova
- Institute of Biology and Immunology of Reproduction, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Soren Hayrabedyan
- Institute of Biology and Immunology of Reproduction, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Victoria Sarafian
- Department of Medical Biology, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
- Research Institute, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
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40
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Qu Y, Jiang D, Liu M, Wang H, Xu T, Zhou H, Huang M, Shu W, Xu G. LncRNA DANCR restrained the survival of mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra by sponging miR-1301-3p/miR-5194. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1119629. [PMID: 37125193 PMCID: PMC10133511 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1119629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis is a worldwide contagion caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). MTB is characterized by intracellular parasitism and is semi-dormant inside host cells. The persistent inflammation caused by MTB can form a granuloma in lesion regions and intensify the latency of bacteria. In recent years, several studies have proven that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play critical roles in modulating autophagy. In our study, the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases were searched for lncRNAs that are associated with tuberculosis. We found that lncRNA differentiation antagonizing non-protein coding RNA (DANCR) increased in the peripheral blood samples collected from 54 pulmonary tuberculosis patients compared to 23 healthy donors. By constructing DANCR overexpression cells, we analyzed the possible cellular function of DANCR. After analyzing our experiments, it was found that the data revealed that upregulation of DANCR facilitated the expression of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, autophagy-related 4D cysteine peptides, autophagy-related 5, Ras homolog enriched in the brain, and microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B light chain 3 (STAT3, ATG4D, ATG5, RHEB, and LC3, respectively) by sponging miR-1301-3p and miR-5194. Immunofluorescence analysis indicated that DANCR played a positive role in both autophagosome formation and fusion of autolysosomes in macrophages. The colony-forming unit (CFU) assay data also showed that the cells overexpressing DANCR were more efficient in eliminating the intracellular H37Ra strain. Consequently, these data suggest that DANCR restrained intracellular survival of M. tuberculosis by promoting autophagy via miR-1301-3p and miR-5194.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuliang Qu
- The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
- School of Clinical Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China
| | - Dan Jiang
- The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
| | - Minjuan Liu
- The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
| | - Hongxia Wang
- The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
- School of Clinical Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China
| | - Tao Xu
- The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
| | - Haijin Zhou
- The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
| | - Minlan Huang
- The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
| | - Weitong Shu
- The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
| | - Guangxian Xu
- The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
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41
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Wang YT, Sansone A, Smirnov A, Stallings CL, Orvedahl A. Myeloid autophagy genes protect mice against fatal TNF- and LPS-induced cytokine storm syndromes. Autophagy 2023; 19:1114-1127. [PMID: 36056542 PMCID: PMC10012903 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2022.2116675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
ABBREVIATIONS ATG5: autophagy related 5; ATG7: autophagy related 7; ATG14: autophagy related 14; ATG16L1: autophagy related 16-like 1 (S. cerevisiae); BECN1: beclin 1, autophagy related; CASP1: caspase 1; CASP4/CASP11: caspase 4, apoptosis-related cysteine peptidase; CIM: conditionally immortalized macrophage; CLP: cecal ligation and puncture; CSS: cytokine storm syndrome; DC: dendritic cell; IFNG/IFNγ: interferon gamma; IFNGR1: interferon gamma receptor 1; ip: intraperitoneal; iv: intravenous; IL12/p70: interleukin 12, p70 heterodimer; IL18: Interleukin 18; ITGAX/CD11c: integrin alpha X; LAP: LC3-associated phagocytosis; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; LYZ2/LYSM: lysozyme 2; MAP1LC3A/LC3: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 alpha; RB1CC1/FIP200: RB1-inducible coiled-coil 1; S100A8/MRP8: S100 calcium binding protein A8 (calgranulin A); TICAM1/TRIF: TIR domain containing adaptor molecule 1; TLR4: toll-like receptor 4; TNF: tumor necrosis factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Ting Wang
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University School of Medicine, Beijing, Haidian, China
| | - Amy Sansone
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Asya Smirnov
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Christina L Stallings
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Anthony Orvedahl
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
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Bedard M, van der Niet S, Bernard EM, Babunovic G, Cheng TY, Aylan B, Grootemaat AE, Raman S, Botella L, Ishikawa E, O'Sullivan MP, O'Leary S, Mayfield JA, Buter J, Minnaard AJ, Fortune SM, Murphy LO, Ory DS, Keane J, Yamasaki S, Gutierrez MG, van der Wel N, Moody DB. A terpene nucleoside from M. tuberculosis induces lysosomal lipid storage in foamy macrophages. J Clin Invest 2023; 133:161944. [PMID: 36757797 PMCID: PMC10014106 DOI: 10.1172/jci161944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Induction of lipid-laden foamy macrophages is a cellular hallmark of tuberculosis (TB) disease, which involves the transformation of infected phagolysosomes from a site of killing into a nutrient-rich replicative niche. Here, we show that a terpenyl nucleoside shed from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 1-tuberculosinyladenosine (1-TbAd), caused lysosomal maturation arrest and autophagy blockade, leading to lipid storage in M1 macrophages. Pure 1-TbAd, or infection with terpenyl nucleoside-producing M. tuberculosis, caused intralysosomal and peribacillary lipid storage patterns that matched both the molecules and subcellular locations known in foamy macrophages. Lipidomics showed that 1-TbAd induced storage of triacylglycerides and cholesterylesters and that 1-TbAd increased M. tuberculosis growth under conditions of restricted lipid access in macrophages. Furthermore, lipidomics identified 1-TbAd-induced lipid substrates that define Gaucher's disease, Wolman's disease, and other inborn lysosomal storage diseases. These data identify genetic and molecular causes of M. tuberculosis-induced lysosomal failure, leading to successful testing of an agonist of TRPML1 calcium channels that reverses lipid storage in cells. These data establish the host-directed cellular functions of an orphan effector molecule that promotes survival in macrophages, providing both an upstream cause and detailed picture of lysosome failure in foamy macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Bedard
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunity and Inflammation, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sanne van der Niet
- Electron Microscopy Centre Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Elliott M Bernard
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gregory Babunovic
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunity and Inflammation, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Tan-Yun Cheng
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunity and Inflammation, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Beren Aylan
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anita E Grootemaat
- Electron Microscopy Centre Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sahadevan Raman
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunity and Inflammation, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Laure Botella
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Eri Ishikawa
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Mary P O'Sullivan
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, St. James's Hospital, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Seónadh O'Leary
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, St. James's Hospital, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jacob A Mayfield
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunity and Inflammation, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jeffrey Buter
- Department of Chemical Biology, Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Adriaan J Minnaard
- Department of Chemical Biology, Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Sarah M Fortune
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Daniel S Ory
- Casma Therapeutics, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Joseph Keane
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, St. James's Hospital, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Sho Yamasaki
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Maximiliano G Gutierrez
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicole van der Wel
- Electron Microscopy Centre Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - D Branch Moody
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunity and Inflammation, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Kim YJ, Park EJ, Lee SH, Silwal P, Kim JK, Yang JS, Whang J, Jang J, Kim JM, Jo EK. Dimethyl itaconate is effective in host-directed antimicrobial responses against mycobacterial infections through multifaceted innate immune pathways. Cell Biosci 2023; 13:49. [PMID: 36882813 PMCID: PMC9993662 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-023-00992-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Itaconate, a crucial immunometabolite, plays a critical role in linking immune and metabolic functions to influence host defense and inflammation. Due to its polar structure, the esterified cell-permeable derivatives of itaconate are being developed to provide therapeutic opportunities in infectious and inflammatory diseases. Yet, it remains largely uncharacterized whether itaconate derivatives have potentials in promoting host-directed therapeutics (HDT) against mycobacterial infections. Here, we report dimethyl itaconate (DMI) as the promising candidate for HDT against both Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and nontuberculous mycobacteria by orchestrating multiple innate immune programs. RESULTS DMI per se has low bactericidal activity against Mtb, M. bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), and M. avium (Mav). However, DMI robustly activated intracellular elimination of multiple mycobacterial strains (Mtb, BCG, Mav, and even to multidrug-resistant Mtb) in macrophages and in vivo. DMI significantly suppressed the production of interleukin-6 and -10, whereas it enhanced autophagy and phagosomal maturation, during Mtb infection. DMI-mediated autophagy partly contributed to antimicrobial host defenses in macrophages. Moreover, DMI significantly downregulated the activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 signaling during infection with Mtb, BCG, and Mav. CONCLUSION Together, DMI has potent anti-mycobacterial activities in macrophages and in vivo through promoting multifaceted ways for innate host defenses. DMI may bring light to new candidate for HDT against Mtb and nontuberculous mycobacteria, both of which infections are often intractable with antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Jae Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea.,Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea.,Brain Korea 21 FOUR Project for Medical Science, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Eun-Jin Park
- Department of Microbiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Sang-Hee Lee
- Center for Research Equipment, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju, Chungbuk, South Korea
| | - Prashanta Silwal
- Department of Microbiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Jin Kyung Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Keimyung University School of Medicine, Daegu, South Korea
| | - Jeong Seong Yang
- Department of Research and Development, Korea Mycobacterium Resource Center (KMRC), The Korean Institute of Tuberculosis, Osong, 28158, South Korea
| | - Jake Whang
- Department of Research and Development, Korea Mycobacterium Resource Center (KMRC), The Korean Institute of Tuberculosis, Osong, 28158, South Korea
| | - Jichan Jang
- Division of Life Science, Department of Bio & Medical Big Data (BK21 Four Program), Research Institute of Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, South Korea
| | - Jin-Man Kim
- Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea.,Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea.,Department of Pathology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Eun-Kyeong Jo
- Department of Microbiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea. .,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea. .,Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea.
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44
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Zhou C, Liang T, Jiang J, Chen J, Chen T, Huang S, Chen L, Sun X, Chen W, Zhu J, Wu S, Fan B, Liu C, Zhan X. MMP9 and STAT1 are biomarkers of the change in immune infiltration after anti-tuberculosis therapy, and the immune status can identify patients with spinal tuberculosis. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 116:109588. [PMID: 36773569 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Due to a lack of studies on immune-related pathogenesis and a clinical diagnostic model, the diagnosis of Spinal Tuberculosis (STB) remains uncertain. Our study aimed to investigate the possible pathogenesis of STB and to develop a clinical diagnostic model for STB based on immune cell infiltration. METHODS Label-free quantification protein analysis of five pairs of specimens was used to determine the protein expression of the intervertebral disc in STB and non-STB. GO enrichment analysis, and KEGG pathway analysis were used to investigate the pathogenesis of STB. The Hub proteins were then eliminated. Four datasets were downloaded from the GEO database to analyze immune cell infiltration, and the results were validated using blood routine test data from 8535TB and 7337 non-TB patients. Following that, clinical data from 164 STB and 162 non-STB patients were collected. The Random-Forest algorithm was used to screen out clinical predictors of STB and build a diagnostic model. The differential expression of MMP9 and STAT1 in STB and controls was confirmed using immunohistochemistry. RESULTS MMP9 and STAT1 were STB Hub proteins that were linked to disc destruction in STB. MMP9 and STAT1 were found to be associated with Monocytes, Neutrophils, and Lymphocytes in immune cell infiltration studies. Data from 15,872 blood routine tests revealed that the Monocytes ratio and Neutrophils ratio was significantly higher in TB patients than in non-TB patients (p < 0.001), while the Lymphocytes ratio was significantly lower in TB patients than in non-TB patients (p < 0.001). MMP9 and STAT1 expression were downregulated following the anti-TB therapy. For STB, a clinical diagnostic model was built using six clinical predictors: MR, NR, LR, ESR, BMI, and PLT. The model was evaluated using a ROC curve, which yielded an AUC of 0.816. CONCLUSIONS MMP9 and STAT1, immune-related hub proteins, were correlated with immune cell infiltration in STB patients. MR, NR, LR ESR, BMI, and PLT were clinical predictors of STB. Thus, the immune cell Infiltration-related clinical diagnostic model can predict STB effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenxing Zhou
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Tuo Liang
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Jie Jiang
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Jiarui Chen
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Tianyou Chen
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Shengsheng Huang
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Liyi Chen
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Xuhua Sun
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Wenkang Chen
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Jichong Zhu
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Shaofeng Wu
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Binguang Fan
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Chong Liu
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
| | - Xinli Zhan
- Department of Spine and Osteopathy Ward, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, PR China.
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Abstract
The global burden of tuberculosis (TB) is aggravated by the continuously increasing emergence of drug resistance, highlighting the need for innovative therapeutic options. The concept of host-directed therapy (HDT) as adjunctive to classical antibacterial therapy with antibiotics represents a novel and promising approach for treating TB. Here, we have focused on repurposing the clinically used anticancer drug tamoxifen, which was identified as a molecule with strong host-directed activity against intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Using a primary human macrophage Mtb infection model, we demonstrate the potential of tamoxifen against drug-sensitive as well as drug-resistant Mtb bacteria. The therapeutic effect of tamoxifen was confirmed in an in vivo TB model based on Mycobacterium marinum infection of zebrafish larvae. Tamoxifen had no direct antimicrobial effects at the concentrations used, confirming that tamoxifen acted as an HDT drug. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the antimycobacterial effect of tamoxifen is independent of its well-known target the estrogen receptor (ER) pathway, but instead acts by modulating autophagy, in particular the lysosomal pathway. Through RNA sequencing and microscopic colocalization studies, we show that tamoxifen stimulates lysosomal activation and increases the localization of mycobacteria in lysosomes both in vitro and in vivo, while inhibition of lysosomal activity during tamoxifen treatment partly restores mycobacterial survival. Thus, our work highlights the HDT potential of tamoxifen and proposes it as a repurposed molecule for the treatment of TB. IMPORTANCE Tuberculosis (TB) is the world's most lethal infectious disease caused by a bacterial pathogen, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This pathogen evades the immune defenses of its host and grows intracellularly in immune cells, particularly inside macrophages. There is an urgent need for novel therapeutic strategies because treatment of TB patients is increasingly complicated by rising antibiotic resistance. In this study, we explored a breast cancer drug, tamoxifen, as a potential anti-TB drug. We show that tamoxifen acts as a so-called host-directed therapeutic, which means that it does not act directly on the bacteria but helps the host macrophages combat the infection more effectively. We confirmed the antimycobacterial effect of tamoxifen in a zebrafish model for TB and showed that it functions by promoting the delivery of mycobacteria to digestive organelles, the lysosomes. These results support the high potential of tamoxifen to be repurposed to fight antibiotic-resistant TB infections by host-directed therapy.
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Wilburn KM, Meade RK, Heckenberg EM, Dockterman J, Coers J, Sassetti CM, Olive AJ, Smith CM. Differential Requirement for IRGM Proteins during Tuberculosis Infection in Mice. Infect Immun 2023; 91:e0051022. [PMID: 36629440 PMCID: PMC9933630 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00510-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is a bacterium that exclusively resides in human hosts and remains a dominant cause of morbidity and mortality among infectious diseases worldwide. Host protection against Mtb infection is dependent on the function of immunity-related GTPase clade M (IRGM) proteins. Polymorphisms in human IRGM associate with altered susceptibility to mycobacterial disease, and human IRGM promotes the delivery of Mtb into degradative autolysosomes. Among the three murine IRGM orthologs, Irgm1 has been singled out as essential for host protection during Mtb infections in cultured macrophages and in vivo. However, whether the paralogous murine Irgm genes, Irgm2 and Irgm3, play roles in host defense against Mtb or exhibit functional relationships with Irgm1 during Mtb infection remains undetermined. Here, we report that Irgm1-/- mice are indeed acutely susceptible to aerosol infection with Mtb, yet the additional deletion of the paralogous Irgm3 gene restores protective immunity to Mtb infections in Irgm1-deficient animals. Mice lacking all three Irgm genes (panIrgm-/-) are characterized by shifted lung cytokine profiles at 5 and 24 weeks postinfection, but control disease until the very late stages of the infection, when panIrgm-/- mice display increased mortality compared to wild-type mice. Collectively, our data demonstrate that disruptions in the balance between Irgm isoforms is more detrimental to the Mtb-infected host than total loss of Irgm-mediated host defense, a concept that also needs to be considered in the context of human Mtb susceptibility linked to IRGM polymorphisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaley M. Wilburn
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Rachel K. Meade
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- University Program in Genetics and Genomics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Emma M. Heckenberg
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jacob Dockterman
- Department of Immunology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jörn Coers
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- University Program in Genetics and Genomics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Immunology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Christopher M. Sassetti
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Andrew J. Olive
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Clare M. Smith
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- University Program in Genetics and Genomics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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Thomas SM, Olive AJ. Rapid lethality of mice lacking the phagocyte oxidase and Caspase1/11 following Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.08.527787. [PMID: 36798180 PMCID: PMC9934620 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.08.527787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
Immune networks that control antimicrobial and inflammatory mechanisms have overlapping regulation and functions to ensure effective host responses. Genetic interaction studies of immune pathways that compare host responses in single and combined knockout backgrounds are a useful tool to identify new mechanisms of immune control during infection. For disease caused by pulmonary Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections, which currently lacks an effective vaccine, understanding genetic interactions between protective immune pathways may identify new therapeutic targets or disease-associated genes. Previous studies suggested a direct link between the activation of NLRP3-Caspase1 inflammasome and the NADPH-dependent phagocyte oxidase complex during Mtb infection. Loss of the phagocyte oxidase complex alone resulted in increased activation of Caspase1 and IL1β production during Mtb infection, resulting in failed disease tolerance during the chronic stages of disease. To better understand this interaction, we generated mice lacking both Cybb , a key subunit of the phagocyte oxidase, and Caspase1/11 . We found that ex vivo Mtb infection of Cybb -/- Caspase1/11 -/- macrophages resulted in the expected loss of IL1β secretion but an unexpected change in other inflammatory cytokines and bacterial control. Mtb infected Cybb -/- Caspase1/11 -/- mice rapidly progressed to severe TB, succumbing within four weeks to disease characterized by high bacterial burden, increased inflammatory cytokines, and the recruitment of granulocytes that associated with Mtb in the lungs. These results uncover a key genetic interaction between the phagocyte oxidase complex and Caspase1/11 that controls protection against TB and highlight the need for a better understanding of the regulation of fundamental immune networks during Mtb infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean M. Thomas
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Andrew J. Olive
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA
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Shariq M, Quadir N, Alam A, Zarin S, Sheikh JA, Sharma N, Samal J, Ahmad U, Kumari I, Hasnain SE, Ehtesham NZ. The exploitation of host autophagy and ubiquitin machinery by Mycobacterium tuberculosis in shaping immune responses and host defense during infection. Autophagy 2023; 19:3-23. [PMID: 35000542 PMCID: PMC9809970 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2021.2021495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Intracellular pathogens have evolved various efficient molecular armaments to subvert innate defenses. Cellular ubiquitination, a normal physiological process to maintain homeostasis, is emerging one such exploited mechanism. Ubiquitin (Ub), a small protein modifier, is conjugated to diverse protein substrates to regulate many functions. Structurally diverse linkages of poly-Ub to target proteins allow enormous functional diversity with specificity being governed by evolutionarily conserved enzymes (E3-Ub ligases). The Ub-binding domain (UBD) and LC3-interacting region (LIR) are critical features of macroautophagy/autophagy receptors that recognize Ub-conjugated on protein substrates. Emerging evidence suggests that E3-Ub ligases unexpectedly protect against intracellular pathogens by tagging poly-Ub on their surfaces and targeting them to phagophores. Two E3-Ub ligases, PRKN and SMURF1, provide immunity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb). Both enzymes conjugate K63 and K48-linked poly-Ub to M. tb for successful delivery to phagophores. Intriguingly, M. tb exploits virulence factors to effectively dampen host-directed autophagy utilizing diverse mechanisms. Autophagy receptors contain LIR-motifs that interact with conserved Atg8-family proteins to modulate phagophore biogenesis and fusion to the lysosome. Intracellular pathogens have evolved a vast repertoire of virulence effectors to subdue host-immunity via hijacking the host ubiquitination process. This review highlights the xenophagy-mediated clearance of M. tb involving host E3-Ub ligases and counter-strategy of autophagy inhibition by M. tb using virulence factors. The role of Ub-binding receptors and their mode of autophagy regulation is also explained. We also discuss the co-opting and utilization of the host Ub system by M. tb for its survival and virulence.Abbreviations: APC: anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome; ATG5: autophagy related 5; BCG: bacille Calmette-Guerin; C2: Ca2+-binding motif; CALCOCO2: calcium binding and coiled-coil domain 2; CUE: coupling of ubiquitin conjugation to ER degradation domains; DUB: deubiquitinating enzyme; GABARAP: GABA type A receptor-associated protein; HECT: homologous to the E6-AP carboxyl terminus; IBR: in-between-ring fingers; IFN: interferon; IL1B: interleukin 1 beta; KEAP1: kelch like ECH associated protein 1; LAMP1: lysosomal associated membrane protein 1; LGALS: galectin; LIR: LC3-interacting region; MAPK11/p38: mitogen-activated protein kinase 11; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MAP3K7/TAK1: mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 7; MAPK8/JNK: mitogen-activated protein kinase 8; MHC-II: major histocompatibility complex-II; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; NBR1: NBR1 autophagy cargo receptor; NFKB1/p50: nuclear factor kappa B subunit 1; OPTN: optineurin; PB1: phox and bem 1; PE/PPE: proline-glutamic acid/proline-proline-glutamic acid; PknG: serine/threonine-protein kinase PknG; PRKN: parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase; RBR: RING-in between RING; RING: really interesting new gene; RNF166: RING finger protein 166; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SMURF1: SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1; SQSTM1: sequestosome 1; STING1: stimulator of interferon response cGAMP interactor 1; TAX1BP1: Tax1 binding protein 1; TBK1: TANK binding kinase 1; TNF: tumor necrosis factor; TRAF6: TNF receptor associated factor 6; Ub: ubiquitin; UBA: ubiquitin-associated; UBAN: ubiquitin-binding domain in ABIN proteins and NEMO; UBD: ubiquitin-binding domain; UBL: ubiquitin-like; ULK1: unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Shariq
- Inflammation Biology and Cell Signaling Laboratory, National Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Ansari Nagar West, New Delhi, India
| | - Neha Quadir
- Inflammation Biology and Cell Signaling Laboratory, National Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Ansari Nagar West, New Delhi, India,Department of Molecular Medicine, Jamia Hamdard-Institute of Molecular Medicine, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Anwar Alam
- Inflammation Biology and Cell Signaling Laboratory, National Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Ansari Nagar West, New Delhi, India
| | - Sheeba Zarin
- Inflammation Biology and Cell Signaling Laboratory, National Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Ansari Nagar West, New Delhi, India,Department of Molecular Medicine, Jamia Hamdard-Institute of Molecular Medicine, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Javaid A. Sheikh
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Neha Sharma
- Inflammation Biology and Cell Signaling Laboratory, National Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Ansari Nagar West, New Delhi, India,Department of Molecular Medicine, Jamia Hamdard-Institute of Molecular Medicine, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Jasmine Samal
- Inflammation Biology and Cell Signaling Laboratory, National Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Ansari Nagar West, New Delhi, India
| | - Uzair Ahmad
- Inflammation Biology and Cell Signaling Laboratory, National Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Ansari Nagar West, New Delhi, India
| | - Indu Kumari
- Inflammation Biology and Cell Signaling Laboratory, National Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Ansari Nagar West, New Delhi, India
| | - Seyed E. Hasnain
- Department of Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi (IIT-D), New Delhi, India,Department of Life Science, School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India,Seyed E. Hasnain ; ; Department of Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi (IIT-D), Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110 016, India
| | - Nasreen Z. Ehtesham
- Inflammation Biology and Cell Signaling Laboratory, National Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Ansari Nagar West, New Delhi, India,CONTACT Nasreen Z. Ehtesham ; ICMR-National Institute of Pathology, Ansari Nagar West, New Delhi110029, India
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Shen J, Zhao C, Zhang H, Zhou P, Li Z. Classification of tuberculosis-related programmed cell death-related patient subgroups and associated immune cell profiling. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1159713. [PMID: 37205113 PMCID: PMC10185908 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1159713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Tuberculosis (TB) is the deadliest communicable disease in the world with the exception of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Programmed cell death (PCD) patterns play key roles in the development and progression of many disease states such that they may offer value as effective biomarkers or therapeutic targets that can aid in identifying and treating TB patients. Materials and methods The Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) was used to gather TB-related datasets after which immune cell profiles in these data were analyzed to examine the potential TB-related loss of immune homeostasis. Profiling of differentially expressed PCD-related genes was performed, after which candidate hub PCD-associated genes were selected via a machine learning approach. TB patients were then stratified into two subsets based on the expression of PCD-related genes via consensus clustering. The potential roles of these PCD-associated genes in other TB-related diseases were further examined. Results In total, 14 PCD-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified and highly expressed in TB patient samples and significantly correlated with the abundance of many immune cell types. Machine learning algorithms enabled the selection of seven hub PCD-related genes that were used to establish PCD-associated patient subgroups, followed by the validation of these subgroups in independent datasets. These findings, together with GSVA results, indicated that immune-related pathways were significantly enriched in TB patients exhibiting high levels of PCD-related gene expression, whereas metabolic pathways were significantly enriched in the other patient group. Single cell RNA-seq (scRNA-seq) further highlighted significant differences in the immune status of these different TB patient samples. Furthermore, we used CMap to predict five potential drugs for TB-related diseases. Conclusion These results highlight clear enrichment of PCD-related gene expression in TB patients and suggest that this PCD activity is closely associated with immune cell abundance. This thus indicates that PCD may play a role in TB progression through the induction or dysregulation of an immune response. These findings provide a foundation for further research aimed at clarifying the molecular drivers of TB, the selection of appropriate diagnostic biomarkers, and the design of novel therapeutic interventions aimed at treating this deadly infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Shen
- School of Medical Laboratory, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Chao Zhao
- Office of Academic Affairs, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- School of Public Health, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Peipei Zhou
- School of Medical Laboratory, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Zhenpeng Li
- School of Medical Laboratory, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
- *Correspondence: Zhenpeng Li,
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Zhang J, Li L, Yu J, Zhang F, Shi J, LI M, Liu J, Li H, Gao J, Wu Y. Autophagy-Modulated Biomaterial: A Robust Weapon for Modulating the Wound Environment to Promote Skin Wound Healing. Int J Nanomedicine 2023; 18:2567-2588. [PMID: 37213350 PMCID: PMC10198186 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s398107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy, a self-renewal mechanism, can help to maintain the stability of the intracellular environment of organisms. Autophagy can also regulate several cellular functions and is strongly related to the onset and progression of several diseases. Wound healing is a biological process that is coregulated by different types of cells. However, it is troublesome owing to prolonged treatment duration and poor recovery. In recent years, biomaterials have been reported to influence the skin wound healing process by finely regulating autophagy. Biomaterials that regulate autophagy in various cells involved in skin wound healing to regulate the differentiation, proliferation and migration of cells, inflammatory responses, oxidative stress and formation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) have emerged as a key method for improving the tissue regeneration ability of biomaterials. During the inflammatory phase, autophagy enhances the clearance of pathogens from the wound site and leads to macrophage polarization from the M1 to the M2 phenotype, thus preventing enhanced inflammation that can lead to further tissue damage. Autophagy plays important roles in facilitating the formation of extracellular matrix (ECM) during the proliferative phase, removing excess intracellular ROS, and promoting the proliferation and differentiation of endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and keratinocytes. This review summarizes the close association between autophagy and skin wound healing and discusses the role of biomaterial-based autophagy in tissue regeneration. The applications of recent biomaterials designed to target autophagy are highlighted, including polymeric materials, cellular materials, metal nanomaterials, and carbon-based materials. A better understanding of biomaterial-regulated autophagy and skin regeneration and the underlying molecular mechanisms may open new possibilities for promoting skin regeneration. Moreover, this can lay the foundation for the development of more effective therapeutic approaches and novel biomaterials for clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Zhang
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Luxin Li
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jing Yu
- Department of Endocrinology, Hongqi Hospital Affiliated to Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, 157011, People’s Republic of China
| | - Fan Zhang
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jiayi Shi
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Meiyun LI
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianyong Liu
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Wuhan Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Haitao Li
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Wuhan Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jie Gao
- Changhai Clinical Research Unit, Shanghai Changhai Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, People’s Republic of China
- Jie Gao, Changhai Clinical Research Unit, Shanghai Changhai Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, People’s Republic of China, Tel/Fax +86 21-31166666, Email
| | - Yan Wu
- College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Yan Wu, College of Life Science, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, Heilongjiang, 157001, People’s Republic of China, Tel/Fax +86-453-6984647, Email
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