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Ence CC, Uddin T, Borrel J, Mittal P, Xie H, Zoller J, Sharma A, Comer E, Schreiber SL, Melillo B, Sibley LD, Chatterjee AK. Bicyclic pyrrolidine inhibitors of Toxoplasma gondii phenylalanine t-RNA synthetase with antiparasitic potency in vitro and brain exposure. bioRxiv 2024:2024.02.28.582607. [PMID: 38464220 PMCID: PMC10925249 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.28.582607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that bicyclic azetidines are potent and selective inhibitors of apicomplexan phenylalanine tRNA synthetase (PheRS), leading to parasite growth inhibition in vitro and in vivo, including in models of Toxoplasma infection. Despite these useful properties, additional optimization is required for the development of efficacious treatments of toxoplasmosis from this inhibitor series, in particular to achieve sufficient exposure in the brain. Here, we describe a series of PheRS inhibitors built on a new bicyclic pyrrolidine core scaffold designed to retain the exit-vector geometry of the isomeric bicyclic azetidine core scaffold while offering avenues to sample diverse chemical space. Relative to the parent series, bicyclic pyrrolidines retain reasonable potency and target selectivity for parasite PheRS vs. host. Further structure-activity relationship studies revealed that the introduction of aliphatic groups improved potency, ADME and PK properties, including brain exposure. The identification of this new scaffold provides potential opportunities to extend the analog series to further improve selectivity and potency and ultimately deliver a novel, efficacious treatment of toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe C Ence
- Calibr at Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Taher Uddin
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Julien Borrel
- Chemical Biology and Therapeutics Science Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Payal Mittal
- Molecular Medicine-Structural Parasitology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
- ICMR-NIMR, Sector-8, Dwarka, New Delhi-110077, India, Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad-201002, India
| | - Han Xie
- Calibr at Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Jochen Zoller
- Chemical Biology and Therapeutics Science Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Amit Sharma
- Molecular Medicine-Structural Parasitology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Eamon Comer
- Chemical Biology and Therapeutics Science Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Stuart L Schreiber
- Chemical Biology and Therapeutics Science Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Bruno Melillo
- Chemical Biology and Therapeutics Science Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
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Xia J, Fu Y, Huang W, Sibley LD. Constitutive upregulation of transcription factors underlies permissive bradyzoite differentiation in a natural isolate of Toxoplasma gondii. bioRxiv 2024:2024.02.28.582596. [PMID: 38464000 PMCID: PMC10925318 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.28.582596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii bradyzoites play a critical role in pathology due to their long-term persistence in intermediate hosts and their potential to reactivate, resulting in severe diseases in immunocompromised individuals. Currently there is no effective treatment for eliminating bradyzoites. Hence, better in vitro models of T. gondii cyst development would facilitate identification of therapeutic targets for bradyzoites. Herein we characterized a natural isolate of T. gondii, called Tg68, which showed slower in vitro replication of tachyzoites, and permissive bradyzoite development under stress conditions in vitro. Transcriptional analysis revealed constitutive expression in Tg68 tachyzoites of the key regulators of bradyzoite development including BFD1, BFD2, and several AP2 factors. Consistent with this finding, Tg68 tachyzoites expressed high levels of bradyzoite-specific genes including BAG1, ENO1, and LDH2. Moreover, after stress induced differentiation, Tg68 bradyzoites exhibited gene expression profiles of mature bradyzoites, even at early time points. These data suggest that Tg68 tachyzoites exist in a pre-bradyzoite stage primed to readily develop into mature bradyzoites under stress conditions in vitro. Tg68 presents a novel model for differentiation in vitro that will serve as a useful tool for investigation of bradyzoite biology and development of therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Xia
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Yong Fu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Wanyi Huang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
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Kimball A, Funkhouser-Jones L, Huang W, Xu R, Witola WH, Sibley LD. Mendelian segregation and high recombination rates facilitate genetic analyses in Cryptosporidium parvum. bioRxiv 2024:2024.02.02.578536. [PMID: 38352509 PMCID: PMC10862819 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.02.578536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Very little is known about the process of meiosis in the apicomplexan parasite Cryptosporidium despite the essentiality of sex in its life cycle. Most cell lines only support asexual growth of Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum), but stem cell derived intestinal epithelial cells grown under air-liquid interface (ALI) conditions support the sexual cycle. To examine chromosomal dynamics during meiosis in C. parvum, we generated two transgenic lines of parasites that were fluorescently tagged with mCherry or GFP on chromosomes 1 or 5, respectively. Infection of ALI cultures or Ifngr1-/- mice with mCherry and GFP parasites produced "yellow" oocysts generated by cross-fertilization. Outcrossed oocysts from the F1 generation were purified and used to infect HCT-8 cultures, and phenotypes of the progeny were observed by microscopy. All possible phenotypes predicted by independent segregation were represented equally (~25%) in the population, indicating that C. parvum chromosomes exhibit a Mendelian inheritance pattern. Unexpectedly, the most common pattern observed from the outgrowth of single oocysts included all possible parental and recombinant phenotypes derived from a single meiotic event, suggesting a high rate of crossover. To estimate the frequency of crossover, additional loci on chromosomes 1 and 5 were tagged and used to monitor intrachromosomal crosses in Ifngr1-/- mice. Both chromosomes showed a high frequency of crossover compared to other apicomplexans with map distances (i.e., 1% recombination) of 3-12 kb. Overall, a high recombination rate may explain many unique characteristics observed in Cryptosporidium spp. such as high rates of speciation, wide variation in host range, and rapid evolution of host-specific virulence factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Kimball
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Lisa Funkhouser-Jones
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Wanyi Huang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Rui Xu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - William H. Witola
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign College of Veterinary Medicine, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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Rinkenberger N, Rosenberg A, Radke JB, Bhushan J, Tomita T, Weiss LM, Sibley LD. Susceptibility of Toxoplasma gondii to autophagy in human cells relies on multiple interacting parasite loci. mBio 2024; 15:e0259523. [PMID: 38095418 PMCID: PMC10790690 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02595-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/04/2024] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Autophagy is a process used by cells to recycle organelles and macromolecules and to eliminate intracellular pathogens. Previous studies have shown that some stains of Toxoplasma gondii are resistant to autophagy-dependent growth restriction, while others are highly susceptible. Although it is known that autophagy-mediated control requires activation by interferon gamma, the basis for why parasite strains differ in their susceptibility is unknown. Our findings indicate that susceptibility involves at least five unlinked parasite genes on different chromosomes, including several secretory proteins targeted to the parasite-containing vacuole and exposed to the host cell cytosol. Our findings reveal that susceptibility to autophagy-mediated growth restriction relies on differential recognition of parasite proteins exposed at the host-pathogen interface, thus identifying a new mechanism for cell-autonomous control of intracellular pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Rinkenberger
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Alex Rosenberg
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Joshua B. Radke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jaya Bhushan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Tadakimi Tomita
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Louis M. Weiss
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA
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Xu R, Beatty WL, Greigert V, Witola WH, Sibley LD. Multiple pathways for glucose phosphate transport and utilization support growth of Cryptosporidium parvum. Nat Commun 2024; 15:380. [PMID: 38191884 PMCID: PMC10774378 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-44696-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum is an obligate intracellular parasite with a highly reduced mitochondrion that lacks the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the ability to generate ATP, making the parasite reliant on glycolysis. Genetic ablation experiments demonstrated that neither of the two putative glucose transporters CpGT1 and CpGT2 were essential for growth. Surprisingly, hexokinase was also dispensable for parasite growth while the downstream enzyme aldolase was required, suggesting the parasite has an alternative way of obtaining phosphorylated hexose. Complementation studies in E. coli support a role for direct transport of glucose-6-phosphate from the host cell by the parasite transporters CpGT1 and CpGT2, thus bypassing a requirement for hexokinase. Additionally, the parasite obtains phosphorylated glucose from amylopectin stores that are released by the action of the essential enzyme glycogen phosphorylase. Collectively, these findings reveal that C. parvum relies on multiple pathways to obtain phosphorylated glucose both for glycolysis and to restore carbohydrate reserves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Xu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Wandy L Beatty
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Valentin Greigert
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - William H Witola
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61802, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA.
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Matta SK, Kohio HP, Chandra P, Brown A, Doench JG, Philips JA, Ding S, Sibley LD. Genome-wide and targeted CRISPR screens identify RNF213 as a mediator of interferon gamma-dependent pathogen restriction in human cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2315865120. [PMID: 38147552 PMCID: PMC10769850 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2315865120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023] Open
Abstract
To define cellular immunity to the intracellular pathogen Toxoplasma gondii, we performed a genome-wide CRISPR loss-of-function screen to identify genes important for (interferon gamma) IFN-γ-dependent growth restriction. We revealed a role for the tumor suppressor NF2/Merlin for maximum induction of Interferon Stimulated Genes (ISG), which are positively regulated by the transcription factor IRF-1. We then performed an ISG-targeted CRISPR screen that identified the host E3 ubiquitin ligase RNF213 as necessary for IFN-γ-mediated control of T. gondii in multiple human cell types. RNF213 was also important for control of bacterial (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and viral (Vesicular Stomatitis Virus) pathogens in human cells. RNF213-mediated ubiquitination of the parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM) led to growth restriction of T. gondii in response to IFN-γ. Moreover, overexpression of RNF213 in naive cells also impaired growth of T. gondii. Surprisingly, growth inhibition did not require the autophagy protein ATG5, indicating that RNF213 initiates restriction independent of a previously described noncanonical autophagy pathway. Mutational analysis revealed that the ATPase domain of RNF213 was required for its recruitment to the PVM, while loss of a critical histidine in the RZ finger domain resulted in partial reduction of recruitment to the PVM and complete loss of ubiquitination. Both RNF213 mutants lost the ability to restrict growth of T. gondii, indicating that both recruitment and ubiquitination are required. Collectively, our findings establish RNF213 as a critical component of cell-autonomous immunity that is both necessary and sufficient for control of intracellular pathogens in human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumit K. Matta
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, MO63130
| | - Hinissan P. Kohio
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, MO63130
| | - Pallavi Chandra
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, MO63130
| | - Adam Brown
- Broad Institute of Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA02142
| | - John G. Doench
- Broad Institute of Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA02142
| | - Jennifer A. Philips
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, MO63130
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, MO63130
| | - Siyuan Ding
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, MO63130
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, MO63130
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Greigert V, Saraav I, Son J, Zhu Y, Dayao D, Antia A, Tzipori S, Witola WH, Stappenbeck TS, Ding S, Sibley LD. Cryptosporidium infection of human small intestinal epithelial cells induces type III interferon and impairs infectivity of Rotavirus. Gut Microbes 2024; 16:2297897. [PMID: 38189373 PMCID: PMC10793699 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2023.2297897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis is a major cause of severe diarrheal disease in infants from resource poor settings. The majority of infections are caused by the human-specific pathogen C. hominis and absence of in vitro growth platforms has limited our understanding of host-pathogen interactions and development of effective treatments. To address this problem, we developed a stem cell-derived culture system for C. hominis using human enterocytes differentiated under air-liquid interface (ALI) conditions. Human ALI cultures supported robust growth and complete development of C. hominis in vitro including all life cycle stages. Cryptosporidium infection induced a strong interferon response from enterocytes, possibly driven, in part, by an endogenous dsRNA virus in the parasite. Prior infection with Cryptosporidium induced type III IFN secretion and consequently blunted infection with Rotavirus, including live attenuated vaccine strains. The development of hALI provides a platform for further studies on human-specific pathogens, including clinically important coinfections that may alter vaccine efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin Greigert
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Iti Saraav
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Juhee Son
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yinxing Zhu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Denise Dayao
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Avan Antia
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Saul Tzipori
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - William H. Witola
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Thaddeus S. Stappenbeck
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Siyuan Ding
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
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Henry B, Sibley LD, Rosenberg A. A Combination of Four Nuclear Targeted Effectors Protects Toxoplasma Against Interferon Gamma Driven Human Host Cell Death During Acute Infection. bioRxiv 2023:2023.12.24.573224. [PMID: 38234811 PMCID: PMC10793417 DOI: 10.1101/2023.12.24.573224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
In both mice and humans, Type II interferon-gamma (IFNγ) is crucial for regulation of Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection, during acute or chronic phases. To thwart this defense, T. gondii secretes protein effectors hindering the hosťs immune response. For example, T. gondii relies on the MYR translocon complex to deploy soluble dense granule effectors (GRAs) into the host cell cytosol or nucleus. Recent genome-wide loss-of-function screens in IFNγ-primed primary human fibroblasts identified MYR translocon components as crucial for parasite resistance against IFNγ driven vacuole clearance. However, these screens did not pinpoint specific MYR-dependent GRA proteins responsible for IFNγ signaling blockade, suggesting potential functional redundancy. Our study reveals that T. gondii depends on the MYR translocon complex to prevent host cell death and parasite premature egress in human cells stimulated with IFNγ postinfection, a unique phenotype observed in various human cell lines but not in murine cells. Intriguingly, inhibiting parasite egress did not prevent host cell death, indicating this mechanism is distinct from those described previously. Genome-wide loss-of-function screens uncovered TgIST, GRA16, GRA24, and GRA28 as effectors necessary for a complete block of IFNγ response. GRA24 and GRA28 directly influenced IFNγ driven transcription, GRA24's action depended on its interaction with p38 MAPK, while GRA28 disrupted histone acetyltransferase activity of CBP/p300. Given the intricate nature of the immune response to T. gondii, it appears that the parasite has evolved equally elaborate mechanisms to subvert IFNγ signaling, extending beyond direct interference with the JAK/STAT1 pathway, to encompass other signaling pathways as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany Henry
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Center for Tropical and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Alex Rosenberg
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Center for Tropical and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA
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McAllaster MR, Bhushan J, Balce DR, Orvedahl A, Park A, Hwang S, Sullender ME, Sibley LD, Virgin HW. Autophagy gene-dependent intracellular immunity triggered by interferon-γ. mBio 2023; 14:e0233223. [PMID: 37905813 PMCID: PMC10746157 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02332-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Genes required for the lysosomal degradation pathway of autophagy play key roles in topologically distinct and physiologically important cellular processes. Some functions of ATG genes are independent of their role in degradative autophagy. One of the first described of these ATG gene-dependent, but degradative autophagy independent, processes is the requirement for a subset of ATG genes in interferon-γ (IFNγ)-induced inhibition of norovirus and Toxoplasma gondii replication. Herein, we identified additional genes that are required for, or that negatively regulate, this innate immune effector pathway. Enzymes in the UFMylation pathway negatively regulated IFNγ-induced inhibition of norovirus replication via effects of Ern1. IFNγ-induced inhibition of norovirus replication required Gate-16 (also termed GabarapL2), Wipi2b, Atg9a, Cul3, and Klhl9 but not Becn1 (encoding Beclin 1), Atg14, Uvrag, or Sqstm1. The phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate and ATG16L1-binding domains of WIPI2B, as well as the ATG5-binding domain of ATG16L1, were required for IFNγ-induced inhibition of norovirus replication. Other members of the Cul3, Atg8, and Wipi2 gene families were not required, demonstrating exquisite specificity within these gene families for participation in IFNγ action. The generality of some aspects of this mechanism was demonstrated by a role for GATE-16 and WIPI2 in IFNγ-induced control of Toxoplasma gondii infection in human cells. These studies further delineate the genes and mechanisms of an ATG gene-dependent programmable form of cytokine-induced innate intracellular immunity. IMPORTANCE Interferon-γ (IFNγ) is a critical mediator of cell-intrinsic immunity to intracellular pathogens. Understanding the complex cellular mechanisms supporting robust interferon-γ-induced host defenses could aid in developing new therapeutics to treat infections. Here, we examined the impact of autophagy genes in the interferon-γ-induced host response. We demonstrate that genes within the autophagy pathway including Wipi2, Atg9, and Gate-16, as well as ubiquitin ligase complex genes Cul3 and Klhl9 are required for IFNγ-induced inhibition of murine norovirus (norovirus hereinafter) replication in mouse cells. WIPI2 and GATE-16 were also required for IFNγ-mediated restriction of parasite growth within the Toxoplasma gondii parasitophorous vacuole in human cells. Furthermore, we found that perturbation of UFMylation pathway components led to more robust IFNγ-induced inhibition of norovirus via regulation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Enhancing or inhibiting these dynamic cellular components could serve as a strategy to control intracellular pathogens and maintain an effective immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R. McAllaster
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Vir Biotechnology, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Jaya Bhushan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Dale R. Balce
- Vir Biotechnology, San Francisco, California, USA
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Anthony Orvedahl
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Arnold Park
- Vir Biotechnology, San Francisco, California, USA
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | | | - Meagan E. Sullender
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences & Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Herbert W. Virgin
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
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Greigert V, Saraav I, Son J, Dayao D, Antia A, Tzipori S, Witola WH, Stappenbeck TS, Ding S, Sibley LD. Cryptosporidium infection of human small intestinal epithelial cells induces type III interferon and impairs infectivity of Rotavirus. bioRxiv 2023:2023.08.30.555581. [PMID: 37693422 PMCID: PMC10491271 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.30.555581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis is a major cause of severe diarrheal disease in infants from resource poor settings. The majority of infections are caused by the human-specific pathogen C. hominis and absence of in vitro growth platforms has limited our understanding of host-pathogen interactions and development of effective treatments. To address this problem, we developed a stem cell-derived culture system for C. hominis using human enterocytes differentiated under air-liquid interface (ALI) conditions. Human ALI cultures supported robust growth and complete development of C. hominis in vitro including all life cycle stages. C. hominis infection induced a strong interferon response from enterocytes, likely driven by an endogenous dsRNA virus in the parasite. Prior infection with Cryptosporidium induced type III IFN secretion and consequently blunted infection with Rotavirus, including live attenuated vaccine strains. The development of hALI provides a platform for further studies on human-specific pathogens, including clinically important coinfections that may alter vaccine efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin Greigert
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Iti Saraav
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Juhee Son
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Denise Dayao
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, 01536, USA
| | - Avan Antia
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Saul Tzipori
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, 01536, USA
| | - William H. Witola
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61802, USA
| | - Thaddeus S. Stappenbeck
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
| | - Siyuan Ding
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
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11
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Funkhouser-Jones LJ, Xu R, Wilke G, Fu Y, Schriefer LA, Makimaa H, Rodgers R, Kennedy EA, VanDussen KL, Stappenbeck TS, Baldridge MT, Sibley LD. Microbiota-produced indole metabolites disrupt mitochondrial function and inhibit Cryptosporidium parvum growth. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112680. [PMID: 37384526 PMCID: PMC10530208 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis is a leading cause of life-threatening diarrhea in young children in resource-poor settings. To explore microbial influences on susceptibility, we screened 85 microbiota-associated metabolites for their effects on Cryptosporidium parvum growth in vitro. We identify eight inhibitory metabolites in three main classes: secondary bile salts/acids, a vitamin B6 precursor, and indoles. Growth restriction of C. parvum by indoles does not depend on the host aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) pathway. Instead, treatment impairs host mitochondrial function and reduces total cellular ATP, as well as directly reducing the membrane potential in the parasite mitosome, a degenerate mitochondria. Oral administration of indoles, or reconstitution of the gut microbiota with indole-producing bacteria, delays life cycle progression of the parasite in vitro and reduces the severity of C. parvum infection in mice. Collectively, these findings indicate that microbiota metabolites impair mitochondrial function and contribute to colonization resistance to Cryptosporidium infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa J Funkhouser-Jones
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rui Xu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Georgia Wilke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yong Fu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Lawrence A Schriefer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Heyde Makimaa
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rachel Rodgers
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Kennedy
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Kelli L VanDussen
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Thaddeus S Stappenbeck
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Megan T Baldridge
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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12
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Xu R, Beatty WL, Greigert V, Witola WH, Sibley LD. Multiple pathways for glucose phosphate transport and utilization support growth of Cryptosporidium parvum. bioRxiv 2023:2023.06.27.546703. [PMID: 37425855 PMCID: PMC10327089 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.27.546703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum is an obligate intracellular parasite with a highly reduced mitochondrion that lacks the TCA cycle and the ability to generate ATP, making the parasite reliant on glycolysis. Genetic ablation experiments demonstrated that neither of the two putative glucose transporters CpGT1 and CpGT2 were essential for growth. Surprisingly, hexokinase was also dispensable for parasite growth while the downstream enzyme aldolase was required, suggesting the parasite has an alternative way of obtaining phosphorylated hexose. Complementation studies in E. coli support a role for direct transport of glucose-6-phosphate from the host cell by the parasite transporters CpGT1 and CpGT2, thus bypassing a requirement for hexokinase. Additionally, the parasite obtains phosphorylated glucose from amylopectin stores that are released by the action of the essential enzyme glycogen phosphorylase. Collectively, these findings reveal that C. parvum relies on multiple pathways to obtain phosphorylated glucose both for glycolysis and to restore carbohydrate reserves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Xu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Wandy L. Beatty
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Valentin Greigert
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - William H. Witola
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
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13
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Funkhouser-Jones LJ, Xu R, Wilke G, Fu Y, Shriefer LA, Makimaa H, Rodgers R, Kennedy EA, VanDussen KL, Stappenbeck TS, Baldridge MT, Sibley LD. Microbiota produced indole metabolites disrupt host cell mitochondrial energy production and inhibit Cryptosporidium parvum growth. bioRxiv 2023:2023.05.25.542157. [PMID: 37292732 PMCID: PMC10245909 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.25.542157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis is a leading cause of life-threatening diarrhea in young children in resource-poor settings. Susceptibility rapidly declines with age, associated with changes in the microbiota. To explore microbial influences on susceptibility, we screened 85 microbiota- associated metabolites enriched in the adult gut for their effects on C. parvum growth in vitro. We identified eight inhibitory metabolites in three main classes: secondary bile salts/acids, a vitamin B 6 precursor, and indoles. Growth restriction of C. parvum by indoles did not depend on the host aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) pathway. Instead, treatment impaired host mitochondrial function and reduced total cellular ATP, as well as directly reduced the membrane potential in the parasite mitosome, a degenerate mitochondria. Oral administration of indoles, or reconstitution of the gut microbiota with indole producing bacteria, delayed life cycle progression of the parasite in vitro and reduced severity of C. parvum infection in mice. Collectively, these findings indicate that microbiota metabolites contribute to colonization resistance to Cryptosporidium infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa J. Funkhouser-Jones
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rui Xu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Georgia Wilke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yong Fu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Lawrence A. Shriefer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Heyde Makimaa
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rachel Rodgers
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Elizabeth A. Kennedy
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Kelli L. VanDussen
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Thaddeus S. Stappenbeck
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Megan T. Baldridge
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
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14
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Saraav I, Sibley LD. Dendritic Cells and Cryptosporidium: From Recognition to Restriction. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1056. [PMID: 37110479 PMCID: PMC10144555 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11041056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Host immune responses are required for the efficient control of cryptosporidiosis. Immunity against Cryptosporidium infection has been best studied in mice, where it is mediated by both innate and adaptive immune responses. Dendritic cells are the key link between innate and adaptive immunity and participate in the defense against Cryptosporidium infection. While the effector mechanism varies, both humans and mice rely on dendritic cells for sensing parasites and restricting infection. Recently, the use of mouse-adapted strains C. parvum and mouse-specific strain C. tyzzeri have provided tractable systems to study the role of dendritic cells in mice against this parasite. In this review, we provide an overview of recent advances in innate immunity acting during infection with Cryptosporidium with a major focus on the role of dendritic cells in the intestinal mucosa. Further work is required to understand the role of dendritic cells in the activation of T cells and to explore associated molecular mechanisms. The identification of Cryptosporidium antigen involved in the activation of Toll-like receptor signaling in dendritic cells during infection is also a matter of future study. The in-depth knowledge of immune responses in cryptosporidiosis will help develop targeted prophylactic and therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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15
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Wan W, Dong H, Lai DH, Yang J, He K, Tang X, Liu Q, Hide G, Zhu XQ, Sibley LD, Lun ZR, Long S. The Toxoplasma micropore mediates endocytosis for selective nutrient salvage from host cell compartments. Nat Commun 2023; 14:977. [PMID: 36813769 PMCID: PMC9947163 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36571-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasite growth and replication relies on nutrient acquisition from host cells, in which intracellular multiplication occurs, yet the mechanisms that underlie the nutrient salvage remain elusive. Numerous ultrastructural studies have documented a plasma membrane invagination with a dense neck, termed the micropore, on the surface of intracellular parasites. However, the function of this structure remains unknown. Here we validate the micropore as an essential organelle for endocytosis of nutrients from the host cell cytosol and Golgi in the model apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii. Detailed analyses demonstrated that Kelch13 is localized at the dense neck of the organelle and functions as a protein hub at the micropore for endocytic uptake. Intriguingly, maximal activity of the micropore requires the ceramide de novo synthesis pathway in the parasite. Thus, this study provides insights into the machinery underlying acquisition of host cell-derived nutrients by apicomplexan parasites that are otherwise sequestered from host cell compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyan Wan
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Dong
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - De-Hua Lai
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Jiong Yang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Kai He
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyan Tang
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Qun Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Geoff Hide
- Biomedical Research and Innovation Centre and Environmental Research and Innovation Centre, School of Science, Engineering and Environment, University of Salford, Salford, M5 4WT, UK
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in Saint Louis, Saint Louis, MO, 63110-1093, USA
| | - Zhao-Rong Lun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Shaojun Long
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China.
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16
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Wang JL, Li TT, Elsheikha HM, Liang QL, Zhang ZW, Wang M, Sibley LD, Zhu XQ. The protein phosphatase 2A holoenzyme is a key regulator of starch metabolism and bradyzoite differentiation in Toxoplasma gondii. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7560. [PMID: 36476594 PMCID: PMC9729606 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35267-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenotypic switching between tachyzoite and bradyzoite is the fundamental mechanism underpinning the pathogenicity and adaptability of the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Although accumulation of cytoplasmic starch granules is a hallmark of the quiescent bradyzoite stage, the regulatory factors and mechanisms contributing to amylopectin storage in bradyzoites are incompletely known. Here, we show that T. gondii protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) holoenzyme is composed of a catalytic subunit PP2A-C, a scaffold subunit PP2A-A and a regulatory subunit PP2A-B. Disruption of any of these subunits increased starch accumulation and blocked the tachyzoite-to-bradyzoite differentiation. PP2A contributes to the regulation of amylopectin metabolism via dephosphorylation of calcium-dependent protein kinase 2 at S679. Phosphoproteomics identified several putative PP2A holoenzyme substrates that are involved in bradyzoite differentiation. Our findings provide novel insight into the role of PP2A as a key regulator of starch metabolism and bradyzoite differentiation in T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Lei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ting-Ting Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Hany M Elsheikha
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Qin-Li Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhi-Wei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi Province, 030801, People's Republic of China.
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17
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Pant A, Yao X, Lavedrine A, Viret C, Dockterman J, Chauhan S, Chong-Shan Shi, Manjithaya R, Cadwell K, Kufer TA, Kehrl JH, Coers J, Sibley LD, Faure M, Taylor GA, Chauhan S. Interactions of Autophagy and the Immune System in Health and Diseases. Autophagy Rep 2022; 1:438-515. [PMID: 37425656 PMCID: PMC10327624 DOI: 10.1080/27694127.2022.2119743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is a highly conserved process that utilizes lysosomes to selectively degrade a variety of intracellular cargo, thus providing quality control over cellular components and maintaining cellular regulatory functions. Autophagy is triggered by multiple stimuli ranging from nutrient starvation to microbial infection. Autophagy extensively shapes and modulates the inflammatory response, the concerted action of immune cells, and secreted mediators aimed to eradicate a microbial infection or to heal sterile tissue damage. Here, we first review how autophagy affects innate immune signaling, cell-autonomous immune defense, and adaptive immunity. Then, we discuss the role of non-canonical autophagy in microbial infections and inflammation. Finally, we review how crosstalk between autophagy and inflammation influences infectious, metabolic, and autoimmune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarti Pant
- Autophagy Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Xiaomin Yao
- Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Aude Lavedrine
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université de Lyon, Inserm U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, F-69007, Lyon, France
- Equipe Labellisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, FRM
| | - Christophe Viret
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université de Lyon, Inserm U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, F-69007, Lyon, France
- Equipe Labellisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, FRM
| | - Jake Dockterman
- Department of Immunology, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Swati Chauhan
- Cell biology and Infectious diseases, Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Chong-Shan Shi
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Ravi Manjithaya
- Autophagy Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru, India
- Neuroscience Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Ken Cadwell
- Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Thomas A. Kufer
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Nutritional Medicine, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - John H. Kehrl
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Jörn Coers
- Department of Immunology, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University Sch. Med., St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Mathias Faure
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université de Lyon, Inserm U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, F-69007, Lyon, France
- Equipe Labellisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, FRM
| | - Gregory A Taylor
- Department of Immunology, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University Sch. Med., St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Health Care Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Departments of Medicine, Division of Geriatrics, and Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Santosh Chauhan
- Cell biology and Infectious diseases, Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar, India
- CSIR–Centre For Cellular And Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, Telangana
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18
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Abstract
Given the importance of epigenetic modification, pathogens have found a variety of ways to alter chromatin and affect host gene expression. The apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii expresses two nuclear targeted secreted effectors TgIST and TgNSM that target the activity of host histone deacetylase regulating corepressor complexes NuRD and NCoR/SMRT, respectively. TgIST and TgNSM are crucial for blocking the host interferon response protecting both the acute and latent stages of the infection. T. gondii represents a unique model organism to study the significance of epigenetic modifications in the regulation of interferon responses and other transcriptional responses at the interface of host-pathogen interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Rosenberg
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
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19
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Rinkenberger N, Abrams ME, Matta SK, Schoggins JW, Alto NM, Sibley LD. Over-expression screen of interferon-stimulated genes identifies RARRES3 as a restrictor of Toxoplasma gondii infection. eLife 2021; 10:73137. [PMID: 34871166 PMCID: PMC8789288 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an important human pathogen infecting an estimated one in three people worldwide. The cytokine interferon gamma (IFNγ) is induced during infection and is critical for restricting T. gondii growth in human cells. Growth restriction is presumed to be due to the induction of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) that are upregulated to protect the host from infection. Although there are hundreds of ISGs induced by IFNγ, their individual roles in restricting parasite growth in human cells remain somewhat elusive. To address this deficiency, we screened a library of 414 IFNγ induced ISGs to identify factors that impact T. gondii infection in human cells. In addition to IRF1, which likely acts through the induction of numerous downstream genes, we identified RARRES3 as a single factor that restricts T. gondii infection by inducing premature egress of the parasite in multiple human cell lines. Overall, while we successfully identified a novel IFNγ induced factor restricting T. gondii infection, the limited number of ISGs capable of restricting T. gondii infection when individually expressed suggests that IFNγ-mediated immunity to T. gondii infection is a complex, multifactorial process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Rinkenberger
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, United States
| | - Michael E Abrams
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, United States
| | - Sumit K Matta
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, United States
| | - John W Schoggins
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, United States
| | - Neal M Alto
- Microbiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, United States
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, United States
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20
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Fu Y, Brown KM, Jones NG, Moreno SNJ, Sibley LD. Toxoplasma bradyzoites exhibit physiological plasticity of calcium and energy stores controlling motility and egress. eLife 2021; 10:e73011. [PMID: 34860156 PMCID: PMC8683080 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii has evolved different developmental stages for disseminating during acute infection (i.e., tachyzoites) and establishing chronic infection (i.e., bradyzoites). Calcium ion (Ca2+) signaling tightly regulates the lytic cycle of tachyzoites by controlling microneme secretion and motility to drive egress and cell invasion. However, the roles of Ca2+ signaling pathways in bradyzoites remain largely unexplored. Here, we show that Ca2+ responses are highly restricted in bradyzoites and that they fail to egress in response to agonists. Development of dual-reporter parasites revealed dampened Ca2+ responses and minimal microneme secretion by bradyzoites induced in vitro or harvested from infected mice and tested ex vivo. Ratiometric Ca2+ imaging demonstrated lower Ca2+ basal levels, reduced magnitude, and slower Ca2+ kinetics in bradyzoites compared with tachyzoites stimulated with agonists. Diminished responses in bradyzoites were associated with downregulation of Ca2+-ATPases involved in intracellular Ca2+ storage in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and acidocalcisomes. Once liberated from cysts by trypsin digestion, bradyzoites incubated in glucose plus Ca2+ rapidly restored their intracellular Ca2+ and ATP stores, leading to enhanced gliding. Collectively, our findings indicate that intracellular bradyzoites exhibit dampened Ca2+ signaling and lower energy levels that restrict egress, and yet upon release they rapidly respond to changes in the environment to regain motility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Fu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of MedicineSt LouisUnited States
| | - Kevin M Brown
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of MedicineSt LouisUnited States
| | - Nathaniel G Jones
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of MedicineSt LouisUnited States
| | - Silvia NJ Moreno
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases and Department of Cellular Biology, University of GeorgiaAthensUnited States
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of MedicineSt LouisUnited States
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21
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Russler-Germain EV, Jung J, Miller AT, Young S, Yi J, Wehmeier A, Fox LE, Monte KJ, Chai JN, Kulkarni DH, Funkhouser-Jones LJ, Wilke G, Durai V, Zinselmeyer BH, Czepielewski RS, Greco S, Murphy KM, Newberry RD, Sibley LD, Hsieh CS. Commensal Cryptosporidium colonization elicits a cDC1-dependent Th1 response that promotes intestinal homeostasis and limits other infections. Immunity 2021; 54:2547-2564.e7. [PMID: 34715017 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2021.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium can cause severe diarrhea and morbidity, but many infections are asymptomatic. Here, we studied the immune response to a commensal strain of Cryptosporidium tyzzeri (Ct-STL) serendipitously discovered when conventional type 1 dendritic cell (cDC1)-deficient mice developed cryptosporidiosis. Ct-STL was vertically transmitted without negative health effects in wild-type mice. Yet, Ct-STL provoked profound changes in the intestinal immune system, including induction of an IFN-γ-producing Th1 response. TCR sequencing coupled with in vitro and in vivo analysis of common Th1 TCRs revealed that Ct-STL elicited a dominant antigen-specific Th1 response. In contrast, deficiency in cDC1s skewed the Ct-STL CD4 T cell response toward Th17 and regulatory T cells. Although Ct-STL predominantly colonized the small intestine, colon Th1 responses were enhanced and associated with protection against Citrobacter rodentium infection and exacerbation of dextran sodium sulfate and anti-IL10R-triggered colitis. Thus, Ct-STL represents a commensal pathobiont that elicits Th1-mediated intestinal homeostasis that may reflect asymptomatic human Cryptosporidium infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie V Russler-Germain
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jisun Jung
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Aidan T Miller
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Shannon Young
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jaeu Yi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Alec Wehmeier
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Lindsey E Fox
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Kristen J Monte
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jiani N Chai
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Devesha H Kulkarni
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Lisa J Funkhouser-Jones
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Georgia Wilke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Vivek Durai
- Department of Pathology, Division of Immunobiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Bernd H Zinselmeyer
- Department of Pathology, Division of Immunobiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Rafael S Czepielewski
- Department of Pathology, Division of Immunobiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Suellen Greco
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Kenneth M Murphy
- Department of Pathology, Division of Immunobiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Rodney D Newberry
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | - Chyi-Song Hsieh
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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22
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Saraav I, Cervantes-Barragan L, Olias P, Fu Y, Wang Q, Wang L, Wang Y, Mack M, Baldridge MT, Stappenbeck T, Colonna M, Sibley LD. Chronic Toxoplasma gondii infection enhances susceptibility to colitis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2106730118. [PMID: 34462359 PMCID: PMC8433586 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2106730118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral infection with Toxoplasma gondii results in dysbiosis and enteritis, both of which revert to normal during chronic infection. However, whether infection leaves a lasting impact on mucosal responses remains uncertain. Here we examined the effect of the chemical irritant dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) on intestinal damage and wound healing in chronically infected mice. Our findings indicate that prior infection with T. gondii exacerbates damage to the colon caused by DSS and impairs wound healing by suppressing stem cell regeneration of the epithelium. Enhanced tissue damage was attributable to inflammatory monocytes that emerge preactivated from bone marrow, migrate to the intestine, and release inflammatory mediators, including nitric oxide. Tissue damage was reversed by neutralization of inflammatory monocytes or nitric oxide, revealing a causal mechanism for tissue damage. Our findings suggest that chronic infection with T. gondii enhances monocyte activation to increase inflammation associated with a secondary environmental insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iti Saraav
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Luisa Cervantes-Barragan
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Philipp Olias
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Yong Fu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Qiuling Wang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Leran Wang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Matthias Mack
- Department of Nephrology, University of Regensburg, 93042 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Megan T Baldridge
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Thaddeus Stappenbeck
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Marco Colonna
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110;
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23
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Rosenberg A, Sibley LD. Toxoplasma gondii secreted effectors co-opt host repressor complexes to inhibit necroptosis. Cell Host Microbe 2021; 29:1186-1198.e8. [PMID: 34043960 PMCID: PMC8711274 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2021.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii translocates effector proteins into its host cell to subvert various host pathways. T. gondii effector TgIST blocks the transcription of interferon-stimulated genes to reduce immune defense. Interferons upregulate numerous genes, including protein kinase R (PKR), which induce necrosome formation to activate mixed-lineage-kinase-domain-like (MLKL) pseudokinase and induce necroptosis. Whether these interferon functions are targeted by Toxoplasma is unknown. Here, we examine secreted effectors that localize to the host cell nucleus and find that the chronic bradyzoite stage secretes effector TgNSM that targets the NCoR/SMRT complex, a repressor for various transcription factors, to inhibit interferon-regulated genes involved in cell death. TgNSM acts with TgIST to block IFN-driven expression of PKR and MLKL, thus preventing host cell necroptotic death and protecting the parasite's intracellular niche. The mechanism of action of TgNSM uncovers a role of NCoR/SMRT in necroptosis, assuring survival of intracellular cysts and chronic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Rosenberg
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
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24
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Matta SK, Rinkenberger N, Dunay IR, Sibley LD. Toxoplasma gondii infection and its implications within the central nervous system. Nat Rev Microbiol 2021; 19:467-480. [PMID: 33627834 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-021-00518-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that infects a wide range of animals and causes zoonotic infections in humans. Although it normally only results in mild illness in healthy individuals, toxoplasmosis is a common opportunistic infection with high mortality in individuals who are immunocompromised, most commonly due to reactivation of infection in the central nervous system. In the acute phase of infection, interferon-dependent immune responses control rapid parasite expansion and mitigate acute disease symptoms. However, after dissemination the parasite differentiates into semi-dormant cysts that form within muscle cells and neurons, where they persist for life in the infected host. Control of infection in the central nervous system, a compartment of immune privilege, relies on modified immune responses that aim to balance infection control while limiting potential damage due to inflammation. In response to the activation of interferon-mediated pathways, the parasite deploys an array of effector proteins to escape immune clearance and ensure latent survival. Although these pathways are best studied in the laboratory mouse, emerging evidence points to unique mechanisms of control in human toxoplasmosis. In this Review, we explore some of these recent findings that extend our understanding for proliferation, establishment and control of toxoplasmosis in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumit K Matta
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Nicholas Rinkenberger
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Ildiko R Dunay
- Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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25
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Wang X, Fu Y, Beatty WL, Ma M, Brown A, Sibley LD, Zhang R. Publisher Correction: Cryo-EM structure of cortical microtubules from human parasite Toxoplasma gondii identifies their microtubule inner proteins. Nat Commun 2021; 12:4076. [PMID: 34172746 PMCID: PMC8233417 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24385-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Xiangli Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yong Fu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Wandy L Beatty
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Meisheng Ma
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Alan Brown
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
| | - Rui Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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26
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Wang X, Fu Y, Beatty WL, Ma M, Brown A, Sibley LD, Zhang R. Cryo-EM structure of cortical microtubules from human parasite Toxoplasma gondii identifies their microtubule inner proteins. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3065. [PMID: 34031406 PMCID: PMC8144581 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23351-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In living cells, microtubules (MTs) play pleiotropic roles, which require very different mechanical properties. Unlike the dynamic MTs found in the cytoplasm of metazoan cells, the specialized cortical MTs from Toxoplasma gondii, a prevalent human pathogen, are extraordinarily stable and resistant to detergent and cold treatments. Using single-particle cryo-EM, we determine their ex vivo structure and identify three proteins (TrxL1, TrxL2 and SPM1) as bona fide microtubule inner proteins (MIPs). These three MIPs form a mesh on the luminal surface and simultaneously stabilize the tubulin lattice in both longitudinal and lateral directions. Consistent with previous observations, deletion of the identified MIPs compromises MT stability and integrity under challenges by chemical treatments. We also visualize a small molecule like density at the Taxol-binding site of β-tubulin. Our results provide the structural basis to understand the stability of cortical MTs and suggest an evolutionarily conserved mechanism of MT stabilization from the inside.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangli Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yong Fu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Wandy L Beatty
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Meisheng Ma
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Alan Brown
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
| | - Rui Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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27
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Xu R, Feng Y, Xiao L, Sibley LD. Insulinase-like Protease 1 Contributes to Macrogamont Formation in Cryptosporidium parvum. mBio 2021; 12:e03405-20. [PMID: 33688009 PMCID: PMC8092296 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03405-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The apicomplexan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum contains an expanded family of 22 insulinase-like proteases (INS), a feature that contrasts with their otherwise streamlined genome. Here, we examined the function of INS1, which is most similar to the human insulinase protease that cleaves a variety of small peptide substrates. INS1 is an M16A clan member and contains a signal peptide, an N-terminal domain with the HXXEH active site, followed by three inactive domains. Unlike previously studied C. parvum INS proteins that are expressed in sporozoites and during merogony, INS1 was expressed exclusively in macrogamonts, where it was localized in small cytoplasmic vesicles. Although INS1 did not colocalize with the oocyst wall protein recognized by the antibody OW50, immune-electron microscopy indicated that INS1 resides in small vesicles in the secretory system. Notably, these small INS1-positive vesicles were often in close proximity to large OW50-positive vacuoles resembling wall-forming bodies, which contain precursors for oocyst wall formation. Genetic deletion of INS1, or replacement with an active-site mutant, resulted in lower formation of macrogamonts in vitro and reduced oocyst shedding in vivo Our findings reveal that INS1 functions in the formation or maturation of macrogamonts and that its loss results in attenuated virulence in immunocompromised mice.IMPORTANCE Cryptosporidiosis is a debilitating diarrheal disease in young children in developing countries. The absence of effective treatments or vaccines makes this infection very difficult to manage in susceptible populations. Although the oral dose of oocysts needed to cause infection is low, infected individuals shed very high numbers of oocysts, readily contaminating the environment. Our studies demonstrate that the protease INS1 is important for formation of female sexual stages and that in its absence, parasites produce fewer oocysts and are attenuated in immunocompromised mice. These findings suggest that mutants lacking INS1, or related proteases, are useful for further characterizing the pathway that leads to macrogamont maturation and oocyst wall formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Xu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yaoyu Feng
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
- Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lihua Xiao
- Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou, China
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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28
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Tussiwand R, Behnke MS, Kretzer NM, Grajales-Reyes GE, Murphy TL, Schreiber RD, Murphy KM, Sibley LD. An Important Role for CD4 + T Cells in Adaptive Immunity to Toxoplasma gondii in Mice Lacking the Transcription Factor Batf3. mSphere 2020; 5:e00634-20. [PMID: 32669460 PMCID: PMC7364223 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00634-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunity to Toxoplasma gondii at early stages of infection in C57BL/6 mice depends on gamma interferon (IFN-γ) production by NK cells, while at later stages it is primarily mediated by CD8 T cells. We decided to explore the requirement for CD4 T cells during T. gondii infection in Batf3-/- mice, which lack CD8α+ dendritic cells (DCs) that are necessary for cross-presentation of cell-associated antigens to CD8 T cells. We show that in this immunodeficient background on a BALB/c background, CD4 T cells become important effector cells and are able to protect Batf3-/- mice from infection with the avirulent strain RHΔku80Δrop5 Independently of the initial NK cell activation, CD4 T cells in wild-type and Batf3-/- mice were the major source of IFN-γ. Importantly, memory CD4 T cells were sufficient to provide protective immunity following transfer into Batf3-/- mice and secondary challenge with the virulent RHΔku80 strain. Collectively, these results show that under situations where CD8 cell responses are impaired, CD4 T cells provide an important alternative immune response to T. gondiiIMPORTANCEToxoplasma gondii is a widespread parasite of animals that causes zoonotic infections in humans. Although healthy individuals generally control the infection with only moderate symptoms, it causes serious illness in newborns and those with compromised immune systems such as HIV-infected AIDS patients. Because rodents are natural hosts for T. gondii, laboratory mice provide an excellent model for studying immune responses. Here, we used a combination of an attenuated mutant strain of the parasite that effectively vaccinates mice, with a defect in a transcriptional factor that impairs a critical subset of dendritic cells, to studying the immune response to infection. The findings reveal that in BALB/c mice, CD4 memory T cells play a dominant role in producing IFN-γ needed to control chronic infection. Hence, BALB/c mice may provide a more appropriate model for declining immunity seen in HIV-AIDS patients where loss of CD4 cells is associated with emergence of opportunistic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxane Tussiwand
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Michael S Behnke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Nicole M Kretzer
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Gary E Grajales-Reyes
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Theresa L Murphy
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Robert D Schreiber
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Kenneth M Murphy
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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29
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Janetka JW, Hopper AT, Yang Z, Barks J, Dhason MS, Wang Q, Sibley LD. Optimizing Pyrazolopyrimidine Inhibitors of Calcium Dependent Protein Kinase 1 for Treatment of Acute and Chronic Toxoplasmosis. J Med Chem 2020; 63:6144-6163. [PMID: 32420739 PMCID: PMC7325724 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Calcium dependent protein kinase 1 (CDPK1) is an essential Ser/Thr kinase that controls invasion and egress by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. The Gly gatekeeper of CDPK1 makes it exquisitely sensitive to inhibition by small molecule 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine-4-amine (PP) compounds that are bulky ATP mimetics. Here we rationally designed, synthesized, and tested a series of novel PP analogs that were evaluated for inhibition of CDPK1 enzyme activity in vitro and parasite growth in cell culture. Optimal substitution on the PP scaffold included 2-pyridyl ethers directed into the hydrophobic pocket and small carbocyclic rings accessing the ribose-binding pocket. Further optimization of the series led to identification of the lead compound 3a that displayed excellent potency, selectivity, safety profile, and efficacy in vivo. The results of these studies provide a foundation for further work to optimize CDPK1 inhibitors for the treatment of acute and chronic toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W. Janetka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis. MO 63110
| | | | - Ziping Yang
- Vyera Pharmaceuticals, 600 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10016
| | - Jennifer Barks
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis. MO 63110
| | - Mary Savari Dhason
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis. MO 63110
| | - Qiuling Wang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis. MO 63110
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis. MO 63110
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30
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Abstract
Toxoplasma is a widespread parasite of animals including many rodents that are a natural part of the transmission cycle between cats, which serve as the definitive host. Although wild rodents, including house mice, are relatively resistant, laboratory mice are highly susceptible to infection. As such, laboratory mice have been used to compare pathogenesis of natural variants and to evaluate the contributions of both host and parasite genes to infection. Protocols are provided here for evaluating acute and chronic infection with different parasite strains in laboratory mice. These protocols should provide uniform standards for evaluating natural variants and attenuated mutants and for comparing outcomes across different studies and between different laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuling Wang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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31
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Wilke G, Wang Y, Ravindran S, Stappenbeck T, Witola WH, Sibley LD. In Vitro Culture of Cryptosporidium parvum Using Stem Cell-Derived Intestinal Epithelial Monolayers. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2052:351-372. [PMID: 31452172 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9748-0_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum has a complex life cycle consisting of asexual and sexual phases that culminate in oocyst formation in vivo. The most widely used cell culture platforms to study C. parvum only support a few days of growth and do not allow the parasite to proceed past the sexual stages to complete oocyst formation. Additionally, these cell culture platforms are mostly adenocarcinoma cell lines, which do not adequately model the parasite's natural environment in the small intestine. We describe here a method to create primary intestinal epithelial cell monolayers that support long-term C. parvum growth. Monolayers were derived from mouse intestinal stem cells grown as spheroids and plated onto transwells, allowing for separate apical and basolateral compartments. In the apical chamber, the cell growth medium was removed to create an "air-liquid interface" that enhanced host cell differentiation and supported long-term C. parvum growth. The use of primary intestinal cells to grow C. parvum in vitro will be a valuable tool for studying host-parasite interactions using a convenient in vitro model that more closely resembles the natural niche in the intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Wilke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Soumya Ravindran
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Thaddeus Stappenbeck
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - William H Witola
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA.
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32
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Rosenberg A, Luth MR, Winzeler EA, Behnke M, Sibley LD. Evolution of resistance in vitro reveals mechanisms of artemisinin activity in Toxoplasma gondii. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:26881-26891. [PMID: 31806760 PMCID: PMC6936365 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1914732116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Artemisinins are effective against a variety of parasites and provide the first line of treatment for malaria. Laboratory studies have identified several mechanisms for artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum, including mutations in Kelch13 that are associated with delayed clearance in some clinical isolates, although other mechanisms are likely involved. To explore other potential mechanisms of resistance in parasites, we took advantage of the genetic tractability of Toxoplasma gondii, a related parasite that shows moderate sensitivity to artemisinin. Resistant populations of T. gondii were selected by culture in increasing concentrations and whole-genome sequencing identified several nonconservative point mutations that emerged in the population and were fixed over time. Genome editing using CRISPR/Cas9 was used to introduce point mutations conferring amino acid changes in a serine protease homologous to DegP and a serine/threonine protein kinase of unknown function. Single and double mutations conferred a competitive advantage over wild-type parasites in the presence of drug, despite not changing EC50 values. Additionally, the evolved resistant lines showed dramatic amplification of the mitochondria genome, including genes encoding cytochrome b and cytochrome c oxidase I. Prior studies in yeast and mammalian tumor cells implicate the mitochondrion as a target of artemisinins, and treatment of wild-type parasites with high concentrations of drug decreased mitochondrial membrane potential, a phenotype that was stably altered in the resistant parasites. These findings extend the repertoire of mutations associated with artemisinin resistance and suggest that the mitochondrion may be an important target of inhibition of resistance in T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Rosenberg
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Madeline R. Luth
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - Elizabeth A. Winzeler
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - Michael Behnke
- Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110
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33
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Wang Y, Chiang IL, Ohara TE, Fujii S, Cheng J, Muegge BD, Ver Heul A, Han ND, Lu Q, Xiong S, Chen F, Lai CW, Janova H, Wu R, Whitehurst CE, VanDussen KL, Liu TC, Gordon JI, Sibley LD, Stappenbeck TS. Long-Term Culture Captures Injury-Repair Cycles of Colonic Stem Cells. Cell 2019; 179:1144-1159.e15. [PMID: 31708126 PMCID: PMC6904908 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The colonic epithelium can undergo multiple rounds of damage and repair, often in response to excessive inflammation. The responsive stem cell that mediates this process is unclear, in part because of a lack of in vitro models that recapitulate key epithelial changes that occur in vivo during damage and repair. Here, we identify a Hopx+ colitis-associated regenerative stem cell (CARSC) population that functionally contributes to mucosal repair in mouse models of colitis. Hopx+ CARSCs, enriched for fetal-like markers, transiently arose from hypertrophic crypts known to facilitate regeneration. Importantly, we established a long-term, self-organizing two-dimensional (2D) epithelial monolayer system to model the regenerative properties and responses of Hopx+ CARSCs. This system can reenact the "homeostasis-injury-regeneration" cycles of epithelial alterations that occur in vivo. Using this system, we found that hypoxia and endoplasmic reticulum stress, insults commonly present in inflammatory bowel diseases, mediated the cyclic switch of cellular status in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Wang
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - I-Ling Chiang
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Takahiro E Ohara
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Satoru Fujii
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jiye Cheng
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; The Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Brian D Muegge
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Aaron Ver Heul
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Nathan D Han
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; The Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Qiuhe Lu
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Shanshan Xiong
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Feidi Chen
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Chin-Wen Lai
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Hana Janova
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Renee Wu
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Charles E Whitehurst
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Immunology and Respiratory Disease Research, Ridgefield, CT 06877, USA
| | - Kelli L VanDussen
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Ta-Chiang Liu
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jeffrey I Gordon
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; The Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Thaddeus S Stappenbeck
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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34
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Abstract
Antimicrobial treatment failure threatens our ability to control infections. In addition to antimicrobial resistance, treatment failures are increasingly understood to derive from cells that survive drug treatment without selection of genetically heritable mutations. Parasitic protozoa, such as Plasmodium species that cause malaria, Toxoplasma gondii and kinetoplastid protozoa, including Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp., cause millions of deaths globally. These organisms can evolve drug resistance and they also exhibit phenotypic diversity, including the formation of quiescent or dormant forms that contribute to the establishment of long-term infections that are refractory to drug treatment, which we refer to as 'persister-like cells'. In this Review, we discuss protozoan persister-like cells that have been linked to persistent infections and discuss their impact on therapeutic outcomes following drug treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
| | - Dennis E Kyle
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Joshua B Radke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rick L Tarleton
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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35
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Park E, Patel S, Wang Q, Andhey P, Zaitsev K, Porter S, Hershey M, Bern M, Plougastel-Douglas B, Collins P, Colonna M, Murphy KM, Oltz E, Artyomov M, Sibley LD, Yokoyama WM. Toxoplasma gondii infection drives conversion of NK cells into ILC1-like cells. eLife 2019; 8:47605. [PMID: 31393266 PMCID: PMC6703900 DOI: 10.7554/elife.47605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) were originally classified based on their cytokine profiles, placing natural killer (NK) cells and ILC1s together, but recent studies support their separation into different lineages at steady-state. However, tumors may induce NK cell conversion into ILC1-like cells that are limited to the tumor microenvironment and whether this conversion occurs beyond this environment remains unknown. Here, we describe Toxoplasma gondii infection converts NK cells into ILC1-like cells that are distinct from both steady-state NK cells and ILC1s in uninfected mice. These cells were Eomes-dependent, indicating that NK cells can give rise to Eomes- Tbet-dependent ILC1-like cells that circulate widely and persist independent of ongoing infection. Moreover, these changes appear permanent, as supported by epigenetic analyses. Thus, these studies markedly expand current concepts of NK cells, ILCs, and their potential conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene Park
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Swapneel Patel
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Qiuling Wang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Prabhakar Andhey
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Konstantin Zaitsev
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States.,Computer Technologies Department, ITMO University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Sophia Porter
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Maxwell Hershey
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Michael Bern
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Beatrice Plougastel-Douglas
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Patrick Collins
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Marco Colonna
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Kenneth M Murphy
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Eugene Oltz
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States.,Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, Ohio State University Wexner School of Medicine, Columbus, United States
| | - Maxim Artyomov
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
| | - Wayne M Yokoyama
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
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36
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Drewry LL, Jones NG, Wang Q, Onken MD, Miller MJ, Sibley LD. The secreted kinase ROP17 promotes Toxoplasma gondii dissemination by hijacking monocyte tissue migration. Nat Microbiol 2019; 4:1951-1963. [PMID: 31332383 PMCID: PMC6814536 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-019-0504-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii is thought to exploit monocyte trafficking to facilitate dissemination across endothelial barriers such as the blood-brain barrier. Here we analyzed the migration of parasitized monocytes in model endothelial and interstitial environments. We report that infection enhanced monocyte locomotion on the surface of endothelial cells, but profoundly inhibited monocyte transmigration across endothelial barriers. In contrast, infection robustly increased monocyte and macrophage migration through collagen-rich tissues in a Rho/ROCK-dependent manner consistent with integrin-independent interstitial migration. We further demonstrated that the secreted T. gondii protein kinase ROP17 was required for enhanced tissue migration. In vivo, ROP17-deficient parasites failed to upregulate monocyte tissue migration and exhibited an early dissemination delay, leading to prolonged mouse survival. Our findings indicate that the parasite-induced changes in monocyte motility likely facilitate the transport of T. gondii through tissues and promote systemic dissemination, rather than shuttle parasites across the blood-brain barrier via extravasation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa L Drewry
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Nathaniel G Jones
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,York Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK
| | - Quiling Wang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Michael D Onken
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Mark J Miller
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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37
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Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a parasitic protist that can infect nearly all nucleated cell types and tissues of warm-blooded vertebrate hosts. T. gondii utilises a unique form of gliding motility to cross cellular barriers, enter tissues, and penetrate host cells, thus enhancing spread within an infected host. However, T. gondii also disseminates by hijacking the migratory abilities of infected leukocytes. Traditionally, this process has been viewed as a route to cross biological barriers such as the blood-brain barrier. Here, we review recent findings that challenge this view by showing that infection of monocytes downregulates the program of transendothelial migration. Instead, infection by T. gondii enhances Rho-dependent interstitial migration of monocytes and macrophages, which enhances dissemination within tissues. Collectively, the available evidence indicates that T. gondii parasites use multiple means to disseminate within the host, including enhanced motility in tissues and translocation across biological barriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa L Drewry
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
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38
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Cervantes-Barragan L, Cortez VS, Wang Q, McDonald KG, Chai JN, Di Luccia B, Gilfillan S, Hsieh CS, Newberry RD, Sibley LD, Colonna M. CRTAM Protects Against Intestinal Dysbiosis During Pathogenic Parasitic Infection by Enabling Th17 Maturation. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1423. [PMID: 31312200 PMCID: PMC6614434 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The gastrointestinal tract hosts the largest collection of commensal microbes in the body. Infections at this site can cause significant perturbations in the microbiota, known as dysbiosis, that facilitate the expansion of pathobionts, and can elicit inappropriate immune responses that impair the intestinal barrier function. Dysbiosis typically occurs during intestinal infection with Toxoplasma gondii. Host resistance to T. gondii depends on a potent Th1 response. In addition, a Th17 response is also elicited. How Th17 cells contribute to the host response to T. gondii remains unclear. Here we show that class I-restricted T cell-associated molecule (CRTAM) expression on T cells is required for an optimal IL-17 production during T. gondii infection. Moreover, that the lack of IL-17, results in increased immunopathology caused by an impaired antimicrobial peptide production and bacterial translocation from the intestinal lumen to the mesenteric lymph nodes and spleen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Cervantes-Barragan
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Victor S Cortez
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Qiuling Wang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Keely G McDonald
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Jiani N Chai
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Blanda Di Luccia
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Susan Gilfillan
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Chyi-Song Hsieh
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Rodney D Newberry
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Marco Colonna
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
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39
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Theisen DJ, Davidson JT, Briseño CG, Gargaro M, Lauron EJ, Wang Q, Desai P, Durai V, Bagadia P, Brickner JR, Beatty WL, Virgin HW, Gillanders WE, Mosammaparast N, Diamond MS, Sibley LD, Yokoyama W, Schreiber RD, Murphy TL, Murphy KM. WDFY4 is required for cross-presentation in response to viral and tumor antigens. Science 2019; 362:694-699. [PMID: 30409884 DOI: 10.1126/science.aat5030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
During the process of cross-presentation, viral or tumor-derived antigens are presented to CD8+ T cells by Batf3-dependent CD8α+/XCR1+ classical dendritic cells (cDC1s). We designed a functional CRISPR screen for previously unknown regulators of cross-presentation, and identified the BEACH domain-containing protein WDFY4 as essential for cross-presentation of cell-associated antigens by cDC1s in mice. However, WDFY4 was not required for major histocompatibility complex class II presentation, nor for cross-presentation by monocyte-derived dendritic cells. In contrast to Batf3 -/- mice, Wdfy4 -/- mice displayed normal lymphoid and nonlymphoid cDC1 populations that produce interleukin-12 and protect against Toxoplasma gondii infection. However, similar to Batf3 -/- mice, Wdfy4 -/- mice failed to prime virus-specific CD8+ T cells in vivo or induce tumor rejection, revealing a critical role for cross-presentation in antiviral and antitumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek J Theisen
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jesse T Davidson
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Carlos G Briseño
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Marco Gargaro
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Elvin J Lauron
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Qiuling Wang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Pritesh Desai
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Vivek Durai
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Prachi Bagadia
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Joshua R Brickner
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Wandy L Beatty
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Herbert W Virgin
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Vir Biotechnology, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - William E Gillanders
- Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Alvin J. Siteman Cancer Center at Barnes-Jewish Hospital and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Nima Mosammaparast
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Michael S Diamond
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Wayne Yokoyama
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Robert D Schreiber
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Theresa L Murphy
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Kenneth M Murphy
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA. .,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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40
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Theisen DJ, Davidson JT, Briseño CG, Gargaro M, Lauron EJ, Wang Q, Desai P, Durai V, Bagadia P, Brickner JR, Beatty WL, Virgin HW, Gillanders WE, Mossamaparast N, Diamond MS, Sibley LD, Yokoyama W, Schreiber RD, Murphy TL, Murphy KM. Wdfy4-deficiency reveals a critical role for cross-presentation in anti-viral and anti-tumor responses. The Journal of Immunology 2019. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.202.supp.177.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Cross-presentation allows for the presentation of exogenous viral and tumor antigens to CD8+ T cells by XCR1+ classical dendritic cells (cDC1s). Previously, the role of cross-presentation in cytotoxic T cell responses in vivo was unclear due to the lack of mouse models specifically deficient in cross-presentation. We developed a CRISPR-Cas9 screen to find novel regulators of cross-presentation and found that the protein WDFY4 is essential for cross-presentation of cell-associated antigens but not for direct presentation or presentation on MHCII. WDFY4-deficient mice had normal cDC1 development and were able to survive infections with Toxoplasma gondii through production of IL-12. However, WDFY4-deficient mice failed to prime CD8+ T cells to viral antigens and were completely unable to control immunogenic tumors. WDFY4 interacts with proteins related to vesicular formation and trafficking such as clathrin and HSP90ab1 and localizes near the cell surface, suggesting its involvement in vesicular targeting after antigen uptake during cross-presentation.
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41
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Hopper AT, Brockman A, Wise A, Gould J, Barks J, Radke JB, Sibley LD, Zou Y, Thomas S. Discovery of Selective Toxoplasma gondii Dihydrofolate Reductase Inhibitors for the Treatment of Toxoplasmosis. J Med Chem 2019; 62:1562-1576. [PMID: 30624926 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
A safer treatment for toxoplasmosis would be achieved by improving the selectivity and potency of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) inhibitors, such as pyrimethamine (1), for Toxoplasma gondii DHFR ( TgDHFR) relative to human DHFR ( hDHFR). We previously reported on the identification of meta-biphenyl analog 2, designed by in silico modeling of key differences in the binding pocket between TgDHFR and hDHFR. Compound 2 improves TgDHFR selectivity 6.6-fold and potency 16-fold relative to 1. Here, we report on the optimization and structure-activity relationships of this arylpiperazine series leading to the discovery of 5-(4-(3-(2-methoxypyrimidin-5-yl)phenyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyrimidine-2,4-diamine 3. Compound 3 has a TgDHFR IC50 of 1.57 ± 0.11 nM and a hDHFR to TgDHFR selectivity ratio of 196, making it 89-fold more potent and 16-fold more selective than 1. Compound 3 was highly effective in control of acute infection by highly virulent strains of T. gondii in the murine model, and it possesses the best combination of selectivity, potency, and prerequisite drug-like properties to advance into IND-enabling, preclinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen T Hopper
- Vyera Pharmaceuticals, LLC , 600 Third Avenue, 10th Floor , New York , New York 10016 , United States
| | - Adam Brockman
- Vyera Pharmaceuticals, LLC , 600 Third Avenue, 10th Floor , New York , New York 10016 , United States
| | - Andy Wise
- Evotec (UK) LTD. , Alderley Park , Cheshire SK104TG , U.K
| | - Julie Gould
- Evotec (UK) LTD. , Alderley Park , Cheshire SK104TG , U.K
| | - Jennifer Barks
- Department of Molecular Microbiology , Washington University School of Medicine , 660 S. Euclid Avenue , St. Louis , Missouri 63130 , United States
| | - Joshua B Radke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology , Washington University School of Medicine , 660 S. Euclid Avenue , St. Louis , Missouri 63130 , United States
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology , Washington University School of Medicine , 660 S. Euclid Avenue , St. Louis , Missouri 63130 , United States
| | - Yongmao Zou
- WuXi AppTec (Tianjin) Co., Ltd. , 168 NanHai Road, 10th Avenue, TEDA , Tianjin 300457 , P. R. China
| | - Stephen Thomas
- Vyera Pharmaceuticals, LLC , 600 Third Avenue, 10th Floor , New York , New York 10016 , United States
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42
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Brown KM, Sibley LD. Essential cGMP Signaling in Toxoplasma Is Initiated by a Hybrid P-Type ATPase-Guanylate Cyclase. Cell Host Microbe 2018; 24:804-816.e6. [PMID: 30449726 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2018.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Revised: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites rely on cyclic nucleotide-dependent kinases for host cell infection, yet the mechanisms that control their activation remain unknown. Here we show that an apically localized guanylate cyclase (GC) controls microneme secretion and lytic growth in the model apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii. Cell-permeable cGMP reversed the block in microneme secretion seen in a knockdown of TgGC, linking its function to production of cGMP. TgGC possesses an N-terminal P-type ATPase domain fused to a C-terminal heterodimeric guanylate cyclase domain, an architecture found only in Apicomplexa and related protists. Complementation with a panel of mutants revealed a critical requirement for the P-type ATPase domain for maximum GC function. We further demonstrate that knockdown of TgGC in vivo protects mice from lethal infection by blocking parasite expansion and dissemination. Collectively, this work demonstrates that cGMP-mediated signaling in Toxoplasma relies on a multi-domain architecture, which may serve a conserved role in related parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin M Brown
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Ave., St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Ave., St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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43
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Radke JB, Carey KL, Shaw S, Metkar SR, Mulrooney C, Gale JP, Bittker JA, Hilgraf R, Comer E, Schreiber SL, Virgin HW, Perez JR, Sibley LD. High Throughput Screen Identifies Interferon γ-Dependent Inhibitors of Toxoplasma gondii Growth. ACS Infect Dis 2018; 4:1499-1507. [PMID: 30058798 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.8b00135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite capable of causing severe disease due to congenital infection and in patients with compromised immune systems. Control of infection is dependent on a robust Th1 type immune response including production of interferon gamma (IFN-γ), which is essential for control. IFN-γ activates a variety of antimicrobial mechanisms in host cells, which are then able to control intracellular parasites such as T. gondii. Despite the effectiveness of these pathways in controlling acute infection, the immune system is unable to eradicate chronic infections that can persist for life. Similarly, while antibiotic treatment can control acute infection, it is unable to eliminate chronic infection. To identify compounds that would act synergistically with IFN-γ, we performed a high-throughput screen of diverse small molecule libraries to identify inhibitors of T. gondii. We identified a number of compounds that inhibited parasite growth in vitro at low μM concentrations and that demonstrated enhanced potency in the presence of a low level of IFN-γ. A subset of these compounds act by enhancing the recruitment of light chain 3 (LC3) to the parasite-containing vacuole, suggesting they work by an autophagy-related process, while others were independent of this pathway. The pattern of IFN-γ dependence was shared among the majority of analogs from 6 priority scaffolds, and analysis of structure activity relationships for one such class revealed specific stereochemistry associated with this feature. Identification of these IFN-γ-dependent leads may lead to development of improved therapeutics due to their synergistic interactions with immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua B. Radke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in Saint Louis School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Kimberly L. Carey
- Infectious Disease and Microbiome Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Subrata Shaw
- Center for the Development of Therapeutics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Shailesh R. Metkar
- Center for the Development of Therapeutics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Carol Mulrooney
- Center for the Development of Therapeutics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Jennifer P. Gale
- Center for the Development of Therapeutics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Joshua A. Bittker
- Center for the Development of Therapeutics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Robert Hilgraf
- Center for the Development of Therapeutics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Eamon Comer
- Chemical Biology and Therapeutics Science Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Stuart L. Schreiber
- Chemical Biology and Therapeutics Science Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Herbert W. Virgin
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in Saint Louis School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Jose R. Perez
- Center for the Development of Therapeutics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in Saint Louis School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
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44
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Cabral GRDA, Wang ZT, Sibley LD, DaMatta RA. Inhibition of Nitric Oxide Production in Activated Macrophages Caused by Toxoplasma gondii Infection Occurs by Distinct Mechanisms in Different Mouse Macrophage Cell Lines. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1936. [PMID: 30177926 PMCID: PMC6109688 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, is a widespread intracellular parasite able to infect virtually any nucleated cell. T. gondii infection of activated macrophages inhibits nitric oxide (NO) production; however, parasite effectors responsible for this block have not been defined. Macrophage populations are extremely heterogeneous, responding differently to stimuli and to parasite infection. Here we evaluated the inhibition of NO production caused by T. gondii infection of J774-A1 and RAW 264.7 macrophages and assessed the role of several known parasite virulence factors in this phenotype. Infection of activated macrophages from both macrophage lines reduced NO production, however, the mechanism of this decrease was different. Consistent with previous reports, infected J774-A1 macrophages had reduced iNOS expression and lower number of iNOS positive cells. In contrast, T. gondii infection of RAW 264.7 macrophages did not alter iNOS expression or the number of iNOS positive cells, and yet it led to lower levels of NO production. Deletion of a number of previously defined virulence factors including ROP kinases that disrupt innate immune factors, TgIST which blocks STAT1 activation, as well as the secretory trafficking proteins ASP5 and MYR1, did not alter the phenotype of decreased NO production. Taken together our findings indicate that T. gondii infection inhibits NO production of activated macrophages by different mechanisms that involve reduction of iNOS expression vs. iNOS impairment, and suggest that a novel parasite effector is involved in modulating this important host defense pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel R de Abreu Cabral
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States.,Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Campos dos Goytacazes, Brazil
| | - Zi T Wang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - L D Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Renato A DaMatta
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States.,Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Campos dos Goytacazes, Brazil
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45
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Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a common zoonotic infection of humans, and estimates indicate that 1-2 billion people are chronically infected. Although largely asymptomatic, chronic infection poses risk of serious disease due to reactivation should immunity decline. Current therapies for toxoplasmosis only control acute infection caused by actively proliferating tachyzoites but do not eradicate the chronic tissue cyst stages. As well, there are considerable adverse side effects of the most commonly used therapy of combined sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine. Targeting the folate pathway is also an effective treatment for malaria, caused by the related parasites Plasmodium spp., suggesting common agents might be used to treat both infections. Here, we evaluated currently approved and newly emerging medicines for malaria to determine if such compounds might also prove useful for treating toxoplasmosis. Surprisingly, the majority of antimalarial compounds being used currently or in development for treatment of malaria were only modestly effective at inhibiting in vitro growth of T. gondii tachyzoites. These findings suggest that many essential processes in P. falciparum that are targeted by antimalarial compounds are either divergent or nonessential in T. gondii, thus limiting options for repurposing of current antimalarial medicines for toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua B. Radke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University Sch. Med., 600 S. Euclid Ave., St Louis, MO 63110
| | - Jeremy N. Burrows
- Medicines for Malaria Venture, ICC, Route de Pré3Bois 20, 1215 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Daniel E. Goldberg
- Departments of Medicine and Molecular Microbiology, Washington University Sch. Med., 660 S. Euclid Ave., St Louis, MO 63110
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University Sch. Med., 600 S. Euclid Ave., St Louis, MO 63110
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46
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McFarland R, Wang ZT, Jouroukhin Y, Li Y, Mychko O, Coppens I, Xiao J, Jones-Brando L, Yolken RH, Sibley LD, Pletnikov MV. AAH2 gene is not required for dopamine-dependent neurochemical and behavioral abnormalities produced by Toxoplasma infection in mouse. Behav Brain Res 2018; 347:193-200. [PMID: 29555339 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 03/10/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Infection with the protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), has been associated with the increased risk for several psychiatric disorders. The exact mechanisms of a hypothesized contribution of T. gondii infection are poorly understood. The T. gondii genome contains two aromatic amino acid hydroxylase genes (AAH1 and AAH2) that encode proteins that can produce L-DOPA. One popular hypothesis posits that these encoded enzymes might influence dopamine (DA) production and hence DA synaptic transmission, leading to neurobehavioral abnormalities in the infected host. Prior studies have shown that deletion of these genes does not alter DA levels in the brain or exploratory activity in infected mice. However, possible effects of AAH gene deficiency on infection-induced brain and behavior alterations that are directly linked to DA synaptic transmission have not been evaluated. We found that chronic T. gondii infection of BALB/c mice leads to blunted response to amphetamine or cocaine and decreased expression of Dopamine Transporter (DAT) and Vesicular Monoamine Transporter 2 (VMAT2). Deletion of AAH2 had no effects on these changes in infected mice. Both wild type and Δaah2 strains produced comparable levels of neuroinflammation. Our findings demonstrate that AAH2 is not required for T. gondii infection-produced DA-dependent neurobehavioral abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross McFarland
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Zi Teng Wang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Yan Jouroukhin
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Ye Li
- Stanley Neurovirology Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Olga Mychko
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Isabelle Coppens
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Jianchun Xiao
- Stanley Neurovirology Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Lorraine Jones-Brando
- Stanley Neurovirology Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Robert H Yolken
- Stanley Neurovirology Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Mikhail V Pletnikov
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA; Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
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47
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Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a member of the deadly phylum of protozoan parasites called Apicomplexa. As a model apicomplexan, there is a great wealth of information regarding T. gondii's 8,000+ protein coding genes including sequence variation, expression, and relative contribution to parasite fitness. However, new tools are needed to functionally investigate hundreds of putative essential protein coding genes. Accordingly, we recently implemented the auxin-inducible degron (AID) system for studying essential proteins in T. gondii. Here we provide a step-by-step protocol for examining protein function in T. gondii using the AID system in a tissue culture setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin M Brown
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Shaojun Long
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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48
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Abstract
Defining protein interaction networks can provide key insights into how protein complexes govern complex biological problems. Here we define a method for proximity based labeling using permissive biotin ligase to define protein networks in the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii. When combined with CRISPR/Cas9 based tagging, this method provides a robust approach to defining protein networks. This approach detects interaction within intact cells, it is applicable to both soluble and insoluble components, including large proteins complexes that interact with the cytoskeleton and unique microtubule organizing center that comprises the apical complex in apicomplexan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojun Long
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Kevin M Brown
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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49
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Rutaganira FU, Barks J, Dhason MS, Wang Q, Lopez MS, Long S, Radke JB, Jones NG, Maddirala AR, Janetka JW, El Bakkouri M, Hui R, Shokat KM, Sibley LD. Inhibition of Calcium Dependent Protein Kinase 1 (CDPK1) by Pyrazolopyrimidine Analogs Decreases Establishment and Reoccurrence of Central Nervous System Disease by Toxoplasma gondii. J Med Chem 2017; 60:9976-9989. [PMID: 28933846 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b01192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Calcium dependent protein kinase 1 (CDPK1) is an essential enzyme in the opportunistic pathogen Toxoplasma gondii. CDPK1 controls multiple processes that are critical to the intracellular replicative cycle of T. gondii including secretion of adhesins, motility, invasion, and egress. Remarkably, CDPK1 contains a small glycine gatekeeper residue in the ATP binding pocket making it sensitive to ATP-competitive inhibitors with bulky substituents that complement this expanded binding pocket. Here we explored structure-activity relationships of a series of pyrazolopyrimidine inhibitors of CDPK1 with the goal of increasing selectivity over host enzymes, improving antiparasite potency, and improving metabolic stability. The resulting lead compound 24 exhibited excellent enzyme inhibition and selectivity for CDPK1 and potently inhibited parasite growth in vitro. Compound 24 was also effective at treating acute toxoplasmosis in the mouse, reducing dissemination to the central nervous system, and decreasing reactivation of chronic infection in severely immunocompromised mice. These findings provide proof of concept for the development of small molecule inhibitors of CDPK1 for treatment of CNS toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florentine U Rutaganira
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco , San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Jennifer Barks
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Mary Savari Dhason
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Qiuling Wang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Michael S Lopez
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco , San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Shaojun Long
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Joshua B Radke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Nathaniel G Jones
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Amarendar R Maddirala
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - James W Janetka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Majida El Bakkouri
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Toronto , MaRS South Tower, 101 College St, Toronto, ON M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Raymond Hui
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Toronto , MaRS South Tower, 101 College St, Toronto, ON M5G 1L7, Canada.,Toronto General Hospital Research Institute , 200 Elizabeth St., Toronto, ON M5G 2C4, Canada
| | - Kevan M Shokat
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco , San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
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50
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Olias P, Etheridge RD, Zhang Y, Holtzman MJ, Sibley LD. Toxoplasma Effector Recruits the Mi-2/NuRD Complex to Repress STAT1 Transcription and Block IFN-γ-Dependent Gene Expression. Cell Host Microbe 2017; 20:72-82. [PMID: 27414498 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2016.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Interferon gamma (IFN-γ) is an essential mediator of host defense against intracellular pathogens, including the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. However, prior T. gondii infection blocks IFN-γ-dependent gene transcription, despite the downstream transcriptional activator STAT1 being activated and bound to cognate nuclear promoters. We identify the parasite effector that blocks STAT1-dependent transcription and show it is associated with recruitment of the Mi-2 nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase (NuRD) complex, a chromatin-modifying repressor. This secreted effector, toxoplasma inhibitor of STAT1-dependent transcription (TgIST), translocates to the host cell nucleus, where it recruits Mi-2/NuRD to STAT1-dependent promoters, resulting in altered chromatin and blocked transcription. TgIST is conserved across strains, underlying their shared ability to block IFN-γ-dependent transcription. TgIST deletion results in increased parasite clearance in IFN-γ-activated cells and reduced mouse virulence, which is restored in IFN-γ-receptor-deficient mice. These findings demonstrate the importance of both IFN-γ responses and the ability of pathogens to counteract these defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Olias
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Ronald D Etheridge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Michael J Holtzman
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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