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Identification of Keratinocyte Differentiation-Involved Genes for Metastatic Melanoma by Gene Expression Profiles. COMPUTATIONAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN MEDICINE 2022; 2021:9652768. [PMID: 35003328 PMCID: PMC8728391 DOI: 10.1155/2021/9652768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Background Melanoma is the deadliest type of skin cancer. Until now, its pathological mechanisms, particularly the mechanism of metastasis, remain largely unknown. Our study on the identification of genes in association with metastasis for melanoma provides a novel understanding of melanoma. Methods From the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, the gene expression microarray datasets GSE46517, GSE7553, and GSE8401 were downloaded. We made use of R aiming at analyzing the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between metastatic and nonmetastatic melanoma. R was also used in differentially expressed miRNA (DEM) data mining from GSE18509, GSE19387, GSE24996, GSE34460, GSE35579, GSE36236, and GSE54492 datasets referring to Li's study. Based on the DEG and DEM data, we performed functional enrichment analysis through the application of the DAVID database. Furthermore, we constructed the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and established functional modules by making use of the STRING database. Through making use of Cytoscape, the PPI results were visualized. We predicted the targets of the DEMs through applying TargetScan, miRanda, and PITA databases and identified the overlapping genes between DEGs and predicted targets, followed by the construction of DEM-DEG pair network. The expressions of these keratinocyte differentiation-involved genes in Module 1 were identified based on the data from TCGA. Results 239 DEGs were screened out in all 3 datasets, which were inclusive of 21 positively regulated genes and 218 negatively regulated genes. Based on these 239 DEGs, we finished constructing the PPI network which was formed from 225 nodes and 846 edges. We finished establishing 3 functional modules. And we analyzed 92 overlapping genes and 26 miRNA, including 11 upregulated genes targeted by 11 negatively regulated DEMs and 81 downregulated genes targeted by 15 positively regulated DEMs. As proof of the differential expression of metastasis-associated genes, eleven keratinocyte differentiation-involved genes, including LOR, EVPL, SPRR1A, FLG, SPRR1B, SPRR2B, TGM1, DSP, CSTA, CDSN, and IVL in Module 1, were obviously downregulated in metastatic melanoma tissue in comparison with primary melanoma tissue based on the data from TCGA. Conclusion 239 melanoma metastasis-associated genes and 26 differentially expressed miRNA were identified in our study. The keratinocyte differentiation-involved genes may take part in melanoma metastasis, providing a latent molecular mechanism for this disease.
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Vidal P. Interferon α in cancer immunoediting: From elimination to escape. Scand J Immunol 2020; 91:e12863. [PMID: 31909839 DOI: 10.1111/sji.12863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Interferon α (IFNα) is a cytokine that mediates diverse immune responses to tumours. It is the oldest immune-based oncologic drug and has been widely used to treat various malignancies in humans. Yet, the use of IFNα in cancer therapy has only resulted in limited success and even led to worse clinical outcomes under certain instances. The emergence of the cancer immunoediting concept-which implicates the host immune system in promoting tumour growth-recapitulates the need to evaluate the immune functions of IFNα. This review proposes that IFNα has dual opposing roles in cancer development based on the mutational status of its signalling components, which determines the expression of anti- or pro-tumorigenic IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). This duality may translate into new applications of IFNα in cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Vidal
- Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Public Health, University of the Philippines Manila, Philippines
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3
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Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor Signaling in Skin Cancers. Cells 2019; 8:cells8060540. [PMID: 31167513 PMCID: PMC6628025 DOI: 10.3390/cells8060540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)/Fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) signaling regulates various cellular processes during the embryonic development and in the adult organism. In the skin, fibroblasts and keratinocytes control proliferation and survival of melanocytes in a paracrine manner via several signaling molecules, including FGFs. FGF/FGFR signaling contributes to the skin surface expansion in childhood or during wound healing, and skin protection from UV light damage. Aberrant FGF/FGFR signaling has been implicated in many disorders, including cancer. In melanoma cells, the FGFR expression is low, probably because of the strong endogenous mutation-driven constitutive activation of the downstream mitogen-activated protein kinase-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MAPK-ERK) signaling pathway. FGFR1 is exceptional as it is expressed in the majority of melanomas at a high level. Melanoma cells that acquired the capacity to synthesize FGFs can influence the neighboring cells in the tumor niche, such as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, or other melanoma cells. In this way, FGF/FGFR signaling contributes to intratumoral angiogenesis, melanoma cell survival, and development of resistance to therapeutics. Therefore, inhibitors of aberrant FGF/FGFR signaling are considered as drugs in combination treatment. The ongoing LOGIC-2 phase II clinical trial aims to find out whether targeting the FGF/FGFR signaling pathway with BGJ398 may be a good therapeutic strategy in melanoma patients who develop resistance to v-Raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B (BRAF)/MEK inhibitors.
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Duran CL, Howell DW, Dave JM, Smith RL, Torrie ME, Essner JJ, Bayless KJ. Molecular Regulation of Sprouting Angiogenesis. Compr Physiol 2017; 8:153-235. [PMID: 29357127 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c160048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The term angiogenesis arose in the 18th century. Several studies over the next 100 years laid the groundwork for initial studies performed by the Folkman laboratory, which were at first met with some opposition. Once overcome, the angiogenesis field has flourished due to studies on tumor angiogenesis and various developmental models that can be genetically manipulated, including mice and zebrafish. In addition, new discoveries have been aided by the ability to isolate primary endothelial cells, which has allowed dissection of various steps within angiogenesis. This review will summarize the molecular events that control angiogenesis downstream of biochemical factors such as growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), and lipids. These and other stimuli have been linked to regulation of junctional molecules and cell surface receptors. In addition, the contribution of cytoskeletal elements and regulatory proteins has revealed an intricate role for mobilization of actin, microtubules, and intermediate filaments in response to cues that activate the endothelium. Activating stimuli also affect various focal adhesion proteins, scaffold proteins, intracellular kinases, and second messengers. Finally, metalloproteinases, which facilitate matrix degradation and the formation of new blood vessels, are discussed, along with our knowledge of crosstalk between the various subclasses of these molecules throughout the text. Compr Physiol 8:153-235, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille L Duran
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - David W Howell
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Jui M Dave
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Rebecca L Smith
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Melanie E Torrie
- Department of Genetics, Development and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Jeffrey J Essner
- Department of Genetics, Development and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Kayla J Bayless
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas, USA
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Shin SS, Park SS, Hwang B, Kim WT, Choi YH, Kim WJ, Moon SK. MicroRNA-106a suppresses proliferation, migration, and invasion of bladder cancer cells by modulating MAPK signaling, cell cycle regulators, and Ets-1-mediated MMP-2 expression. Oncol Rep 2016; 36:2421-9. [PMID: 27513725 DOI: 10.3892/or.2016.5015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the clinical significance of tumorigenesis, little is known about the cellular signaling networks of microRNAs (miRs). Here we report a new finding that mir‑106a regulates the proliferation, migration, and invasion of bladder cancer cells. Basal expression levels of mir‑106a were significantly lower in bladder cancer cells than in normal urothelial cells. Overexpression of mir‑106a suppressed the proliferation of bladder cancer cell line EJ. Transient transfection of mir‑106a into EJ cells led to downregulation of ERK phosphorylation and upregulation of p38 and JNK phosphorylation over their levels in the control. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that mir‑106a-transfected cells accumulated in the G1-phase of the cell cycle, and cyclin D1 and CDK6 were significantly downregulated. This G1-phase cell cycle arrest was due in part to the upregulation of p21CIP1/WAF1. In addition, mir‑106a overexpression blocked the wound-healing migration and invasion of EJ cells. Furthermore, mir‑106a transfection resulted in decreased expression of MMP-2 and diminished binding activity of transcription factor Ets-1 in EJ cells. Collectively, we report the novel mir‑106a-mediated molecular signaling networks that regulate the proliferation, migration, and invasion of bladder cancer cells, suggesting that mir‑106a may be a therapeutic target for treating advanced bladder tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Shick Shin
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Soo Park
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Byungdoo Hwang
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 456-756, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Tae Kim
- Department of Urology, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk 361-763, Republic of Korea
| | - Yung Hyun Choi
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Oriental Medicine, Dongeui University, Busan 614-052, Republic of Korea
| | - Wun-Jae Kim
- Department of Urology, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk 361-763, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Kwon Moon
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 456-756, Republic of Korea
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Garay T, Molnár E, Juhász É, László V, Barbai T, Dobos J, Schelch K, Pirker C, Grusch M, Berger W, Tímár J, Hegedűs B. Sensitivity of Melanoma Cells to EGFR and FGFR Activation but Not Inhibition is Influenced by Oncogenic BRAF and NRAS Mutations. Pathol Oncol Res 2015; 21:957-68. [PMID: 25749811 DOI: 10.1007/s12253-015-9916-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BRAF and NRAS are the two most frequent oncogenic driver mutations in melanoma and are pivotal components of both the EGF and FGF signaling network. Accordingly, we investigated the effect of BRAF and NRAS oncogenic mutation on the response to the stimulation and inhibition of epidermal and fibroblast growth factor receptors in melanoma cells. In the three BRAF mutant, two NRAS mutant and two double wild-type cell lines growth factor receptor expression had been verified by qRT-PCR. Cell proliferation and migration were determined by the analysis of 3-days-long time-lapse videomicroscopic recordings. Of note, a more profound response was found in motility as compared to proliferation and double wild-type cells displayed a higher sensitivity to EGF and FGF2 treatment when compared to mutant cells. Both baseline and induced activation of the growth factor signaling was assessed by immunoblot analysis of the phosphorylation of the downstream effectors Erk1/2. Low baseline and higher inducibility of the signaling pathway was characteristic in double wild-type cells. In contrast, oncogenic BRAF or NRAS mutation did not influence the response to EGF or FGF receptor inhibitors in vitro. Our findings demonstrate that the oncogenic mutations in melanoma have a profound impact on the motogenic effect of the activation of growth factor receptor signaling. Since emerging molecularly targeted therapies aim at the growth factor receptor signaling, the appropriate mutational analysis of individual melanoma cases is essential in both preclinical studies and in the clinical trials and practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamás Garay
- 2nd Department of Pathology, Semmelweis University, Üllői út 93, H-1091, Budapest, Hungary
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Jilaveanu LB, Zhao F, Zito CR, Kirkwood JM, Nathanson KL, D'Andrea K, Wilson M, Rimm DL, Flaherty KT, Lee SJ, Kluger HM. Expression of drug targets in patients treated with sorafenib, carboplatin and paclitaxel. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69748. [PMID: 23936348 PMCID: PMC3735539 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Sorafenib, a multitarget kinase inhibitor, targets members of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway and VEGFR kinases. Here we assessed the association between expression of sorafenib targets and biomarkers of taxane sensitivity and response to therapy in pre-treatment tumors from patients enrolled in ECOG 2603, a phase III comparing sorafenib, carboplatin and paclitaxel (SCP) to carboplatin, paclitaxel and placebo (CP). Methods Using a method of automated quantitative analysis (AQUA) of in situ protein expression, we quantified expression of VEGF-R2, VEGF-R1, VEGF-R3, FGF-R1, PDGF-Rβ, c-Kit, B-Raf, C-Raf, MEK1, ERK1/2, STMN1, MAP2, EB1 and Bcl-2 in pretreatment specimens from 263 patients. Results An association was found between high FGF-R1 and VEGF-R1 and increased progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) in our combined cohort (SCP and CP arms). Expression of FGF-R1 and VEGF-R1 was higher in patients who responded to therapy ((CR+PR) vs. (SD+PD+ un-evaluable)). Conclusions In light of the absence of treatment effect associated with sorafenib, the association found between FGF-R1 and VEGF-R1 expression and OS, PFS and response might reflect a predictive biomarker signature for carboplatin/paclitaxel-based therapy. Seeing that carboplatin and pacitaxel are now widely used for this disease, corroboration in another cohort might enable us to improve the therapeutic ratio of this regimen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia B. Jilaveanu
- Yale Cancer Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Fengmin Zhao
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Christopher R. Zito
- Yale Cancer Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Department of Biology, School of Health and Natural Sciences, University of Saint Joseph, West Hartford, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - John M. Kirkwood
- Pittsburgh Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Katherine L. Nathanson
- Abramson Cancer Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Kurt D'Andrea
- Abramson Cancer Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Melissa Wilson
- Abramson Cancer Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - David L. Rimm
- Department of Pathology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Keith T. Flaherty
- Abramson Cancer Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Sandra J. Lee
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Harriet M. Kluger
- Yale Cancer Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Boss DS, Glen H, Beijnen JH, Keesen M, Morrison R, Tait B, Copalu W, Mazur A, Wanders J, O'Brien JP, Schellens JHM, Evans TRJ. A phase I study of E7080, a multitargeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor, in patients with advanced solid tumours. Br J Cancer 2012; 106:1598-604. [PMID: 22516948 PMCID: PMC3349182 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2012.154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The objectives of this phase I study were to assess the safety and tolerability of E7080 in patients with advanced, refractory solid tumours; to determine the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) and pharmacokinetics profile of E7080; and to explore preliminary evidence of its anti-tumour efficacy. Methods: E7080 was administered orally in escalating doses on a once-daily continuous schedule in 28-day cycles to eligible patients. Samples for pharmacokinetic analyses were collected on days 1, 8, 15 and 22 of cycle 1 and day 1 of cycle 2. Anti-tumour efficacy was assessed every two cycles. Results: Eighty-two patients received E7080 in dose cohorts from 0.2 to 32 mg. Dose-limiting toxicities were grade 3 proteinuria (two patients) at 32 mg, and the MTD was defined as 25 mg. The most frequently observed cumulative toxicities (all grades) were hypertension (40% of patients), diarrhoea (45%), nausea (37%), stomatitis (32%) and vomiting (23%). Seven patients (9%) had a partial response and 38 patients (46%) had stable disease as best response. E7080 has dose-linear kinetics with no drug accumulation after 4 weeks’ administration. Conclusion: E7080 is well tolerated at doses up to 25 mg per day. Encouraging anti-tumour efficacy was observed in patients with melanoma and renal cell carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Boss
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Clinical Pharmacology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Fibroblast growth factor receptors as therapeutic targets in human melanoma: synergism with BRAF inhibition. J Invest Dermatol 2011; 131:2087-95. [PMID: 21753785 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2011.177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Cutaneous melanoma is a tumor with rising incidence and a very poor prognosis at the disseminated stage. Melanomas are characterized by frequent mutations in BRAF and also by overexpression of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), offering opportunities for therapeutic intervention. We investigated inhibition of FGF signaling and its combination with dacarbazine or BRAF inhibitors as an antitumor strategy in melanoma. The majority of melanoma cell lines displayed overexpression of FGF2 but also FGF5 and FGF18 together with different isoforms of FGF receptors (FGFRs) 1-4. Blockade of FGF signals with dominant-negative receptor constructs (dnFGFR1, 3, or 4) or small-molecule inhibitors (SU5402 and PD166866) reduced melanoma cell proliferation, colony formation, as well as anchorage-independent growth, and increased apoptosis. DnFGFR constructs also significantly inhibited tumor growth in vivo. Combination of FGF inhibitors with dacarbazine showed additive or antagonistic effects, whereas synergistic drug interaction was observed when combining FGFR inhibition with the multikinase/BRAF inhibitor sorafenib or the V600E mutant-specific BRAF inhibitor RG7204. In conclusion, FGFR inhibition has antitumor effects against melanoma cells in vitro and in vivo. Combination with BRAF inhibition offers a potential for synergistic antimelanoma effects and represents a promising therapeutic strategy against advanced melanoma.
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Lee SI, Lee BR, Hwang YS, Rengaraj D, Han JY. Changes in Apoptosis-related Gene Expression Induced by Repression of FGFR1 by RNA Interference in Embryonic Fibroblasts and Cancerous Cells from Chicken. JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.5187/jast.2010.52.6.521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Kluger HM, Dudek AZ, McCann C, Ritacco J, Southard N, Jilaveanu LB, Molinaro A, Sznol M. A phase 2 trial of dasatinib in advanced melanoma. Cancer 2010; 117:2202-8. [PMID: 21523734 DOI: 10.1002/cncr.25766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2010] [Revised: 10/05/2010] [Accepted: 10/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inhibiting src kinases (non-receptor tyrosine kinase signaling intermediates) reduces melanoma cell proliferation and invasion. Dasatinib inhibits c-kit, PDGFβR, and EPHA2 and src kinases c-src, c-Yes, Lck, and Fyn. A phase 2 trial of dasatinib in melanoma was conducted to assess response rate (RR), progression-free survival (PFS), and toxicity. METHODS Adults with stage 3/4 chemotherapy-naïve unresectable melanoma were eligible. Dasatinib was initially administered at 100 mg twice daily continuously to 17 patients. Due to toxicity, the starting dosage was decreased to 70 mg twice daily. Tumor assessments occurred every 8 weeks. RESULTS Thirty-nine patients were enrolled, 36 of whom were evaluable for activity and toxicity. Five, 4, and 3 patients had acral-lentiginous, ocular, or mucosal primaries, respectively. Two patients had confirmed partial responses lasting 64 and 24 weeks (RR 5%). Three patients had minor responses lasting 136, 64, and 28 weeks, and 1 patient who was responding discontinued due to noncompliance. The median PFS was 8 weeks; the 6-month PFS rate was 13%. One patient with an exon-13 c-kit mutation had a partial response, whereas disease in another patient with an exon-11 c-kit mutation progressed. Common toxicities were fatigue, dyspnea, and pleural effusion. CONCLUSIONS Daily dasatinib has minimal activity in unselected melanoma patients, excluding those with c-kit mutations. The study did not meet the prespecified endpoints of 30% response rate or 6-month PFS. Dasatinib was poorly tolerated overall, often requiring dose reduction or interruption. Because activity was observed in a small subset without c-kit mutations, identifying predictive biomarkers is important for future development of dasatinib in melanoma alone or in combination trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harriet M Kluger
- Yale Cancer Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, USA.
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Kanai M, Tashiro E, Maruki H, Minato Y, Imoto M. Transcriptional regulation of human fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 by E2F-1. Gene 2009; 438:49-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2009.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2008] [Revised: 02/24/2009] [Accepted: 03/05/2009] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Sabbieti MG, Agas D, Materazzi S, Capacchietti M, Materazzi G, Hurley MM, Menghi G, Marchetti L. Prostaglandin F2alpha involves heparan sulphate sugar chains and FGFRs to modulate osteoblast growth and differentiation. J Cell Physiol 2008; 217:48-59. [PMID: 18459126 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The present investigation extends our previous studies on PGF2alpha-mediated signalling in osteoblast metabolism. In particular, the role of PGF2alpha as modulator of heparan sulphate proteoglycans (HSPGs), fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) and fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) was evaluated. We hereby reported the novel observation that PGF2alpha was able to promote the formation of HSPGs/FGF-2/FGFRs complexes. Moreover, our data suggested that PGF2alpha could induce new synthesis of heparan sulphate (HS) chains on osteoblasts by a mechanism involving a modulation of MAPK signalling and that HS is required for the regulation of FGF-2 induced by PGF2alpha. Indeed, a proteolytic cleavage of HSPGs with heparinase III (Hep III) prior to PGF2alpha administration down-regulated the basal expression of phospho-p44/42, likely inhibiting FGFRs tyrosine kinase activity. Interestingly, MAPK signalling influenced syntheses and subcellular localization of FGF-2, its specific receptor and HS. In addition, the proteolytic cleavage by Hep III and the MAPK kinase inhibition by PD-98059 also revealed that PGF2alpha induced cell proliferation is dependent on HSPGs and FGF-2 specific receptor, respectively. Of further relevance of this study, we demonstrated, by using a specific siRNA for FGFR1, that PGF2alpha modulates Runx2 expression by FGFR1 and HS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Giovanna Sabbieti
- Department of Comparative Morphology and Biochemistry, University of Camerino, Camerino (MC), Italy
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Sekulic A, Haluska P, Miller AJ, Genebriera De Lamo J, Ejadi S, Pulido JS, Salomao DR, Thorland EC, Vile RG, Swanson DL, Pockaj BA, Laman SD, Pittelkow MR, Markovic SN. Malignant melanoma in the 21st century: the emerging molecular landscape. Mayo Clin Proc 2008; 83:825-46. [PMID: 18613999 PMCID: PMC2739389 DOI: 10.4065/83.7.825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Malignant melanoma presents a substantial clinical challenge. Current diagnostic methods are limited in their ability to diagnose early disease and accurately predict individual risk of disease progression and outcome. The lack of adequate approaches to properly define disease subgroups precludes rational treatment design and selection. Better tools are urgently needed to provide more accurate and personalized melanoma patient management. Recent progress in the understanding of the molecular aberrations that underlie melanoma oncogenesis will likely advance the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of melanoma. The emerging pattern of molecular complexity in melanoma tumors mirrors the clinical diversity of the disease and highlights the notion that melanoma, like other cancers, is not a single disease but a heterogeneous group of disorders that arise from complex molecular changes. Understanding of molecular aberrations involving important cellular processes, such as cellular signaling networks, cell cycle regulation, and cell death, will be essential for better diagnosis, accurate assessment of prognosis, and rational design of effective therapeutics. Defining an individual patient's unique tumor characteristics may lead to personalized prediction of outcomes and selection of therapy. We review the emerging molecular landscape of melanoma and its implications for better management of patients with melanoma.
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Augustine CK, Yoshimoto Y, Gupta M, Zipfel PA, Selim MA, Febbo P, Pendergast AM, Peters WP, Tyler DS. Targeting N-cadherin enhances antitumor activity of cytotoxic therapies in melanoma treatment. Cancer Res 2008; 68:3777-84. [PMID: 18483261 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-07-5949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Malignant transformation in melanoma is characterized by a phenotype "switch" from E- to N-cadherin, which is associated with increased motility and invasiveness of the tumor and altered signaling, leading to decreased apoptosis. We hypothesized that the novel pentapeptide (ADH-1), which disrupts N-cadherin adhesion, could sensitize melanoma tumors to the cytotoxic effects of chemotherapy. N-cadherin-expressing human melanoma-derived cell lines were used to generate xenografts in animal models to study isolated limb infusion with melphalan and systemic chemotherapy with temozolomide. We report here that melphalan in combination with ADH-1 significantly reduced tumor growth up to 30-fold over melphalan alone. ADH-1 enhancement of response to melphalan was associated with increased formation of DNA adducts, increased apoptosis, and intracellular signaling changes associated with focal adhesions and fibroblast growth factor receptors. Targeted therapy using an N-cadherin antagonist can dramatically augment the antitumor effects of chemotherapy and is a novel approach to optimizing treatment for melanoma.
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Di Serio C, Doria L, Pellerito S, Prudovsky I, Micucci I, Massi D, Landriscina M, Marchionni N, Masotti G, Tarantini F. The release of fibroblast growth factor-1 from melanoma cells requires copper ions and is mediated by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt intracellular signaling pathway. Cancer Lett 2008; 267:67-74. [PMID: 18400376 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2008.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2007] [Revised: 03/01/2008] [Accepted: 03/03/2008] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Melanoma is a highly invasive tumor with elevated mortality rates. Progression and aggressiveness appear related to the achievement of an angiogenic phenotype. Melanoma cells express several angiogenic factors, including fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-1 and FGF-2. The autocrine production and release of FGFs and the subsequent activation of FGF receptors, have a central role in melanoma tumor progression. We demonstrated that FGF-1 is secreted from a human melanoma cell line, A375, under conditions of serum deprivation. The release of FGF-1 is inhibited by the copper chelator ammonium tetrathiomolybdate, suggesting a role of copper in the secretory pathway, and is triggered by activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt intracellular signaling. Interestingly, overexpression or activation of Akt has been correlated with poor prognosis in melanoma patients. Our data indicate a novel role for Akt in supporting the progression of human melanomas and advocate the need for new treatments targeting PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, to control tumor development and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Di Serio
- Department of Critical Care Medicine and Surgery, Geriatric Medicine Unit, University of Florence, Viale Pieraccini 6, 50139 Florence, Italy
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17
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Haluska F, Pemberton T, Ibrahim N, Kalinsky K. The RTK/RAS/BRAF/PI3K pathways in melanoma: biology, small molecule inhibitors, and potential applications. Semin Oncol 2008; 34:546-54. [PMID: 18083378 DOI: 10.1053/j.seminoncol.2007.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of mutations in the BRAF signaling molecule in a large proportion of cutaneous melanomas immediately suggested the prospect of effective therapies for this disease. The most appealing initial target has been BRAF itself, as most mutations involve a single residue in the kinase domain of the protein. But the identification of the high mutation rate in this signaling intermediate also suggests that other molecules up- and downstream of BRAF might be productively targeted. Indeed, several receptor tyrosine kinases, as well as RAS, are mutated in a small number of melanoma cases. Moreover, genetic alterations in the phosphotidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) pathway, especially in PTEN, suggest that this route also poses opportunities for therapeutic exploitation. We will review here the genetic evidence suggesting the utility of targets on these pathways. We will also summarize the recent clinical data that have accumulated from initial trials designed to test BRAF inhibition and targeting of other molecules. Finally, we provide an overview of molecules entering the clinic and soon to be tested in clinical studies, as well as strategies for their employment as monotherapy and in combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Haluska
- Molecular Oncology Research Institute, Tufts-New England Medical Center, Boston, MA 02111, USA.
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18
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Agas D, Marchetti L, Menghi G, Materazzi S, Materazzi G, Capacchietti M, Hurley MM, Sabbieti MG. Anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 enhancing requires FGF-2/FGF receptor 1 binding in mouse osteoblasts. J Cell Physiol 2007; 214:145-52. [PMID: 17559077 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the role of prostaglandin F2alpha (PGF2alpha) in mouse osteoblast survival and the function of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) and fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) in this process. In particular, for the first time, we demonstrated that PGF2alpha increased osteoblast survival in a dose-dependent manner and we showed that the effect is correlated with an increase in Bcl-2/Bax ratio. Furthermore, we demonstrated that PGF2alpha caused a decrement of the active caspases 9 and 3. By blocking FGF-2 with the specific neutralizing antibody and by depletion of FGFR1 gene with a specific siRNA, we showed that FGFR1 and FGF-2 are critical for the increment of Bcl-2/Bax ratio and the decrement of the active caspases 9 and 3, induced by PGF2alpha. Moreover, transmission electron microscopy studies showed that PGF2alpha increased binding of FGF-2 and FGFR1 and co-localization of reactive sites at plasma membrane level. In conclusion, we report a novel mechanism in which PGF2alpha induces FGF-2 binding to its specific cell surface receptor 1 leading to a cascade pathway that culminates with increased mouse osteoblast survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Agas
- Department of Comparative Morphology and Biochemistry, University of Camerino, Camerino (MC), Italy
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Homsi J, Cubitt C, Daud A. The Src signaling pathway: a potential target in melanoma and other malignancies. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2006; 11:91-100. [PMID: 17150037 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.11.1.91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Although Src was the first oncogene to be discovered as the transforming protein of the Rous sarcoma virus almost three decades ago, the role of Src and the Src family kinases in human oncogenesis is still not completely understood. Recent studies have shown that Src regulates cell adhesion, invasiveness and motility in cancer cells and in tumor vasculature, rather than directly influencing cell replication. The role of the Src family kinases in human cancer is evolving and elevated levels of Src kinase activity have been reported in a number of human cancers in vitro and in vivo. Src expression and activity are increased in melanoma cell lines and in melanoma tumors in vivo. Src can activate STAT3, STAT5 and other downstream targets in melanoma. Src and STAT3 are expressed in their activated forms in both primary and metastatic melanoma in humans, although the expression level is variable. Cumulatively, these data mark Src signaling as attractive therapeutic targets in melanoma. Studies are currently underway with novel Src inhibitors in melanoma and in other tumor types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jade Homsi
- Cutaneous Therapeutic Program, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL, USA
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20
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Streit S, Mestel DS, Schmidt M, Ullrich A, Berking C. FGFR4 Arg388 allele correlates with tumour thickness and FGFR4 protein expression with survival of melanoma patients. Br J Cancer 2006; 94:1879-86. [PMID: 16721364 PMCID: PMC2361343 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A single nucleotide polymorphism in the gene for FGFR4 (−Arg388) has been associated with progression in various types of human cancer. Although fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) belong to the most important growth factors in melanoma, expression of FGF receptor subtype 4 has not been investigated yet. In this study, the protein expression of this receptor was analysed in 137 melanoma tissues of different progression stages by immunohistochemistry. FGFR4 protein was expressed in 45% of the specimens and correlated with pTNM tumour stages (UICC, P=0.023 and AJCC, P=0.046), presence of microulceration (P=0.009), tumour vascularity (P=0.001), metastases (P=0.025), number of primary tumours (P=0.022), overall survival (P=0.047) and disease-free survival (P=0.024). Furthermore, FGFR4 Arg388 polymorphism was analysed in 185 melanoma patients by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP). The Arg388 allele was detected in 45% of the melanoma patients and was significantly associated with tumour thickness (by Clark's level of invasion (P=0.004) and by Breslow in mm (P=0.02)) and the tumour subtype nodular melanoma (P=0.002). However, there was no correlation of the FGFR4 Arg388 allele with overall and disease-free survival. In conclusion, the Arg388 genotype and the protein expression of FGFR4 may be potential markers for progression of melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Streit
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max-Planck-Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18a, Martinsried D-82152, Germany
| | - D S Mestel
- Department of Dermatology, Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich, Frauenlobstr. 9-11, Munich D-80337, Germany
| | - M Schmidt
- Munich Cancer Registry/IBE, Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, Munich D-81377, Germany
| | - A Ullrich
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max-Planck-Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18a, Martinsried D-82152, Germany
| | - C Berking
- Department of Dermatology, Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich, Frauenlobstr. 9-11, Munich D-80337, Germany
- E-mail:
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21
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Jiang LQ, Feng X, Zhou W, Knyazev PG, Ullrich A, Chen Z. Csk-binding protein (Cbp) negatively regulates epidermal growth factor-induced cell transformation by controlling Src activation. Oncogene 2006; 25:5495-506. [PMID: 16636672 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1209554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and Src tyrosine kinase cooperate in regulating EGFR-mediated cell signaling and promoting cell transformation and tumorigenesis in pathological conditions. Activation of Src is tightly regulated by the C-terminal Src kinase (Csk). The Csk-binding protein (Cbp) is a ubiquitously expressed transmembrane protein. Its functions include suppression of T-cell receptor activation through recruiting Csk and inhibiting Src family kinase (SFK). However, a potential role of Cbp in EGF-induced cell activities has not been investigated. Here, we report that EGF-stimulation-induced Cbp tyrosine phosphorylation followed by Cbp-Csk association, in a SFK-dependent manner. Expression of wild-type (wt) Cbp remarkably suppressed EGF-induced activation of Src, ERK1/2, and Akt-1 enzymes, and NIH3T3 cell transformation, as well as colony formation of a breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-468) in soft agar. In contrast, expression of CbpY317F or knockdown endogenous Cbp in NIH3T3 cells by RNA interference significantly enhanced EGF-induced activation of these enzymes and cell transformation. In addition, overexpression of multiple receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs)-induced Cbp tyrosine phosphorylation. These results demonstrate that Cbp functions as a negative regulator of cell transformation and tumor cell growth through downregulation of Src activation, suggesting that Cbp might be broadly involved in RTKs-activated signaling pathways and tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Q Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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22
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Zhang P, Greendorfer JS, Jiao J, Kelpke SC, Thompson JA. Alternatively spliced FGFR-1 isoforms differentially modulate endothelial cell activation of c-YES. Arch Biochem Biophys 2006; 450:50-62. [PMID: 16631103 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2006.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2006] [Revised: 03/10/2006] [Accepted: 03/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Ligand activation of fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 (FGFR-1) induces an angiogenic response following activation of multiple intracellular signaling substrates, including the Src family of nonreceptor tyrosine kinases (SFK). However, the direct association between FGFR-1 and SFK and the involvement of SFK in FGFR-1-dependent cell proliferation have been controversial. Structural variants of FGFR-1 are generated by alternative splicing which results in two major isoforms, containing either three (FGFR-1alpha) or two (FGFR-1beta) immunoglobulin-like domains in the extracellular region. To determine whether alternatively spliced FGFR-1 isoforms differentially activate SFK, we have examined FGF receptor-negative endothelial cells stably transfected with human cDNA encoding either FGFR-1alpha or FGFR-1beta. Transient activation of c-YES, the predominant SFK expressed in these endothelial cells, was restricted to FGFR-1beta transfectants following exposure to acidic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-1). Co-immunoprecipitation studies revealed that c-YES directly associated with FGFR-1beta. The Src homology (SH)2 domain (and not the SH3 domain) of c-YES was able to recognize tyrosine phosphorylated FGFR-1beta. FGFR-1beta-specific activation of c-YES was accompanied by its association with and activation of cortactin. FGF-1 treatment of both FGFR-1alpha and FGFR-1beta transfectants induced SFK-independent cellular proliferation and growth in low density cultures. At high density, under both anchorage-dependent and -independent conditions, FGF-1 failed to induce proliferation and growth of FGFR-1alpha transfectants. In contrast, FGF-1 induced proliferation, growth, and formation of cord-like structures in high density cultures of FGFR-1beta transfectants in an SFK-dependent manner. In vitro cord formation on Matrigel was restricted to FGFR-1beta transfectants in an SFK-dependent manner. Formation of vascular structures in vivo was limited to endothelial cells transfected with FGFR-1beta. Collectively, these results emphasize the roles of alternatively spliced FGFR-1 structural isoforms and activation of SFK as modulators of endothelial cell growth during the formation of neovascular structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Zhang
- Department of Surgery and Biochemistry, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, 35294, USA
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23
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McGill GG, Haq R, Nishimura EK, Fisher DE. c-Met expression is regulated by Mitf in the melanocyte lineage. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:10365-73. [PMID: 16455654 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m513094200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)/c-Met signaling is thought to be a key pathway in both melanocyte development and melanoma metastasis. Here, HGF stimulation of melanocytes was seen to up-regulate c-Met expression. In an effort to decipher the mechanism by which HGF up-regulates its receptor, we found that c-Met is a direct transcriptional target of Mitf. This was confirmed with chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments of the human c-Met promoter, as well as by the ability of adenovirally expressed Mitf to modulate endogenous c-Met protein levels in melanocytes. Disruption of Mitf blocked HGF-dependent increases in endogenous c-Met message and protein levels, indicating that HGF regulates its own receptor levels via Mitf. Finally, dominant-negative inhibition of Mitf resulted in profound resistance of melanocytes and melanoma cells to HGF-dependent matrix invasion, suggesting a physiologic role for this pathway in melanocytic development and melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaël G McGill
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, 44 Binney Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Abstract
Rb is a tumor suppressor that represses the expression of E2F regulated genes required for cell cycle progression. It is inactivated in melanomas and other cancer cells by phosphorylation catalyzed by persistent cyclin dependent kinase (CDK) activity. CDK activity is sustained in melanoma cells mostly by the elimination of the CDK inhibitor p16INK4A and by high levels of cyclins whose expression is maintained by stimuli emanating from activated cell surface receptors and/or mutated intracellular intermediates, such as N-Ras and B-Raf. However, Rb also suppresses the expression of apoptosis genes, and its presence protects normal melanocytes from cell death. Its high expression in human melanoma cells and tumors suggests a similar role in malignant cells as well. The differential release and suppression of E2F transcriptional activity is likely to depend on promoter-specific E2F/Rb interaction. Phosphorylated Rb is displaced from cell cycle genes but not from others. In addition, Rb gene repression is dependent on the nature of Rb-E2F interaction and the activity of the Rb-bound proteins recruited to the promoter. Deciphering the differences in Rb/E2F complex formation in normal and malignant melanocytes is likely to shed light on the mechanism by which Rb can exert tumor suppressing and promoting activities in this cellular system. The Rb/E2F pathway provides opportunities for efficient therapy at multiple levels. Novel drugs can reactivate Rb potential to suppress growth cycle promoting genes. In addition, the high E2F transcriptional activity in melanoma cells can be exploited to deliver cytotoxic molecules specifically to tumors, sparing the normal tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Halaban
- Department of Dermatology, Yale University School of Medicine, 15 York Street, P.O. Box 208059, New Haven, CT, 06520-8059, USA.
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25
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Abstract
As a point of convergence for numerous oncogenic signaling pathways, STAT3 is constitutively-activated at 50 to 90% frequency in diverse human cancers, including melanoma. A critical role of STAT3 in tumor cell survival, proliferation, angiogenesis, metastasis and immune evasion has been recently demonstrated. STAT3 contributes to tumor cell growth by regulating the expression of genes that are involved in cell survival and proliferation. STAT3 promotes metastasis and angiogenesis by inducing expression of the metastatic gene, MMP-2, and the potent angiogenic gene, VEGF. STAT3 participates in the regulation of tumor immune evasion by inhibiting expression of proinflammatory mediators while promoting expression of immune-suppressing factors, which in turn activates STAT3 signaling in dendritic cells leading to immune tolerance. Thus, targeting STAT3 for therapy assaults cancer on multiple fronts. Many of the studies that defined STAT3's role in oncogenesis were carried out in melanoma cells and tumor models. In this review, we summarize the key role of STAT3 in cancer in general and melanoma in particular. With the emergence of small-molecule drugs that directly inhibit STAT3 or the oncogenic signaling pathways upstream of STAT3 in melanoma, a promising novel approach for melanoma therapy is emerging.
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Ackermann J, Beermann F. The fibroblast growth factor-2 is not essential for melanoma formation in a transgenic mouse model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 18:315-9. [PMID: 16029424 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0749.2005.00243.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) has been assigned a role in melanocyte proliferation and in development of human cutaneous melanoma. We have used a transgenic mouse melanoma model in combination with mice lacking mouse FGF2 to analyse the possible implication of FGF2 in melanomagenesis. Tyr::N-rasQ61K transgenic mice which are deficient for FGF2 and the tumor suppressors p16INK4a and p19ARF are hyperpigmented and develop cutaneous metastasizing melanoma, with no difference to mice wildtype for FGF2. We conclude from our data, that FGF2 is not essential for melanoma progression and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Ackermann
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), National Center of Competence in Research (NCCR) Molecular Oncology, Chemin des Boveresses 155, 1066 Epalinges, Switzerland
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Rothhammer T, Poser I, Soncin F, Bataille F, Moser M, Bosserhoff AK. Bone Morphogenic Proteins Are Overexpressed in Malignant Melanoma and Promote Cell Invasion and Migration. Cancer Res 2005. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.448.65.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Malignant melanoma cells are known to have altered expression of growth factors compared with normal human melanocytes. These changes probably favor tumor growth and progression and influence the tumor environment. The induction of transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1), TGF-β2, and TGF-β3 expression in malignant melanoma has been reported before, whereas the expression of related bone morphogenic protein (BMP) molecules has not been analyzed in melanomas until now. Here, we show that BMP4 and BMP7 are up-regulated in nine melanoma cell lines, whereas BMP2 is overexpressed in only two of the analyzed cell lines. Immunohistochemistry of primary and metastatic melanoma also shows increased BMP4 and BMP7 expression compared with nevi. Promoter studies reveal that expression is controlled at the transcriptional level. The transcription factor Ets-1 was identified as a positive regulator for BMP4 expression. In order to determine the functional relevance of BMP expression in malignant melanoma, chordin-expressing cell clones and antisense BMP4 cell clones were generated. The clones in which BMP4 activity and expression are reduced show no changes in proliferation or in attachment-independent growth when compared with controls. However, a strong reduction of migratory and invasive properties was observed in these cells, suggesting that BMP4 promotes melanoma cell invasion and migration and therefore has an important role in the progression of malignant melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ina Poser
- 1University of Regensburg Medical School, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Fabrice Soncin
- 2Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR8526, Institut de Biologie de Lille, Lille, France; and
| | - Frauke Bataille
- 1University of Regensburg Medical School, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Markus Moser
- 3Max-Plank-Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
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McNulty SE, del Rosario R, Cen D, Meyskens FL, Yang S. Comparative expression of NFkappaB proteins in melanocytes of normal skin vs. benign intradermal naevus and human metastatic melanoma biopsies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 17:173-80. [PMID: 15016307 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0749.2004.00128.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear factor kappa B (NFkappaB) is an essential regulator of gene transcription for hundreds of genes, including many critically involved in apoptosis. NFkappaB complexes containing cRel generally activate pro-apoptotic genes, while those with RelA activate anti-apoptotic genes. We have previously shown that NFkappaB binding by RelA is constitutively elevated in human metastatic melanoma cultures relative to normal melanocytes. Here we extended our investigation to immunohistochemical analysis of human tissue biopsies. We found that RelA expression is significantly elevated in melanocytes of human naevi and melanomas relative to normal skin, but expression of its inhibitor IkappaB-alpha is significantly lower in metastatic melanomas than in intradermal naevi. Antibodies specific for the nuclear localization signal of RelA also showed significantly increased staining in metastatic melanoma biopsies. Notably, in melanomas and in naevi, we also found that RelA is phosphorylated at serine 529, and this activated form accumulates in the nuclei of melanomas. This suggests that increased expression and phosphorylation of RelA occurs at the stage of the benign naevus, but IkappaB-alpha is able to sequester RelA in the cytoplasm and regulate RelA transcriptional transactivation. We also found that antibodies against cRel show a progressive increase in staining from naevi to melanoma. However, staining for IkappaB-epsilon, which primarily inhibits the nuclear localization of cRel was also progressively increased, and cRel expression was predominantly cytoplasmic in melanomas. These results confirm that the altered expression of RelA found in metastatic melanoma cells in tissue culture is relevant to human tumors and offer new insights into the deregulation of NFkappaB signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan E McNulty
- Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Orange, CA 29868,
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29
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Hoek K, Rimm DL, Williams KR, Zhao H, Ariyan S, Lin A, Kluger HM, Berger AJ, Cheng E, Trombetta ES, Wu T, Niinobe M, Yoshikawa K, Hannigan GE, Halaban R. Expression profiling reveals novel pathways in the transformation of melanocytes to melanomas. Cancer Res 2004; 64:5270-82. [PMID: 15289333 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-04-0731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 399] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Affymetrix and spotted oligonucleotide microarrays were used to assess global differential gene expression comparing normal human melanocytes with six independent melanoma cell strains from advanced lesions. The data, validated at the protein level for selected genes, confirmed the overexpression in melanoma cells relative to normal melanocytes of several genes in the growth factor/receptor family that confer growth advantage and metastasis. In addition, novel pathways and patterns of associated expression in melanoma cells not reported before emerged, including the following: (a) activation of the NOTCH pathway; (b) increased Twist expression and altered expression of additional transcriptional regulators implicated in embryonic development and epidermal/mesenchymal transition; (c) coordinated activation of cancer/testis antigens; (d) coordinated down-regulation of several immune modulation genes, in particular in the IFN pathways; (e) down-regulation of several genes implicated in membrane trafficking events; and (f) down-regulation of growth suppressors, such as the Prader-Willi gene NECDIN, whose function was confirmed by overexpression of ectopic Flag-necdin. Validation of differential expression using melanoma tissue microarrays showed that reduced ubiquitin COOH-terminal esterase L1 in primary melanoma is associated with worse outcome and that increased expression of the basic helix-loop-helix protein Twist is associated with worse outcome. Some differentially expressed genes reside on chromosomal regions displaying common loss or gain in melanomas or are known to be regulated by CpG promoter methylation. These results provide a comprehensive view of changes in advanced melanoma relative to normal melanocytes and reveal new targets that can be used in assessing prognosis, staging, and therapy of melanoma patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Hoek
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University School of Medicine, 15 York Street, New Haven, CT 06520-8059, USA
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30
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Kaabeche K, Lemonnier J, Le Mée S, Caverzasio J, Marie PJ. Cbl-mediated degradation of Lyn and Fyn induced by constitutive fibroblast growth factor receptor-2 activation supports osteoblast differentiation. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:36259-67. [PMID: 15190072 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m402469200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) play an important regulatory role in skeletal development and bone formation. However, the FGF signaling mechanisms controlling osteoblast function are poorly understood. Here, we identified a role for the Src family members Lyn and Fyn in osteoblast differentiation promoted by constitutive activation of FGF receptor-2 (FGFR2). We show that the overactive FGFR2 S252W mutation induced decreased Src family kinase tyrosine phosphorylation and activity associated with decreased Lyn and Fyn protein expression in human osteoblasts. Pharmacological stimulation of Src family kinases or transfection with Lyn or Fyn vectors repressed alkaline phosphatase (ALP) up-regulation induced by overactive FGFR2. Inhibition of proteasome activity restored normal Lyn and Fyn expression and ALP activity in FGFR2 mutant osteoblasts. Immunoprecipitation studies showed that Lyn, Fyn, and FGFR2 interacted with the ubiquitin ligase c-Cbl and ubiquitin. Transfection with c-Cbl in which the RING finger was disrupted or with c-Cbl with a point mutation that abolishes the binding ability of the Cbl phosphotyrosine-binding domain restored Src kinase activity and Lyn, Fyn, and FGFR2 levels and reduced ALP up-regulation in mutant osteoblasts. Thus, constitutive FGFR2 activation induces c-Cbl-dependent Lyn and Fyn proteasome degradation, resulting in reduced Lyn and Fyn kinase activity, increased ALP expression, and FGFR2 down-regulation. This reveals a common Cbl-mediated negative feedback mechanism controlling Lyn, Fyn, and FGFR2 degradation in response to overactive FGFR2 and indicates a role for Cbl-dependent down-regulation of Lyn and Fyn in osteoblast differentiation induced by constitutive FGFR2 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karim Kaabeche
- Laboratory of Osteoblast Biology and Pathology, INSERM U606, University Paris 7, Hôpital Lariboisière, 2 rue Ambroise Paré, 75475 Paris Cedex 10, France
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31
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Koziczak M, Holbro T, Hynes NE. Blocking of FGFR signaling inhibits breast cancer cell proliferation through downregulation of D-type cyclins. Oncogene 2004; 23:3501-8. [PMID: 15116089 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1207331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Overexpression of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) tyrosine kinases has been found in many human breast cancers and has been associated with poor patient prognosis. In order to understand the mechanism by which FGFR mediates breast cancer cell proliferation, we used a low molecular weight compound, PD173074, that selectively inhibits FGFR tyrosine kinase activity and autophosphorylation. This potential anticancer agent caused a G1 growth arrest of MDA-MB-415, MDA-MB-453 and SUM 52 breast cancer cells. Our analyses revealed that FGFR signaling links to the cell cycle machinery via D-type cyclins. PD173074-mediated inhibition of FGFR activity caused downregulation of cyclin D1 and cyclin D2 expression, inhibition of cyclin D/cdk4 activity and, as a consequence, reduction of pRB phosphorylation. Retroviral-mediated ectopic expression of cyclin D1 prevented pRB hypophosphorylation and the cell cycle G1 block in PD173074-treated cells, suggesting a central role for D cyclins in proliferation of FGFR-driven breast cancer cells. The repression of FGFR activity caused downregulation of MAPK in MDA-MB-415 and MDA-MB-453 cells. In SUM 52 cells, both MAPK and PI3K signaling pathways were suppressed. In conclusion, results shown here describe a mechanism by which FGFR promotes proliferation of breast cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Koziczak
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Maulbeerstrasse 66, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
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Wiedłocha A, Sørensen V. Signaling, internalization, and intracellular activity of fibroblast growth factor. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2004; 286:45-79. [PMID: 15645710 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-69494-6_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family contains 23 members in mammals including its prototype members FGF-1 and FGF-2. FGFs have been implicated in regulation of many key cellular responses involved in developmental and physiological processes. These includes proliferation, differentiation, migration, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and wound healing. FGFs bind to five related, specific cell surface receptors (FGFRs). Four of these have intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity. Dimerization of the receptor is a prerequisite for receptor transphosphorylation and activation of downstream signaling molecules. All members of the FGF family have a high affinity for heparin and for cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans, which participate in formation of stable and active FGF-FGFR complexes. FGF-mediated signaling is an evolutionarily conserved signaling module operative in invertebrates and vertebrates. It seems that some members of the family have a dual mode of action. FGF-1, FGF-2, FGF-3, and FGF-11-14 have been found intranuclearly as endogenous proteins. Exogenous FGF-1 and FGF-2 are internalized by receptor-mediated endocytosis, in a clathrin-dependent and -independent way. Internalized FGF-1 and FGF-2 are able to cross cellular membranes to reach the cytosol and the nuclear compartment. The role of FGF internalization and the intracellular activity of some FGFs are discussed in the context of the known signaling induced by FGF.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Wiedłocha
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Montebello, 0310 Oslo, Norway.
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Byrd VM, Kilkenny DM, Dikov MM, Reich MB, Rocheleau JV, Armistead WJ, Thomas JW, Miller GG. Fibroblast growth factor receptor‐1 interacts with the T‐cell receptor signalling pathway. Immunol Cell Biol 2003; 81:440-50. [PMID: 14636241 DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1711.2003.01199.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor receptors are expressed by some T cells, and provide costimulation for these cells. Such receptors allow T cells to respond to fibroblast growth factors expressed in response to injury and inflammation and may provide a mechanism for 'context-dependent' responses to antigens within the local microenvironment. The mechanisms by which fibroblast growth factor receptors might interact with the TCR signalling pathway are not defined. Here we show that the TCR and fibroblast growth factor receptors co-localize during combined stimulation. Signalling via fibroblast growth factor receptors alone results in phosphorylation of Lck and induces nuclear translocation of nuclear factors of activated T cells. Combined stimulation via fibroblast growth factor receptors and the TCR synergistically enhances the activation of nuclear factors of activated T cells. The results suggest that peptide growth factors produced at sites of injury and inflammation can contribute to the outcome of T-cell encounters with antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor M Byrd
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical School, Nashville, USA
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Meier F, Caroli U, Satyamoorthy K, Schittek B, Bauer J, Berking C, Möller H, Maczey E, Rassner G, Herlyn M, Garbe C. Fibroblast growth factor-2 but not Mel-CAM and/or beta3 integrin promotes progression of melanocytes to melanoma. Exp Dermatol 2003; 12:296-306. [PMID: 12823444 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0625.2003.120310.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A variety of melanoma-associated antigens have been identified that mediate adhesion, growth, proteolysis, and modulation of immune response. However, the mechanisms by which human normal melanocytes become malignant are not clearly understood. Among the most consistent observations is the up-regulation of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) and of the adhesion molecules beta3 integrin and Mel-CAM during melanoma progression. To evaluate the potential role of FGF-2, beta3 integrin and Mel-CAM in melanoma development we overexpressed FGF-2, beta3 integrin and Mel-CAM in normal human melanocytes using replication-deficient adenoviruses as a gene delivery vehicle. Fibroblast growth factor-2 overexpressing melanocytes in monolayer culture displayed cytological atypia. Furthermore, in human skin reconstructs where the physiological milieu is recreated in vitro, FGF-2-overexpressing melanocytes exhibited marked proliferation, upwards migration, cluster formation and type IV collagen expression within the epidermal compartment, simulating early radial growth phase melanoma. In contrast, overexpression of beta3 integrin and/or Mel-CAM in melanocytes did not affect their biological behaviour in human skin reconstructs. The described results of the current and previous studies emphasise the key role of FGF-2 in melanoma development and progression, underscoring the promise of FGF-2 as a target for therapy.
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Abstract
The induction of angiogenesis is a critical point in the development of most human tumors - including melanomas. Some of the earliest studies in the field of tumor angiogenesis showed that transplantation of human melanoma fragments into the hamster cheek pouch stimulated blood vessel growth. Since then, numerous studies have demonstrated that human melanomas also induce angiogenesis. The prognostic importance of the degree of melanoma vascularization, however, has remained controversial. Elevated expression of several angiogenic factors, including vascular endothelial growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, and interleukin-8, has been detected in primary cutaneous melanomas, and the importance of these mediators in promoting melanoma angiogenesis and metastasis has been confirmed in tumor xenotransplant models. Based upon these findings, several clinical trials of angiogenesis inhibitors have been initiated in human melanoma patients and are currently underway. Recent experimental evidence indicates that tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis also plays an important role in mediating tumor spread to regional lymph nodes. These observations have important implications for prognosis and treatment of human melanomas.
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Kilkenny DM, Rocheleau JV, Price J, Reich MB, Miller GG. c-Src regulation of fibroblast growth factor-induced proliferation in murine embryonic fibroblasts. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:17448-54. [PMID: 12621028 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m209698200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Activated fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) propagates FGF signals through multiple intracellular pathways via intermediates FRS2, PLCgamma, and Ras. Conflicting reports exist concerning the interaction between FGFR1 and Src family kinases. To address the role of c-Src in FGFR1 signaling, we compared proliferative responses of murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) deficient in c-Src, Yes, and Fyn to MEF expressing either endogenous levels or overexpressing c-Src. MEF with endogenous c-Src had significantly greater FGF-induced DNA synthesis and proliferation than cells lacking or overexpressing c-Src. This was related directly to c-Src expression by analysis of c-Src-deficient cells transfected with and sorted for varying levels of a c-Src expression vector. This suggests an "optimal" quantity of c-Src expression for FGF-induced proliferation. To determine if this was a general phenomenon for growth factor signaling pathways utilizing c-Src, responses to epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) were examined. As for FGF, responses to EGF were clearly inhibited when c-Src was absent or overexpressed. In contrast, varying levels of c-Src had little effect on responses to PDGF or LPA. The data show that mitogenic pathways activated by FGF-1 and EGF are regulated by c-Src protein levels and appear to differ significantly from those activated by PDGF and LPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn M Kilkenny
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
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Hoffman MP, Kidder BL, Steinberg ZL, Lakhani S, Ho S, Kleinman HK, Larsen M. Gene expression profiles of mouse submandibular gland development: FGFR1 regulates branching morphogenesis in vitro through BMP- and FGF-dependent mechanisms. Development 2002; 129:5767-78. [PMID: 12421715 DOI: 10.1242/dev.00172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Analyses of gene expression profiles at five different stages of mouse submandibular salivary gland development provide insight into gland organogenesis and identify genes that may be critical at different stages. Genes with similar expression profiles were clustered, and RT-PCR was used to confirm the developmental changes. We focused on fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1), as its expression is highest early in gland development. We extended our array results and analyzed the developmental expression patterns of other FGFR and FGF isoforms. The functional significance of FGFR1 was confirmed by submandibular gland organ culture. Antisense oligonucleotides decreased expression of FGFR1 and reduced branching morphogenesis of the glands. Inhibiting FGFR1 signaling with SU5402, a FGFR1 tyrosine kinase inhibitor, reduced branching morphogenesis. SU5402 treatment decreased cell proliferation but did not increase apoptosis. Fgfr, Fgf and Bmp gene expression was localized to either the mesenchyme or the epithelium by PCR, and then measured over time by real time PCR after SU5402 treatment. FGFR1 signaling regulates Fgfr1, Fgf1, Fgf3 and Bmp7 expression and indirectly regulates Fgf7, Fgf10 and Bmp4. Exogenous FGFs and BMPs added to glands in culture reveal distinct effects on gland morphology. Glands cultured with SU5402 were then rescued with exogenous BMP7, FGF7 or FGF10. Taken together, our results suggest specific FGFs and BMPs play reciprocal roles in regulating branching morphogenesis and FGFR1 signaling plays a central role by regulating both FGF and BMP expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew P Hoffman
- Craniofacial Developmental Biology and Regeneration Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, 30 Convent Drive, MSC 4370, Bethesda, MD 20892-4370, USA.
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Niu G, Bowman T, Huang M, Shivers S, Reintgen D, Daud A, Chang A, Kraker A, Jove R, Yu H. Roles of activated Src and Stat3 signaling in melanoma tumor cell growth. Oncogene 2002; 21:7001-10. [PMID: 12370822 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1205859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 330] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2002] [Revised: 07/03/2002] [Accepted: 07/09/2002] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Activation of protein tyrosine kinases is prevalent in human cancers and previous studies have demonstrated that Stat3 signaling is a point of convergence for many of these tyrosine kinases. Moreover, a critical role for constitutive activation of Stat3 in tumor cell proliferation and survival has been established in diverse cancers. However, the oncogenic signaling pathways in melanoma cells remain to be fully defined. In this study, we demonstrate that Stat3 is constitutively activated in a majority of human melanoma cell lines and tumor specimens examined. Blocking Src tyrosine kinase activity, but not EGF receptor or JAK family kinases, leads to inhibition of Stat3 signaling in melanoma cell lines. Consistent with a role of Src in the pathogenesis of melanoma, we show that c-Src tyrosine kinase is activated in melanoma cell lines. Significantly, melanoma cells undergo apoptosis when either Src kinase activity or Stat3 signaling is inhibited. Blockade of Src or Stat3 is also accompanied by down-regulation of expression of the anti-apoptotic genes, Bcl-x(L) and Mcl-1. These findings demonstrate that Src-activated Stat3 signaling is important for the growth and survival of melanoma tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilian Niu
- Immunology Program, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Department of Oncology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida, FL 33612, USA
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Vickers SM, Huang ZQ, MacMillan-Crow L, Greendorfer JS, Thompson JA. Ligand activation of alternatively spliced fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 modulates pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell malignancy. J Gastrointest Surg 2002; 6:546-53. [PMID: 12127120 DOI: 10.1016/s1091-255x(02)00036-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Pancreatic adenocarcinoma continues to be a devastating tumor (28,000 new cases per year in the United States; 10% 2-year survival). Pancreatic adenocarcinoma frequently (90% of the time) overexpresses fibroblast growth factor ligands (FGF-1 and FGF-2) and alternatively spliced high-affinity receptors (FGFR-1beta) (FGFR-1alpha was previously found in normal pancreatic tissue). To study the significance of this observation in vitro, PANC-1 cells were stably transfected via the pMEXneo vector containing FGFR-1alpha (PANC-1alpha) or FGFR-1beta (PANC-1beta) isoforms. Cells were treated with 1 mg/ml of 5-fluorouracil. Cells were evaluated for growth inhibition, apoptosis (propidium iodide staining and flow cytometry, caspase 3 activation) and for Bcl-x(L)/BAX expression (by Western blot analysis). In vivo, 7 x 10(6) cells of each isoform were injected into nude Balb/c mice for xenograft formation (N = 10). Compared to PANC-1beta (9%) in vitro, 5-fluorouracil-induced death was significantly (P < 0.05) increased in PANC-1alpha (20%) at 24 hours. Increased cell death in PANC-1alpha was mediated by activated caspase 3 and was correlated with decreased expression of Bcl-x(L)/BAX. In vivo, PANC-1beta readily demonstrated formation of tumor xenograft at 2 weeks, whereas PANC-1alpha did not form tumors. Alternative splicing of FGFR-1 to the beta isoform appears to correlate with pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell growth in vivo and resistance to chemotherapy. Inhibition of FGFR-1 splicing or overexpression of FGFR-1alpha inhibits pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell growth in vivo and restores cytotoxic responses to chemotherapy, thereby suggesting the basis of rational interventional strategies for this devastating tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selwyn M Vickers
- Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1922 Seventh Avenue South, KB 405, Birmingham, AL 35294-0007, USA.
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40
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Wellbrock C, Weisser C, Geissinger E, Troppmair J, Schartl M. Activation of p59(Fyn) leads to melanocyte dedifferentiation by influencing MKP-1-regulated mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:6443-54. [PMID: 11734563 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110684200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Malignant melanoma is a cancer whose incidence is rising rapidly, but the mechanism by which normal melanocytes become malignant in vivo is still little understood. In the course of melanoma progression, a fraction of cells often becomes depigmented, which reflects the loss of the balance between mitogenic activities and differentiation in those pigment cells. A key factor involved in differentiation in pigment cells is mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). However, because both activation and inhibition of MAPK signaling is known to correlate with differentiation, its function in pigment cells is still unclear. We investigated the role of MAPK signaling in pigment cells using the melanoma-inducing receptor tyrosine kinase Xmrk. Xmrk signaling in mouse melanocytes suppressed differentiation and induced a transformed phenotype. We found that this was based on sustained MAPK activation caused by low and transient expression of MAPK-phosphatase MKP-1. The Src kinase p59(Fyn) was thereby identified as being crucial for the receptor-mediated suppression of differentiation by down-regulating MKP-1 expression. Our findings reveal a novel mechanism of regulating the balance between differentiation and proliferation based on a Src kinase-modified MAPK activity. Moreover, they point to a new role for Src kinases in dedifferentiation and transformation of pigment cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Wellbrock
- Department of Physiological Chemistry I, Theodor-Boveri Institut, University of Würzburg, 97094 Würzburg, Germany.
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41
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Rozenblatt-Rosen O, Mosonego-Ornan E, Sadot E, Madar-Shapiro L, Sheinin Y, Ginsberg D, Yayon A. Induction of chondrocyte growth arrest by FGF: transcriptional and cytoskeletal alterations. J Cell Sci 2002; 115:553-62. [PMID: 11861762 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.115.3.553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) on mature chondrocytes, the cells responsible for axial skeletal development, is growth attenuation rather than stimulation. This singular response has been linked to signaling via FGF receptor 3 (FGFR3), partly because mutations causing chronic FGFR3 activation lead to various human disorders of bone growth. In order to study how FGF inhibits growth, we analyzed its effect on a rat chondrocyte-derived cell line. We show that the FGF-induced growth arrest occurs at the G1 phase,accompanied by profound changes in gene expression and cytoskeletal organization. Within minutes of binding, FGF induces tyrosine kinase activity in the focal substrate adhesions where it colocalizes with vinculin. Upon FGF stimulation, FGFR3 is selectively removed from the focal adhesions, which is followed by their disassembly and disruption of the organized cytoskeleton. Multiple genes are induced following FGF stimulation in chondrocytes, which has been shown by DNA array screening and confirmed for some by immunoblotting. These genes include regulators of cell differentiation and proliferation such as c-jun, JunD, cyclin-D1, NFκB1 and of plasma-membrane microdomain morphology, such as ezrin. The transcription factor Id1 is downregulated, consistent with the cells' exit from the mitotic cycle. Moreover, following FGF stimulation, levels of FGFR3 mRNA and protein decline, as does downstream signaling through the MAPK pathway. The importance of this FGFR3-mediated on-off control is illustrated in transgenic mice expressing mutant, hyperactive FGFR3, where abnormally high levels of NFκB are expressed throughout their bone growth-plates. A working model is presented of the signaling network involved in regulating FGF-induced chondrocyte differentiation and receptor downregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orit Rozenblatt-Rosen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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42
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Ozen M, Giri D, Ropiquet F, Mansukhani A, Ittmann M. Role of fibroblast growth factor receptor signaling in prostate cancer cell survival. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93:1783-90. [PMID: 11734594 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/93.23.1783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Expression of fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) is increased in a substantial fraction of human prostate cancers in vivo and in prostate cancer cell lines. Altered FGF signaling can potentially have a variety of effects, including stimulating cell proliferation and inhibiting cell death. To determine the biologic significance of altered FGF signaling in human prostate cancer, we disrupted signaling by expression of a dominant-negative (DN) FGF receptor in prostate cancer cell lines. METHODS PC-3, LNCaP, and DU145 prostate cancer cells were stably transfected with DN FGFR constructs, and LNCaP and DU145 cells were infected with a recombinant adenovirus expressing DN FGFR-1. The effect of DN FGFR-1 expression was assessed by colony-formation assays, cell proliferation assays, flow cytometry, and cytogenetic analysis. Key regulators involved in the G(2)-to-M cell cycle transition were assessed by western blotting to examine cyclin B1 expression and by in vitro kinase assay to assess cdc2 kinase activity. RESULTS Stable transfection of the DN FGFR-1 construct inhibited colony formation by more than 99% in all three cell lines. Infection of LNCaP and DU145 prostate cancer cells with adenovirus expressing DN FGFR-1 led to extensive cell death within 48 hours. Flow cytometry and cytogenetic analysis revealed that the DN FGFR-1 receptor led to arrest in the G(2) phase of the cell cycle before cell death. Cyclin B1 accumulated in DN FGFR-1-infected LNCaP cells, but cdc2 kinase activity was decreased. CONCLUSIONS These findings reveal an unexpected dependence of prostate cancer cells on FGF receptor signal transduction to traverse the G(2)/M checkpoint. The mechanism for the G(2) arrest is not clear. Our results raise the possibility that FGF-signaling antagonists might enhance the cell death induced by other prostate cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ozen
- Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, 2002 Holcombe Blvd., Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Browaeys-Poly E, Cailliau K, Vilain JP. Transduction cascades initiated by fibroblast growth factor 1 on Xenopus oocytes expressing MDA-MB-231 mRNAs. Role of Grb2, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Src tyrosine kinase, and phospholipase Cgamma. Cell Signal 2001; 13:363-8. [PMID: 11369518 DOI: 10.1016/s0898-6568(01)00149-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Xenopus oocytes expressing fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) from the hormone-independent breast cancer cells, MDA-MB-231, are used as a biological system to analyze the signalling cascades initiated by FGF1. FGF1 induces ERK2 phosphorylation and G2/M transition. These events are dependent on the Shc/Grb2/Ras pathway, on Src and PI3Kinase (PI3K), as shown by the use of SH2 domains or dominant negative proteins, and on PLC gamma and calcium as demonstrated by a PLC gamma inhibitory peptide and BAPTA-AM. FGF1 mobilizes Ins(1,4,5)P3-sensitive calcium stores, as recorded through the inhibition by caffeine of a chloride calcium-dependent current in expressing oocytes. This study shows that the transduction cascades induced by FGF1 on FGFRs from MDA-MB-231 cells represent the sum of Ras, Src, PI3K, and PLC gamma pathways. It emphasizes the mitogenic effect of the PLC gamma-calcium cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Browaeys-Poly
- Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement, UPRES EA 1033, Bâtiment SN3, Cedex 59655, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France.
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Leszczyniecka M, Roberts T, Dent P, Grant S, Fisher PB. Differentiation therapy of human cancer: basic science and clinical applications. Pharmacol Ther 2001; 90:105-56. [PMID: 11578655 DOI: 10.1016/s0163-7258(01)00132-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Current cancer therapies are highly toxic and often nonspecific. A potentially less toxic approach to treating this prevalent disease employs agents that modify cancer cell differentiation, termed 'differentiation therapy.' This approach is based on the tacit assumption that many neoplastic cell types exhibit reversible defects in differentiation, which upon appropriate treatment, results in tumor reprogramming and a concomitant loss in proliferative capacity and induction of terminal differentiation or apoptosis (programmed cell death). Laboratory studies that focus on elucidating mechanisms of action are demonstrating the effectiveness of 'differentiation therapy,' which is now beginning to show translational promise in the clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Leszczyniecka
- Department of Urology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032, USA
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Xu H, Goldfarb M. Multiple effector domains within SNT1 coordinate ERK activation and neuronal differentiation of PC12 cells. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:13049-56. [PMID: 11278583 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m009925200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Differentiation of neuronal precursor cells in response to neurotrophic differentiation factors is accompanied by the activation of membrane-anchored SNT signaling adaptor proteins. Two classes of differentiation factors, the neurotrophins and fibroblast growth factors, induce rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of SNT1(FRS2alpha), which in turn enables SNT1 to recruit Shp2 tyrosine phosphatase and Grb2 adaptor protein in complex with the Ras GDP/GTP exchange factor Sos. To determine effector functions of SNT that promote neuronal differentiation of PC12 pheochromocytoma cells, we engineered a chimeric protein, SNT1(IRS)CX, bearing the effector region of SNT1 and the insulin receptor recognition domains of IRS2. Insulin promoted tyrosine phosphorylation of SNT1(IRS)CX in transfected PC12 cells accompanied by sustained activation of ERK1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinases and neuronal differentiation. The SNT1(IRS)CX-mediated response was dependent on endogenous Ras, MEK, and Shp2 activities. Mutagenesis of SNT1(IRS)CX identified three classes of effector motifs within SNT critical for both sustained ERK activation and neuronal differentiation: 1) four phosphotyrosine motifs that mediate recruitment of Grb2, 2) two phosphotyrosine motifs that mediate recruitment of Shp2, and 3) a C-terminal motif that functions by helping to recruit Sos. We discuss possible mechanisms by which three functionally distinct SNT effector motifs collaborate to promote a downstream biochemical and biological response.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Xu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Graduate Training Program in Molecular, Cellular, Biochemical, and Developmental Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Box 1020, New York, New York 10029, USA
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46
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Lee SH, Schloss DJ, Swain JL. Maintenance of vascular integrity in the embryo requires signaling through the fibroblast growth factor receptor. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:33679-87. [PMID: 10930413 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m004994200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-2 is important for vessel formation and/or maintenance of vascular integrity in the embryo. FGF signaling may be mediated through transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptors or directly through intracellular pathways that do not involve receptor activation. To determine the role of receptor-mediated signaling in endothelial cells, an adenovirus encoding truncated FGF receptor (FGFR)-1, under the control of the cytomegalovirus promoter, was expressed in endothelial cells. FGF signaling was impaired, as indicated by inhibition of MAPK phosphorylation. Functional consequences included inhibition of endothelial cell migration and induction of apoptosis. To address the role of endothelial FGFR signaling in vascular development, recombinant adenovirus encoding a dominant-negative FGFR was injected into the sinus venosus of embryonic day 9.0 cultured mouse embryos. Previous studies demonstrated that transgenes delivered via adenovirus, under the control of the cytomegalovirus promoter, are expressed selectively in the developing vasculature. Embryos expressing a control adenovirus developed normally, whereas those expressing the FGFR-1 mutant exhibited abnormal embryonic and extra-embryonic vascular development. These data demonstrate that FGF, by signaling through the FGFR, plays a pivotal role in the development and maintenance of a mature vascular network in the embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Lee
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5109, USA
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47
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Browaeys-Poly E, Cailliau K, Vilain JP. Signal transduction pathways triggered by fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes after fibroblast growth factor 1 addition. Role of Grb2, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Src tyrosine kinase, and phospholipase Cgamma. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 2000; 267:6256-63. [PMID: 11012680 DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.2000.01710.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Xenopus oocytes expressing fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) were used as a biological model system to analyse the signal transduction pathways that are triggered by fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF1). Germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) and phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 2 (ERK2) occured 15 h after FGF1 addition. These events were Ras-dependent as they were blocked by a Ras dominant negative form. The Ras activity was promoted by three upstream effectors, growth factor-bound protein 2 (Grb2), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and Src cytoplasmic kinase. Ras activation was inhibited by a Grb2 dominant negative form (P49L), by PI3K inhibitors, including wortmannin, LY294002, the N-SH2 domain of p85alpha PI3K and by the SH2 domain of Src. Src activation induced by FGF1 was blocked by the SH2 domain of Src and PP2, a specific inhibitor of Src. The Grb2 adaptor was recruited by the upstream Src homology 2/alpha-collagen-related (Shc) effector, as the SH2-Shc domain prevented the GVBD and the ERK2 phosphorylation induced by FGF1. The importance of another signalling pathway involving phospholipase Cgamma (PLCgamma) was also investigated. The use of the PLCgamma inhibitory peptide, neomycin and the calcium chelator BAPTA-AM on oocytes expressing FGFR1 or the stimulation by PDGF-BB of oocytes expressing PDGFR-FGFR1 mutated on the PLCgamma binding site, prevented GVBD and ERK2 phosphorylation. This study shows that the transduction cascade induced by the FGFR1-FGF1 interaction in Xenopus oocytes represents the sum of Ras-dependent and PLCgamma-dependent pathways. It emphasizes the role played by PI3K and Src and their connections with the Ras cascade in the FGFR1 signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Browaeys-Poly
- Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
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Smith CC, Yu YX, Kulka M, Aurelian L. A novel human gene similar to the protein kinase (PK) coding domain of the large subunit of herpes simplex virus type 2 ribonucleotide reductase (ICP10) codes for a serine-threonine PK and is expressed in melanoma cells. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:25690-9. [PMID: 10833516 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m002140200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The large subunit of herpes simplex virus type 2 ribonucleotide reductase (ICP10) is a multifunctional protein that contains a serine-threonine protein kinase (PK) activity (Nelson, J. W., Zhu, J. , Smith, C. C., Kulka, M., and Aurelian, L. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 17021-17027). Phylogenetic analyses indicated that ICP10 PK belongs to a distinct subfamily of growth factor receptor serine-threonine PKs that are characterized by their ability to function with a limited number of conserved catalytic motifs (Hunter, J. C. R., Smith, C. C., and Aurelian, L. (1995) Int. J. Onc. 7, 515-522). Here, we report the isolation and characterization of a novel gene, designated H11, that contains an open reading frame of 588 nucleotides, which encodes a protein similar to ICP10 PK. The H11 protein has Mn(2+)-dependent serine-threonine-specific PK activity as determined with a GST-H11 fusion protein and by immununocomplex PK/immunoblotting assays of 293 cells transfected with a H11 eukaryotic expression vector. PK activity is ablated by mutation of Lys(113) within the presumtive catalytic motif II (invariant Lys). 293 cells stably transfected with H11 acquire anchorage-independent growth. Endogenous H11 RNA and the H11 phosphoprotein are expressed in melanoma cell lines and primary melanoma tissues at levels higher than in normal melanocytes and in benign nevi. Melanoma cell proliferation is inhibited by treatment with antisense oligonucleotides that inhibit H11 translation, suggesting that H11 expression is associated with cell growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Smith
- Virology/Immunology Laboratories, Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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Bardeesy N, Wong KK, DePinho RA, Chin L. Animal models of melanoma: recent advances and future prospects. Adv Cancer Res 2000; 79:123-56. [PMID: 10818679 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-230x(00)79004-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Cycle Proteins/genetics
- Cell Cycle Proteins/physiology
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 9/genetics
- Cricetinae
- Cyprinodontiformes
- Disease Progression
- Forecasting
- Genes, p16
- Genes, ras
- Growth Substances/physiology
- Humans
- Loss of Heterozygosity
- Melanocytes/metabolism
- Melanocytes/pathology
- Melanoma, Experimental/epidemiology
- Melanoma, Experimental/genetics
- Melanoma, Experimental/metabolism
- Melanoma, Experimental/pathology
- Mesocricetus
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Mutation
- Neoplasm Proteins/genetics
- Neoplasm Proteins/physiology
- Neoplasms, Radiation-Induced/epidemiology
- Neoplasms, Radiation-Induced/genetics
- Opossums
- Proteins/genetics
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/physiology
- Receptors, Growth Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Growth Factor/physiology
- Species Specificity
- Tumor Suppressor Protein p14ARF
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Affiliation(s)
- N Bardeesy
- Department of Adult Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
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Lázár-Molnár E, Hegyesi H, Tóth S, Falus A. Autocrine and paracrine regulation by cytokines and growth factors in melanoma. Cytokine 2000; 12:547-54. [PMID: 10843728 DOI: 10.1006/cyto.1999.0614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 300] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Tumour development and progression involves the expression of oncogenes and inactivation of tumour suppressor genes, leading to the appearance of multiple malignant characteristics. Malignant melanoma cells express different growth factors and cytokines and their receptors in respective stages of tumour progression, which by autocrine and paracrine effects enable them to grow autonomously and confer competence to metastasis. Autocrine growth factors (bFGF, MGSA/GRO, IL-8 and sometimes IL-6, PDGF-A, IL-10) produced by melanoma cells stimulate proliferation of the producing cell itself, while paracrine growth factors (for example PDGF, EGF, TGF-beta, IL-1, GM-CSF, IGF-I, NGF, VEGF) modulate the microenvironment to the benefit of tumour growth and invasion. Paracrine effects include angiogenesis, stroma formation, modulation of host immune response, activation of proteolytic enzymes, adhesion or motility and metastasis formation. Some growth factors have inhibitory effects on melanocytes and early lesions (IL-1, IL-6, TGF-beta, OSM, TNF and IFN) but not on advanced stage melanomas, and in some cases they switch to autocrine stimulator (IL-6, TGF-beta). Understanding the involvement of different growth factors and cytokines in the molecular mechanism of melanoma progression will help to provide an insight into new future therapeutic approaches for melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Lázár-Molnár
- Department of Genetics, Cell and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University of Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
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