Insulin increases the association of Akt-2 with Glut4-containing vesicles

A comprehensive view of muscle glucose uptake: regulation by insulin, contractile activity, and exercise

Skeletal muscle is the main site of glucose deposition in the body during meals and the major glucose utilizer during physical activity. Although in both instances the supply of glucose from the circulation to the muscle is of paramount importance, in most conditions the rate-limiting step in glucose uptake, storage, and utilization is the transport of glucose across the muscle cell membrane. This step is dependent upon the translocation of the insulin- and contraction-responsive glucose transporter GLUT4 from intracellular storage sites to the sarcolemma and T tubules. Here, we first analyze how glucose can traverse the capillary wall into the muscle interstitial space. We then review the molecular processes that regulate GLUT4 translocation in response to insulin and muscle contractions and the methodologies utilized to unravel them. We further discuss how physical activity and inactivity, respectively, lead to increased and decreased insulin action in muscle and touch upon sex differences in glucose metabolism. Although many key processes regulating glucose uptake in muscle are known, the advent of newer and bioinformatics tools has revealed further molecular signaling processes reaching a staggering level of complexity. Much of this molecular mapping has emerged from cellular and animal studies and more recently from application of a variety of -omics in human tissues. In the future, it will be imperative to validate the translatability of results drawn from experimental systems to human physiology.

Oncogenic activation of PI K3 CA in cancers: Emerging targeted therapies in precision oncology

Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) are heterodimers consisting of a p110 catalytic subunit and a p85 regulatory subunit. The PIK3CA gene, which encodes the p110α, is the most frequently mutated oncogene in cancer. Oncogenic PIK3CA mutations activate the PI3K pathway, promote tumor initiation and development, and mediate resistance to anti-tumor treatments, making the mutant p110α an excellent target for cancer therapy. PIK3CA mutations occur in two hotspot regions: one in the helical domain and the other in the kinase domain. The PIK3CA helical and kinase domain mutations exert their oncogenic function through distinct mechanisms. For example, helical domain mutations of p110α gained direct interaction with insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) to activate the downstream signaling pathways. Moreover, p85β proteins disassociate from helical domain mutant p110α, translocate into the nucleus, and stabilize enhancer of zeste homolog 1/2 (EZH1/2). Due to the fundamental role of PI3Kα in tumor initiation and development, PI3Kα-specific inhibitors, represented by FDA-approved alpelisib, have developed rapidly in recent decades. However, side effects, including on-target side effects such as hyperglycemia, restrict the maximum dose and thus clinical efficacy of alpelisib. Therefore, developing p110α mutant-specific inhibitors to circumvent on-target side effects becomes a new direction for targeting PIK3CA mutant cancers. In this review, we briefly introduce the function of the PI3K pathway and discuss how PIK3CA mutations rewire cell signaling, metabolism, and tumor microenvironment, as well as therapeutic strategies under development to treat patients with tumors harboring a PIK3CA mutation.

Airborne polystyrene nanoplastics exposure leads to heart failure via ECM-receptor interaction and PI3K/AKT/BCL-2 pathways

Environmental contamination has been recognized as a significant threat to human well-being, and recent findings of microplastic presence in human cardiac tissues have raised concerns. However, research on the effects of airborne nanoplastics (NPs) on cardiac physiology remains limited. We utilized a comprehensive body exposure apparatus to simulate the impact of airborne polystyrene NPs pollution, focusing on understanding how airborne NPs affect cardiac morphology and function. Following two weeks of NPs exposure, mice exhibited a 23.89 ± 8.30 % reduction in heart mass, a 20.05 ± 2.97 % decrease in heart rate as detected, and a myocardial electrical conduction block. Echocardiography showed significant changes in cardiac contractility, with increases in cardiac ejection fraction and stroke volume of 13.00 ± 3.00 % and 43.00 ± 17.00 %, respectively. In addition, histologic assessments revealed signs of ventricular hypertrophy, ventricular myocardial hypertrophy, and myocardial necrotic fibrosis. Of particular interest, our mechanistic investigations highlighted the harmful effects of NPs on cardiac structure and function, mediated through extracellular matrix (ECM) receptor interactions and the PI3K/AKT/BCL-2 signaling pathway. The insights gained provide a foundation for understanding the risks posed by airborne NPs to human cardiac health, emphasizing the need for increased vigilance and implementation of mitigation strategies in environmental management.

Self-assembly of the insulin-responsive vesicles creates a signaling platform for the insulin action on glucose uptake

In fat and skeletal muscle cells, insulin causes plasma membrane translocation of specialized insulin-responsive vesicles, or IRVs. These vesicles consist of multiple copies of Glut4, sortilin, IRAP, and LRP1 as well as several auxiliary components. Major IRV proteins have relatively long half-life inside the cell and survive multiple rounds of translocation to and from the cell surface. Here, we summarize evidence showing how the IRVs are self-assembled from pre-synthesized Glut4, sortilin, IRAP, and LRP1 after each translocation event. Furthermore, the cytoplasmic tail of sortilin binds Akt while cytoplasmic tails of IRAP and LRP1 interact with the Akt target, TBC1D4. Recruitment of signaling proteins to the IRVs may render insulin responsiveness to this compartment and thus distinguish it from other intracellular membrane vesicles.

Review: The PI3K-AKT-mTOR signal transduction pathway in canine cancer

Tumors in dogs and humans share many similar molecular and genetic features, incentivizing a better understanding of canine neoplasms not only for the purpose of treating companion animals, but also to facilitate research of spontaneously developing tumors with similar biologic behavior and treatment approaches in an immunologically competent animal model. Multiple tumor types of both species have similar dysregulation of signal transduction through phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (PKB; AKT), and mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), collectively known as the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway. This review aims to delineate the pertinent aspects of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathway in health and in tumor development. It will then present a synopsis of current understanding of PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling in important canine cancers and advancements in targeted inhibitors of this pathway.

Polychlorinated biphenyls exposure and type 2 diabetes: Molecular mechanism that causes insulin resistance and islet damage

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are typical persistent organic pollutants that have been associated with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) in cohort studies. This review aims to comprehensively assess the molecular mechanisms of PCBs-induced T2DM. Recent progress has been made in the research of PCBs in liver tissue, adipose tissue, and other tissues. By influencing the function of nuclear receptors, such as the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), pregnancy X receptor (PXR), and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPARγ), as well as the inflammatory response, PCBs disrupt the balance of hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism. This is associated with insulin resistance (IR) in the target organ of insulin. Through androgen receptor (AR), estrogen receptor α/β (ERα/β), and pancreato-duodenal-homeobox gene-1 (PDX-1), PCBs affect the secretion of insulin and increase blood glucose. Thus, this review is a discussion on the relationship between PCBs exposure and the pathogenesis of T2DM. It is hoped to provide basic concepts for diabetes research and disease treatment.

Akt may associate with insulin-responsive vesicles via interaction with sortilin

Insulin-responsive vesicles (IRVs) deliver the glucose transporter Glut4 to the plasma membrane in response to activation of the insulin signaling cascade: insulin receptor-IRS-PI3 kinase-Akt-TBC1D4-Rab10. Previous studies have shown that Akt, TBC1D4, and Rab10 are compartmentalized on the IRVs. Although functionally significant, the mechanism of Akt association with the IRVs remains unknown. Using pull-down assays, immunofluorescence microscopy, and cross-linking, we have found that Akt may be recruited to the IRVs via the interaction with the juxtamembrane domain of the cytoplasmic C terminus of sortilin, a major IRV protein. Overexpression of full-length sortilin increases insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of TBC1D4 and glucose uptake in adipocytes, while overexpression of the cytoplasmic tail of sortilin has the opposite effect. Our findings demonstrate that the IRVs represent both a scaffold and a target of insulin signaling.

Monitoring AKT activity and targeting in live tissue and disease contexts using a real-time Akt-FRET biosensor mouse

Aberrant AKT activation occurs in a number of cancers, metabolic syndrome, and immune disorders, making it an important target for the treatment of many diseases. To monitor spatial and temporal AKT activity in a live setting, we generated an Akt-FRET biosensor mouse that allows longitudinal assessment of AKT activity using intravital imaging in conjunction with image stabilization and optical window technology. We demonstrate the sensitivity of the Akt-FRET biosensor mouse using various cancer models and verify its suitability to monitor response to drug targeting in spheroid and organotypic models. We also show that the dynamics of AKT activation can be monitored in real time in diverse tissues, including in individual islets of the pancreas, in the brown and white adipose tissue, and in the skeletal muscle. Thus, the Akt-FRET biosensor mouse provides an important tool to study AKT dynamics in live tissue contexts and has broad preclinical applications.

Simultaneous SGLT2 inhibition and caloric restriction improves insulin resistance and kidney function in OLETF rats

SGLT2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) are emerging as a novel therapy for type 2 diabetes due to their effective hypoglycemic and potential cardio- and nephroprotective effects, while caloric restriction (CR) is a common behavioral modification to improve adiposity and insulin resistance. Therefore, both interventions simultaneously may potentially further improve metabolic syndrome by enhancing carbohydrate metabolism. To test this hypothesis, cohorts of 10-week old, male Long Evans Tokushima Otsuka (LETO) and Otsuka Long Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) rats were treated with SGLT2i (10 mg luseoglifozin/kg/day x 4 wks) (OLETF only) and/or 30% CR (2 wks at 12 weeks of age). CR maintained body mass in both strains while SGLT2i alone did not have any effect on body mass. Simultaneous treatments decreased SBP in OLETF vs SGLT2i alone, decreased insulin resistance index (IRI), and increased creatinine clearance vs OLETF ad lib. Conversely, CR decreased albuminuria independent of SGLT2i. In conclusion, SGLT2i treatment by itself did not elicit significant improvements in insulin resistance, kidney function or blood pressure. However, when combined with CR, these changes where more profound than with CR alone without inducing chronic hypoglycemia.

PIK3CA gain-of-function mutation in adipose tissue induces metabolic reprogramming with Warburg-like effect and severe endocrine disruption

PIK3CA-related overgrowth syndrome (PROS) is a genetic disorder caused by somatic mosaic gain-of-function mutations of PIK3CA. Clinical presentation of patients is diverse and associated with endocrine disruption. Adipose tissue is frequently involved, but its role in disease development and progression has not been elucidated. Here, we created a mouse model of PIK3CA-related adipose tissue overgrowth that recapitulates patient phenotype. We demonstrate that PIK3CA mutation leads to GLUT4 membrane accumulation with a negative feedback loop on insulin secretion, a burst of liver IGFBP1 synthesis with IGF-1 sequestration, and low circulating levels. Mouse phenotype was mainly driven through AKT2. We also observed that PIK3CA mutation induces metabolic reprogramming with Warburg-like effect and protein and lipid synthesis, hallmarks of cancer cells, in vitro, in vivo, and in patients. We lastly show that alpelisib is efficient at preventing and improving PIK3CA-adipose tissue overgrowth and reversing metabolomic anomalies in both animal models and patients.

Serum plays an important role in reprogramming the seasonal transcriptional profile of brown bear adipocytes

Understanding how metabolic reprogramming happens in cells will aid the progress in the treatment of a variety of metabolic disorders. Brown bears undergo seasonal shifts in insulin sensitivity, including reversible insulin resistance in hibernation. We performed RNA-sequencing on brown bear adipocytes and proteomics on serum to identify changes possibly responsible for reversible insulin resistance. We observed dramatic transcriptional changes, which depended on both the cell and serum season of origin. Despite large changes in adipocyte gene expression, only changes in eight circulating proteins were identified as related to the seasonal shifts in insulin sensitivity, including some that have not previously been associated with glucose homeostasis. The identified serum proteins may be sufficient for shifting hibernation adipocytes to an active-like state.

Insulin, Muscle Glucose Uptake, and Hexokinase: Revisiting the Road Not Taken

Research conducted over the last 50 yr has provided insight into the mechanisms by which insulin stimulates glucose transport across the skeletal muscle cell membrane Transport alone, however, does not result in net glucose uptake as free glucose equilibrates across the cell membrane and is not metabolized. Glucose uptake requires that glucose is phosphorylated by hexokinases. Phosphorylated glucose cannot leave the cell and is the substrate for metabolism. It is indisputable that glucose phosphorylation is essential for glucose uptake. Major advances have been made in defining the regulation of the insulin-stimulated glucose transporter (GLUT4) in skeletal muscle. By contrast, the insulin-regulated hexokinase (hexokinase II) parallels Robert Frost's "The Road Not Taken." Here the case is made that an understanding of glucose phosphorylation by hexokinase II is necessary to define the regulation of skeletal muscle glucose uptake in health and insulin resistance. Results of studies from different physiological disciplines that have elegantly described how hexokinase II can be regulated are summarized to provide a framework for potential application to skeletal muscle. Mechanisms by which hexokinase II is regulated in skeletal muscle await rigorous examination.

Effects of Different Intensity Exercise on Glucose Metabolism and Hepatic IRS/PI3K/AKT Pathway in SD Rats Exposed with TCDD

The objective of the study was to investigate the effects of different intensity exercise and 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) exposure on glucose metabolism in Sprague Dawley (SD) rats, as well as the action of insulin receptor substrate (IRS)/phosphatidylinositol-3-kinases (PI3K)/protein kinase (AKT) signaling pathway in it. Besides that, we explored whether exercise can alleviate the toxicity induced by TCDD. Sixty male SD rats (8 weeks old) were randomly divided into non-exercise group, none-exercise toxic group, moderate-intensity exercise group, moderate-intensity exercise toxic group, high-intensity exercise group, high-intensity exercise toxic group. The toxic groups were intraperitoneally injected with TCDD, which the dose was 6.4 µg/kg· BW for the first week, then 21% of the above week dose for continuous 8 weeks. The 8-week treadmill running of moderate intensity (15 m/min, 60 min/day) and high intensity (26 m/min, 35 min/day) were implemented separately in exercise groups five times a week. After detecting the concentration of fasting serum glucose, insulin and C-peptide, the index of the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and islet β-cell secretion (HOMA-β) were calculated. We measured the hepatic mRNA expression levels of IRS2, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinases catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA), AKT by real-time PCR. The protein expression of total IRS2 (tIRS2), phosphorylated IRS2 at Ser731 (pSer731), total PIK3CA (tPIK3CA), total Akt (tAkt), phosphorylated Akt at Thr308 (pThr308) in liver were analyzed by western blot. We observed that compared to the non-exercise group, insulin and HOMA-IR index were significantly higher in the none-exercise toxic group (p < 0.05), while glucose, insulin, C-peptide and HOMA-IR index were significantly lower in the moderate-intensity exercise group (p < 0.05). In the high-intensity exercise group, the HOMA-IR index was significantly lower and the gene expression of IRS2 was significantly higher than in the non-exercise group (p < 0.05). Besides that, the HOMA-β index in the moderate-intensity exercise toxic group was significantly higher compared to the none-exercise toxic group and moderate-intensity exercise group (p < 0.05). The level of IRS2mRNA was significantly lower in the high-intensity exercise toxic group than in the high-intensity exercise group (p < 0.05). Our results demonstrated that 8-week TCDD exposure could induce insulin resistance in rats, while exercise could improve insulin sensitivity in which moderate intensity was more obvious than high intensity exercise. Meanwhile, both intensity exercise could not effectively alleviate the insulin resistance induced by TCDD, but high intensity exercise could promote compensatory insulin secretion to maintain glucose homeostasis. Although the gene expression of IRS2 was changed in high-intensity exercise groups, the mediation role of the hepatic IRS2/PI3K/AKT pathway in the effects of exercise and TCDD exposure on glucose metabolism remains very limited.

AKT ISOFORMS-AS160-GLUT4: The defining axis of insulin resistance

The Akt isoforms-AS160-GLUT4 axis is the primary axis that governs glucose homeostasis in the body. The first step on the path to insulin resistance is deregulated Akt isoforms. This could be Akt isoform expression, its phosphorylation, or improper isoform-specific redistribution to the plasma membrane in a specific tissue system. The second step is deregulated AS160 expression, its phosphorylation, improper dissociation from glucose transporter storage vesicles (GSVs), or its inability to bind to 14-3-3 proteins, thus not allowing it to execute its function. The final step is improper GLUT4 translocation and aberrant glucose uptake. These processes lead to insulin resistance in a tissue-specific way affecting the whole-body glucose homeostasis, eventually progressing to an overt diabetic phenotype. Thus, the relationship between these three key proteins and their proper regulation comes out as the defining axis of insulin signaling and -resistance. This review summarizes the role of this central axis in insulin resistance and disease in a new light.

Calponin 3 suppresses proliferation, migration and invasion of non-small cell lung cancer cells

Calponin 3 (CNN3) is known to serve a role in certain types of cancer, such as gastric cancer and colorectal cancer. The present study investigated the clinical significance of CNN3 in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) by evaluating its expression profile and relationship with disease prognosis using the Gene Expression Omnibus repository, Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis 2 (GEPIA2) and Kaplan-Meier plotter analysis. CNN3 mRNA expression was measured using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR, while the protein expression level was measured using western blot analysis. Cell proliferation, cell cycle and apoptosis, and migration and invasion were analyzed using MTS assay, flow cytometry and Transwell assays, respectively. These results revealed that CNN3 mRNA expression was downregulated in NSCLC tissues compared with that in normal tissues. Additionally, CNN3 expression had a high diagnostic value based on the GSE2514 dataset and the data from The Cancer Genome Atlas and the Genotype Tissue Expression database, whereas it had a low diagnostic value based on the GSE10072 dataset. Furthermore, CNN3 expression was associated with survival in patients with lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD), whereas it was not associated with survival in patients with lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) according to the Kaplan-Meier plotter results. According to the data from GEPIA2, and the GSE72094, GSE41271 and GSE31210 datasets, CNN3 expression was not associated with the prognosis of patients with LUAD and LUSC. The mRNA and protein expression levels of CNN3 were lower in two NSCLC cell lines (A549 and SK-MES-1) than in a human bronchial epithelial cell line (BEAS-2B). CNN3 overexpression suppressed cell proliferation, migration and invasion, induced G₁-phase arrest, promoted apoptosis and suppressed PI3K/AKT signaling pathway activation in the NSCLC cell lines, whereas CNN3 overexpression had no effect on cell morphology. In conclusion, CNN3 suppressed the proliferation and metastasis of NSCLC cells by downregulating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, making it a potential therapeutic target in this disease.

Emerging Roles for AKT Isoform Preference in Cancer Progression Pathways

The phosphoinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)-AKT pathway is one of the most mutated in human cancers, predominantly associated with the loss of the signaling antagonist, PTEN, and to lesser extents, with gain-of-function mutations in PIK3CA (encoding PI3K-p110α) and AKT1. In addition, most oncogenic driver pathways activate PI3K/AKT signaling. Nonetheless, drugs targeting PI3K or AKT have fared poorly against solid tumors in clinical trials as monotherapies, yet some have shown efficacy when combined with inhibitors of other oncogenic drivers, such as receptor tyrosine kinases or nuclear hormone receptors. There is growing evidence that AKT isoforms, AKT1, AKT2, and AKT3, have different, often distinct roles in either promoting or suppressing specific parameters of oncogenic progression, yet few if any isoform-preferred substrates have been characterized. This review will describe recent data showing that the differential activation of AKT isoforms is mediated by complex interplays between PTEN, PI3K isoforms and upstream tyrosine kinases, and that the efficacy of PI3K/AKT inhibitors will likely depend on the successful targeting of specific AKT isoforms and their preferred pathways.

Meep, a Novel Regulator of Insulin Signaling, Supports Development and Insulin Sensitivity via Maintenance of Protein Homeostasis in Drosophila melanogaster

Insulin signaling is critical for developmental growth and adult homeostasis, yet the downstream regulators of this signaling pathway are not completely understood. Using the model organism Drosophila melanogaster, we took a genomic approach to identify novel mediators of insulin signaling. These studies led to the identification of Meep, encoded by the gene CG32335. Expression of this gene is both insulin receptor- and diet-dependent. We found that Meep was specifically required in the developing fat body to tolerate a high-sugar diet (HSD). Meep is not essential on a control diet, but when reared on an HSD, knockdown of meep causes hyperglycemia, reduced growth, developmental delay, pupal lethality, and reduced longevity. These phenotypes stem in part from Meep’s role in promoting insulin sensitivity and protein stability. This work suggests a critical role for protein homeostasis in development during overnutrition. Because Meep is conserved and obesity-associated in mammals, future studies on Meep may help to understand the role of proteostasis in insulin-resistant type 2 diabetes.

Interactions among IGF-1, AKT2, FOXO1, and FOXO3 variations and between genes and physical activities on physical performance in community-dwelling elders

This study assessed the interactions among IGF-1, AKT2, FOXO1, and FOXO3 variations and the interactions of gene and physical activity on handgrip strength, arm muscle mass-adjusted handgrip (armGrip), gait speed (GS), timed up and go (TUG), and leg press strength (LPS). Nine single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) containing three IGF-1 SNPs (rs6214, rs5742692, and rs35767), two AKT2 SNPs (rs892119 and rs35817154), two FOXO1 SNPs (rs17446593 and rs10507486), and two FOXO3 SNPs (rs9480865 and rs2153960) were genotyped in 472 unrelated elders with a mean age of 73.8 years. We observed significant interactions of IGF-1 SNP rs6214 and rs35767 with regular physical activity on TUG and GS; and AKT2 SNP rs892119 and FOXO3 SNP rs9480865 with regular physical activity on armGrip. Genotype GG of IGF-1 rs6214 and rs35767 in individuals without regular physical activity had poor performance in TUG and GS, as well as GG of AKT2 rs892119 decreased armGrip in individuals without regular physical activity. After FDR adjustment, no significant gene-gene interactions were found. A sedentary lifestyle may increase the risk of impairing physical performance and regular physical activity is a remedy for sarcopenia, even a little regular physical activity can overcome carrying some risk alleles in this pathway.

Mechanisms of diabetic cardiomyopathy and potential therapeutic strategies: preclinical and clinical evidence

The pathogenesis and clinical features of diabetic cardiomyopathy have been well-studied in the past decade, but effective approaches to prevent and treat this disease are limited. Diabetic cardiomyopathy occurs as a result of the dysregulated glucose and lipid metabolism associated with diabetes mellitus, which leads to increased oxidative stress and the activation of multiple inflammatory pathways that mediate cellular and extracellular injury, pathological cardiac remodelling, and diastolic and systolic dysfunction. Preclinical studies in animal models of diabetes have identified multiple intracellular pathways involved in the pathogenesis of diabetic cardiomyopathy and potential cardioprotective strategies to prevent and treat the disease, including antifibrotic agents, anti-inflammatory agents and antioxidants. Some of these interventions have been tested in clinical trials and have shown favourable initial results. In this Review, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the development of diabetic cardiomyopathy and heart failure in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus, and we summarize the evidence from preclinical and clinical studies that might provide guidance for the development of targeted strategies. We also highlight some of the novel pharmacological therapeutic strategies for the treatment and prevention of diabetic cardiomyopathy.

The Implications for Cells of the Lipid Switches Driven by Protein-Membrane Interactions and the Development of Membrane Lipid Therapy

The cell membrane contains a variety of receptors that interact with signaling molecules. However, agonist-receptor interactions not always activate a signaling cascade. Amphitropic membrane proteins are required for signal propagation upon ligand-induced receptor activation. These proteins localize to the plasma membrane or internal compartments; however, they are only activated by ligand-receptor complexes when both come into physical contact in membranes. These interactions enable signal propagation. Thus, signals may not propagate into the cell if peripheral proteins do not co-localize with receptors even in the presence of messengers. As the translocation of an amphitropic protein greatly depends on the membrane's lipid composition, regulation of the lipid bilayer emerges as a novel therapeutic strategy. Some of the signals controlled by proteins non-permanently bound to membranes produce dramatic changes in the cell's physiology. Indeed, changes in membrane lipids induce translocation of dozens of peripheral signaling proteins from or to the plasma membrane, which controls how cells behave. We called these changes "lipid switches", as they alter the cell's status (e.g., proliferation, differentiation, death, etc.) in response to the modulation of membrane lipids. Indeed, this discovery enables therapeutic interventions that modify the bilayer's lipids, an approach known as membrane-lipid therapy (MLT) or melitherapy.

The PI3K-AKT network at the interface of oncogenic signalling and cancer metabolism

The altered metabolic programme of cancer cells facilitates their cell-autonomous proliferation and survival. In normal cells, signal transduction pathways control core cellular functions, including metabolism, to couple the signals from exogenous growth factors, cytokines or hormones to adaptive changes in cell physiology. The ubiquitous, growth factor-regulated phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-AKT signalling network has diverse downstream effects on cellular metabolism, through either direct regulation of nutrient transporters and metabolic enzymes or the control of transcription factors that regulate the expression of key components of metabolic pathways. Aberrant activation of this signalling network is one of the most frequent events in human cancer and serves to disconnect the control of cell growth, survival and metabolism from exogenous growth stimuli. Here we discuss our current understanding of the molecular events controlling cellular metabolism downstream of PI3K and AKT and of how these events couple two major hallmarks of cancer: growth factor independence through oncogenic signalling and metabolic reprogramming to support cell survival and proliferation.

Improved exercise capacity in cyclophilin-D knockout mice associated with enhanced oxygen utilization efficiency and augmented glucose uptake via AMPK-TBC1D1 signaling nexus

We previously reported in HEK 293T cells that silencing the mitochondrial peptidyl prolyl isomerase cyclophilin-D (Cyp-D) reduces Vo2. We now report that in vivo Cyp-D ablation using constitutive Cyp-D knockout (KO) mice also reduces Vo2 both at rest (∼15%) and during treadmill exercise (∼12%). Yet, despite Vo2 reduction, these Cyp-D KO mice ran longer (1071 ± 77 vs. 785 ± 79 m; P = 0.002), for longer time (43 ± 3 vs. 34 ± 3 min; P = 0.004), and at higher speed (34 ± 1 vs. 29 ± 1 m/s; P ≤ 0.001), resulting in increased work (87 ± 6 vs. 58 ± 6 J; P ≤ 0.001). There were parallel reductions in carbon dioxide production, but of lesser magnitude, yielding a 2.3% increase in the respiratory exchange ratio consistent with increased glucose utilization as respiratory substrate. In addition, primary skeletal muscle cells of Cyp-D KO mice subjected to electrical stimulation exhibited higher glucose uptake (4.4 ± 0.55 vs. 2.6 ± 0.04 pmol/mg/min; P ≤ 0.001) with enhanced AMPK activation (0.58 ± 0.06 vs. 0.38 ± 0.03 pAMPK/β-tubulin ratio; P ≤ 0.01) and TBC1 (Tre-2/USP6, BUB2, Cdc16) domain family, member 1 (TBC1D1) inactivation. Likewise, pharmacological activation of AMPK also increased glucose uptake (3.2 ± 0.3 vs. 2.3 ± 0.2 pmol/mg/min; P ≤ 0.001). Moreover, lactate and ATP levels were increased in these cells. Taken together, Cyp-D ablation triggered an adaptive response resulting in increased exercise capacity despite less oxygen utilization associated with increased glucose uptake and utilization involving AMPK-TBC1D1 signaling nexus.-Radhakrishnan, J., Baetiong, A., Kaufman, H., Huynh, M., Leschinsky, A., Fresquez, A., White, C., DiMario, J. X., Gazmuri, R. J. Improved exercise capacity in cyclophilin-D knockout mice associated with enhanced oxygen utilization efficiency and augmented glucose uptake via AMPK-TBC1D1 signaling nexus.

Akt1-mediated CPR cooling protection targets regulators of metabolism, inflammation and contractile function in mouse cardiac arrest

Therapeutic hypothermia initiated during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in pre-clinical studies appears to be highly protective against sudden cardiac arrest injury. Given the challenges to implementing CPR cooling clinically, insights into its critical mechanisms of protection could guide development of new CPR drugs that mimic hypothermia effects without the need for physical cooling. Here, we used Akt1-deficient mice that lose CPR hypothermia protection to identify hypothermia targets. Adult female C57BL/6 mice (Akt1^+/+ and Akt1^+/-) underwent 8 min of KCl-induced asystolic arrest and were randomized to receive hypothermia (30 ± 0.5°C) or normothermia. Hypothermia was initiated during CPR and extended for 1 h after resuscitation. Neurologically scored survival was measured at 72 h. Other outcomes included mean arterial pressure and target measures in heart and brain related to contractile function, glucose utilization and inflammation. Compared to northothermia, hypothermia improved both 2h mean arterial pressure and 72h neurologically intact survival in Akt1^+/+ mice but not in Akt1^+/- mice. In Akt1^+/+ mice, hypothermia increased Akt and GSK3β phosphorylation, pyruvate dehydrogenase activation, and NAD⁺ and ATP production while decreasing IκBα degradation and NF-κB activity in both heart and brain at 30 min after CPR. It also increased phospholamban phosphorylation in heart tissue. Further, hypothermia reduced metabolic and inflammatory blood markers lactate and Pre-B cell Colony Enhancing Factor. Despite hypothermia treatment, all these effects were reversed in Akt1^+/- mice. Taken together, drugs that target Akt1 and its effectors may have the potential to mimic hypothermia-like protection to improve sudden cardiac arrest survival when administered during CPR.

Association of Delta-6-Desaturase Expression with Aggressiveness of Cancer, Diabetes Mellitus, and Multiple Sclerosis: A Narrative Review

Background: The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/ protein kinase B /mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/ mTOR) signaling regulates multiple cellular processes and organizes cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation with the available nutrients, in particular, fatty acids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are cytotoxic to cancer cells and play a critical role in the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS) and diabetes mellitus (DM). PUFAs are produced in the body by desaturases and elongases from dietary essential fatty acids (EFAs), primarily involving delta-6-desaturase (D6D). D6D is a rate-limiting enzyme for maintaining many aspects of lipid homeostasis and normal health. D6D is important to recognize the mechanisms that regulate the expression of this enzyme in humans. A lower level of D6D was seen in breast tumors compared to normal tissues. Interestingly, the elevated serum level of D6D was seen in MS and DM, which explains the critical role of D6D in inflammatory diseases. Methods: We searched databases of PubMed, Web of Science (WOS), Google Scholar, Scopus and related studies by predefined eligibility criteria. We assessed their quality and extracted data. Results: Regarding the mTOR signaling pathway, there is remarkable contributions of many inflammatory diseases to attention to common metabolic pathways are depicted. Of course, we need to have the insights into each disorder and their pathological process. The first step in balancing the intake of EFAs is to prevent the disruption of metabolism and expression of the D6D enzyme. Conclusions: The ω6 and ω3 pathways are two major pathways in the biosynthesis of PUFAs. In both of these, D6D is a vital bifunctional enzyme desaturating linoleic acid or alpha-linolenic acid. Therefore, if ω6 and ω3 EFAs are given together in a ratio of 2: 1, the D6D expression will be down-regulated and normalized.

Persistent Organic Pollutant-Mediated Insulin Resistance

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as organochlorine (OC) pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) have become wide-spread environmental contaminants as a consequence of their extensive use, long-range transport, and persistence. Because POPs are highly resistant to metabolic degradation, humans bioaccumulate these lipophilic and hydrophobic pollutants in fatty tissues for many years. Previous studies have demonstrated that POPs including PCBs are involved in the development of diabetes mellitus (DM) type 2 and insulin resistance. Numerous epidemiological studies suggest an association between POP burden and DM type 2/metabolic syndrome. In addition, several experimental studies have provided additional evidence supporting the association between POP exposure and DM type 2 or insulin resistance. Epidemiological and experimental studies have provided compelling evidence indicating that exposure to POPs increases the risk of developing insulin resistance and metabolic disorders. However, the detailed molecular mechanism underlying POP-induced insulin resistance is yet to be elucidated. In this article, we review literature that has reported on the association between POP burden and insulin resistance and the mechanism underlying POP-induced insulin resistance, and discuss implications for public health.

Mitochondrial genome modulates myocardial Akt/Glut/HK salvage pathway in spontaneously hypertensive rats adapted to chronic hypoxia

Recently we have shown that adaptation to continuous normobaric hypoxia (CNH) decreases myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and in a conplastic strain (SHR-mt^BN). The protective effect was stronger in the latter group characterized by a selective replacement of the SHR mitochondrial genome with that of a more ischemia-resistant Brown Norway strain. The aim of the present study was to examine the possible involvement of the hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-dependent pathway of the protein kinase B/glucose transporters/hexokinase (Akt/GLUT/HK) in this mitochondrial genome-related difference of the cardioprotective phenotype. Adult male rats were exposed for 3 wk to CNH ([Formula: see text] 0.1). The expression of dominant isoforms of Akt, GLUT, and HK in left ventricular myocardium was determined by real-time RT-PCR and Western blotting. Subcellular localization of GLUTs was assessed by quantitative immunofluorescence. Whereas adaptation to hypoxia markedly upregulated protein expression of HK2, GLUT1, and GLUT4 in both rat strains, Akt2 protein level was significantly increased in SHR-mt^BN only. Interestingly, a higher content of HK2 was revealed in the sarcoplasmic reticulum-enriched fraction in SHR-mt^BN after CNH. The increased activity of HK determined in the mitochondrial fraction after CNH in both strains suggested an increase of HK association with mitochondria. Interestingly, HIF1a mRNA increased and HIF2a mRNA decreased after CNH, the former effect being more pronounced in SHR-mt^BN than in SHR. Pleiotropic effects of upregulated Akt2 along with HK translocation to mitochondria and mitochondria-associated membranes can potentially contribute to a stronger CNH-afforded cardioprotection in SHR-mt^BN compared with progenitor SHR.

Differential effects of peptidoglycan on colorectal tumors and intestinal tissue post-pelvic radiotherapy

Immediate medical intervention is required after pelvic tumor radiotherapy to protect the radiosensitive intestine and also to mitigate tumor growth. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been shown to promote tissue repair processes. Here, we analyzed the effect observed upon combining the TLR2 agonist, peptidoglycan (PGN), with radiation therapy on tumors as well as intestinal tissue, both in vitro and in vivo. In contrast to radiotherapy alone, PGN when combined with ionizing radiation (IR) elicited enhanced antitumor effects and also reduced the IR-induced intestinal damage. Mechanistic studies showed that PGN first induced an IL13 response in the irradiated intestine, but was decreased in tumor cell models screened by Th1/Th2 FlowCytomix assay and validated by the application of IL13 and anti-IL13 neutralizing antibodies. Next, PGN stimulated Akt3, but not Akt1/2, as was verified by AKT1/2/3 plasmid transfection assay and in AKT1/2/3 knockout mice in vivo. Akt3 expression was inhibited in 20 μg/mL PGN-treated tumor cells and in 1.5 mg/kg PGN-treated mouse tumor models. However, Akt3 was raised via IL13 in the irradiated intestine and human intestinal cell line after the same treatment. Finally, PGN activated mTOR via IL13/AKT3 in the intestine and restored intestinal structure and function. As an adjuvant to radiotherapy, PGN inhibited tumorigenesis by suppression of mTOR activity. To summarize, the IL13/AKT3/mTOR pathway was lessened in PGN-treated irradiated tumors but was raised in the normal intestine tissue. This distinct effect of PGN on normal and tumor tissues during pelvic radiotherapy suggests that PGN may be a promising adjuvant therapy to radiation.

A Partial Loss-of-Function Variant in AKT2 Is Associated With Reduced Insulin-Mediated Glucose Uptake in Multiple Insulin-Sensitive Tissues: A Genotype-Based Callback Positron Emission Tomography Study

Rare fully penetrant mutations in AKT2 are an established cause of monogenic disorders of glucose metabolism. Recently, a novel partial loss-of-function AKT2 coding variant (p.Pro50Thr) was identified that is nearly specific to Finns (frequency 1.1%), with the low-frequency allele associated with an increase in fasting plasma insulin level and risk of type 2 diabetes. The effects of the p.Pro50Thr AKT2 variant (p.P50T/AKT2) on insulin-stimulated glucose uptake (GU) in the whole body and in different tissues have not previously been investigated. We identified carriers (N = 20) and matched noncarriers (N = 25) for this allele in the population-based Metabolic Syndrome in Men (METSIM)study and invited these individuals back for positron emission tomography study with [¹⁸F]-fluorodeoxyglucose during euglycemic hyperinsulinemia. When we compared p.P50T/AKT2 carriers to noncarriers, we found a 39.4% reduction in whole-body GU (P = 0.006) and a 55.6% increase in the rate of endogenous glucose production (P = 0.038). We found significant reductions in GU in multiple tissues-skeletal muscle (36.4%), liver (16.1%), brown adipose (29.7%), and bone marrow (32.9%)-and increases of 16.8-19.1% in seven tested brain regions. These data demonstrate that the p.P50T substitution of AKT2 influences insulin-mediated GU in multiple insulin-sensitive tissues and may explain, at least in part, the increased risk of type 2 diabetes in p.P50T/AKT2 carriers.

Differential control of ageing and lifespan by isoforms and splice variants across the mTOR network

Ageing can be defined as the gradual deterioration of physiological functions, increasing the incidence of age-related disorders and the probability of death. Therefore, the term ageing not only reflects the lifespan of an organism but also refers to progressive functional impairment and disease. The nutrient-sensing kinase mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) is a major determinant of ageing. mTOR promotes cell growth and controls central metabolic pathways including protein biosynthesis, autophagy and glucose and lipid homoeostasis. The concept that mTOR has a crucial role in ageing is supported by numerous reports on the lifespan-prolonging effects of the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin in invertebrate and vertebrate model organisms. Dietary restriction increases lifespan and delays ageing phenotypes as well and mTOR has been assigned a major role in this process. This may suggest a causal relationship between the lifespan of an organism and its metabolic phenotype. More than 25 years after mTOR's discovery, a wealth of metabolic and ageing-related effects have been reported. In this review, we cover the current view on the contribution of the different elements of the mTOR signalling network to lifespan and age-related metabolic impairment. We specifically focus on distinct roles of isoforms and splice variants across the mTOR network. The comprehensive analysis of mouse knockout studies targeting these variants does not support a tight correlation between lifespan prolongation and improved metabolic phenotypes and questions the strict causal relationship between them.

AKT/PKB Signaling: Navigating the Network

The Ser and Thr kinase AKT, also known as protein kinase B (PKB), was discovered 25 years ago and has been the focus of tens of thousands of studies in diverse fields of biology and medicine. There have been many advances in our knowledge of the upstream regulatory inputs into AKT, key multifunctional downstream signaling nodes (GSK3, FoxO, mTORC1), which greatly expand the functional repertoire of AKT, and the complex circuitry of this dynamically branching and looping signaling network that is ubiquitous to nearly every cell in our body. Mouse and human genetic studies have also revealed physiological roles for the AKT network in nearly every organ system. Our comprehension of AKT regulation and functions is particularly important given the consequences of AKT dysfunction in diverse pathological settings, including developmental and overgrowth syndromes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, and neurological disorders. There has also been much progress in developing AKT-selective small molecule inhibitors. Improved understanding of the molecular wiring of the AKT signaling network continues to make an impact that cuts across most disciplines of the biomedical sciences.

Insulin-induced Effects on the Subcellular Localization of AKT1, AKT2 and AS160 in Rat Skeletal Muscle

AKT1 and AKT2, the AKT isoforms that are highly expressed in skeletal muscle, have distinct and overlapping functions, with AKT2 more important for insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism. In adipocytes, AKT2 versus AKT1 has greater susceptibility for insulin-mediated redistribution from cytosolic to membrane localization, and insulin also causes subcellular redistribution of AKT Substrate of 160 kDa (AS160), an AKT2 substrate and crucial mediator of insulin-stimulated glucose transport. Although skeletal muscle is the major tissue for insulin-mediated glucose disposal, little is known about AKT1, AKT2 or AS160 subcellular localization in skeletal muscle. The major aim of this study was to determine insulin’s effects on the subcellular localization and phosphorylation of AKT1, AKT2 and AS160 in skeletal muscle. Rat skeletal muscles were incubated ex vivo ± insulin, and differential centrifugation was used to isolate cytosolic and membrane fractions. The results revealed that: 1) insulin increased muscle membrane localization of AKT2, but not AKT1; 2) insulin increased AKT2 phosphorylation in the cytosol and membrane fractions; 3) insulin increased AS160 localization to the cytosol and membranes; and 4) insulin increased AS160 phosphorylation in the cytosol, but not membranes. These results demonstrate distinctive insulin effects on the subcellular redistribution of AKT2 and its substrate AS160 in skeletal muscle.

Animal Model of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus with Pathophysiological Resemblance to the Human Condition Induced by Multiple Factors (Nutritional, Pharmacological, and Stress) in Rats

This study attempts to develop an experimental gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) animal model in female Sprague-Dawley rats. Rats were fed with high fat sucrose diet, impregnated, and induced with Streptozotocin and Nicotinamide on gestational day 0 (D0). Sleeping patterns of the rats were also manipulated to induce stress, a lifestyle factor that contributes to GDM. Rats were tested for glycemic parameters (glucose, C-peptide, and insulin), lipid profiles (total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL, and LDL), genes affecting insulin signaling (IRS-2, AKT-1, and PCK-1), glucose transporters (GLUT-2 and GLUT-4), proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α), and antioxidants (SOD, CAT, and GPX) on D6 and D21. GDM rats showed possible insulin resistance as evidenced by high expression of proinflammatory cytokines, PCK-1 and CRP. Furthermore, low levels of IRS-2 and AKT-1 genes and downregulation of GLUT-4 from the initial to final phases indicate possible defect of insulin signaling. GDM rats also showed an impairment of antioxidant status and a hyperlipidemic state. Additionally, GDM rats exhibited significantly higher body weight and blood glucose and lower plasma insulin level and C-peptide than control. Based on the findings outlined, the current GDM animal model closely replicates the disease state in human and can serve as a reference for future investigations.

Metabolic, autophagic, and mitophagic activities in cancer initiation and progression

Cancer is a complex disease marked by uncontrolled cell growth and invasion. These processes are driven by the accumulation of genetic and epigenetic alterations that promote cancer initiation and progression. Contributing to genome changes are the regulation of oxidative stress and reactive species-induced damage to molecules and organelles. Redox regulation, metabolic plasticity, autophagy, and mitophagy play important and interactive roles in cancer hallmarks including sustained proliferation, activated invasion, and replicative immortality. However, the impact of these processes can differ depending on the signaling pathways altered in cancer, tumor type, tumor stage, and/or the differentiation state. Here, we highlight some of the representative studies on the impact of oxidative and nitrosative activities, mitochondrial bioenergetics, metabolism, and autophagy and mitophagy in the context of tumorigenesis. We discuss the implications of these processes for cellular activities in cancer for anti-cancer-based therapeutics.

Knockdown of Akt2 expression by shRNA inhibits proliferation, enhances apoptosis, and increases chemosensitivity to paclitaxel in human colorectal cancer cells

Akt2 overexpression correlates with chemoresistance of colorectal cancer (CRC). However, the cellular functions and precise signals elicited by Akt2 in LSCC have not been elucidated. Here, we transfected a CRC cell line HCT116 with Akt-2 targeted shRNA in order to establish a cell line with Akt2 knockdown. In vitro experiments showed that knockdown Akt2 in HCT116 cells was associated with decrease in cell proliferation as well as enhanced cell apoptosis. Furthermore, our results demonstrated that Akt2 knockdown correlated with elevated chemosensitivity of HCT116 cells to paclitaxel. Importantly, we found that knockdown of AKt2 resulted in downregulation of MDR-1 and MRP-1. Our findings may lead to a better understanding of the biological effect of Akt2 and may provide mechanistic insights for developing potential therapeutic strategies targeting AKt2.

The Akt isoforms, their unique functions and potential as anticancer therapeutic targets

Akt (also known as protein kinase B or PKB) is the major downstream nodal point of the PI3K signaling pathway. This pathway is a promising anticancer therapeutic target, because constitutive activation of the PI3K-Akt pathway is correlated with tumor development, progression, poor prognosis, and resistance to cancer therapies. The Akt serine/threonine kinase regulates diverse cellular functions including cell growth, proliferation, glucose metabolism, and survival. Although all three known Akt isoforms (Akt1-3) are encoded by separate genes, their amino acid sequences show a high degree of similarity. For this and other reasons, it has long been assumed that all three Akt isoforms are activated in the same way, and their functions largely overlap. However, accumulating lines of evidence now suggest that the three Akt isoforms might have unique modes of activation and many distinct functions. In particular, it has recently been found that the Akt isoforms are localized at different subcellular compartments in both adipocytes and cancer cells. In this review, we highlight the unique roles of each Akt isoform by introducing published data obtained from both in vitro and in vivo studies. We also discuss the significant potential of the Akt isoforms as effective anticancer therapeutic targets.

Development of a new model system to dissect isoform specific Akt signalling in adipocytes

Our study describes the development and validation of a new model system that allows for acute control of signalling by specific Akt isoforms. This model system revealed new insights into the role of Akt kinases in glucose transport and adipogenesis.

Protein kinase B (Akt) kinases are critical signal transducers mediating insulin action. Genetic studies revealed that Akt1 and Akt2 signalling differentially contribute to sustain lipid and glucose homoeostasis; however Akt isoform-specific effectors remain elusive due to the lack of a suitable model system to mechanistically interrogate Akt isoform-specific signalling. To overcome those technical limitations we developed a novel model system that provides acute and specific control of signalling by Akt isoforms. We generated mutants of Akt1 and Akt2 resistant to the allosteric Akt inhibitor MK-2206. We then developed adipocyte cell lines, in which endogenous Akt1 or Akt2 has been replaced by their corresponding drug-resistant Akt mutant. Treatment of those cells with MK-2206 allowed for acute and specific control of either Akt1 or Akt2 function. Our data showed that Akt1^W80A and Akt2^W80A mutants are resistant to MK-2206, dynamically regulated by insulin and able to signal to Akt downstream effectors. Analyses of insulin action in this cellular system showed that Akt1 and Akt2 are both able to mediate insulin regulation of the transcription factor forkhead box O1 (FoxO1) and the glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4), revealing a redundant role for these Akt kinases in the control of glucose transport into fat cells. In contrast, Akt1 signalling is uniquely required for adipogenesis, by controlling the mitotic clonal expansion (MCE) of pre-adipocytes that precedes white adipose cell differentiation. Our data provide new insights into the role of Akt kinases in glucose transport and adipogenesis and support our model system as a valuable tool for the biochemical characterization of signalling by specific Akt isoforms.

Tomosyn is a novel Akt substrate mediating insulin-dependent GLUT4 exocytosis

Insulin triggers glucose uptake into skeletal muscle and adipose tissues by gaining the available number of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) on the cell surface. GLUT4-loaded vesicles are targeted to plasma membrane from the intracellular reservoir through multiple trafficking and fusion processes that are mainly regulated by Akt. However, it is still largely unknown how GLUT4 expression in the cell surface is promoted by insulin. In the present study, we identified tomosyn at Ser-783 as a possible Akt-substrate motif and examined whether the phosphorylation at Ser-783 is involved in the regulation of GLUT4 expression. Both Akt1 and Akt2 phosphorylated the wild-type tomosyn, but not the mutant tomosyn in which Ser-783 was replaced with Ala. Phosphorylation of tomosyn at Ser-783 was also observed in the intact cells by insulin stimulation, which was blocked by PI3K inhibitor, LY294002. In vitro pull-down assay showed that phosphorylation of tomosyn at Ser-783 by Akt inhibited the interaction with syntaxin 4. Insulin stimulation increased GLUT4 in the cell surface of CHO-K1 cells to promote glucose uptake, however exogenous expression of the mutant tomosyn attenuated the increase by insulin. These results suggest that Ser-783 of tomosyn is a target of Akt and is implicated in the interaction with syntaxin 4.

Decreased gene expressions of insulin signal molecules in canine hyperadrenocorticism

Hyperadrenocorticism (HAC) is a common endocrine disorder in dogs, in which excess glucocorticoid causes insulin resistance. Disturbance of insulin action may be caused by multiple factors, including transcriptional modulation of insulin signal molecules which lie downstream of insulin binding to insulin receptors. In this study, gene expressions of insulin signal molecules were examined using neutrophils of the HAC dogs (the untreated dogs and the dogs which had been treated with trilostane). Insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1, IRS-2, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K), protein kinase B/Akt kinase (Akt)-2 and protein kinase C (PKC)-lambda were analyzed in the HAC dogs and compared with those from normal dogs. The IRS-1 gene expressions decreased by 37% and 35% of the control dogs in the untreated and treated groups, respectively. The IRS-2 gene expressions decreased by 61% and 72%, the PI3-K gene expressions decreased by 47% and 55%, and the Akt-2 gene expressions decreased by 45% and 56% of the control dogs, similarly. Collectively, gene expressions of insulin signal molecules are suppressed in the HAC dogs, which may partially contribute to the induction of insulin resistance.

Diethylstilbestrol decreased adrenal cholesterol and corticosterone in rats

The synthetic oestrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES), which is known to bind oestrogen receptors (ERs), has been reported to have adverse effects on endocrine homeostasis; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects are poorly understood. In this study, we treated rats with DES and found high levels of this compound in the liver, adrenal glands and pituitary gland, as compared with other tissues. We have also detected early adverse effects of DES in the adrenal glands. The adrenal glands of rats treated with DES (340 μg/kg body weight every 2 days) for 2 weeks showed increased weight and size and a decreased fat droplet size. Following 1 week of treatment with DES, the blood and adrenal corticosterone levels were substantially decreased without any histological alterations. The levels of the precursors for corticosteroid biosynthesis in the adrenal glands were also decreased, as determined using mass spectroscopy. Cholesterol, the principal material of corticosteroid biosynthesis, decreased substantially in the adrenal glands after only 1 week of treatment with DES. In conclusion, cholesterol insufficiency results in a reduction in adrenal corticosterone biosynthesis, which may lead to endocrine dysfunction, such as reproductive toxicity.

Antenatal corticosteroids alter insulin signaling pathways in fetal baboon skeletal muscle

We hypothesize that prenatal exposure to glucocorticoids (GCs) negatively alters the insulin signal transduction pathway and has differing effects on the fetus according to gestational age (GA) at exposure. Twenty-three fetal baboons were delivered from 23 healthy, nondiabetic mothers. Twelve preterm (0.67 GA) and 11 near-term (0.95 GA) baboons were killed immediately after delivery. Half of the pregnant baboons at each gestation received two doses of i.m. betamethasone 24 h apart (170 μg/kg) before delivery, while the other half received no intervention. Vastus lateralis muscle was obtained from postnatal animals to measure the protein content and gene expression of insulin receptor β (IRβ; INSR), IRβ Tyr 1361 phosphorylation (pIRβ), IR substrate 1 (IRS1), IRS1 tyrosine phosphorylation (pIRS1), p85 subunit of PI3-kinase, AKT (protein kinase B), phospho-AKT Ser473 (pAKT), AKT1, AKT2, and glucose transporters (GLUT1 and GLUT4). Skeletal muscle from preterm baboons exposed to GCs had markedly reduced protein content of AKT and AKT1 (respectively, 73 and 72% from 0.67 GA control, P<0.001); IRβ and pIRβ were also decreased (respectively, 94 and 85%, P<0.01) in the muscle of premature GC-exposed fetuses but not in term fetuses. GLUT1 and GLUT4 tended to increase with GC exposure in preterm animals (P=0.09), while GLUT4 increased sixfold in term animals after exposure to GC (P<0.05). In conclusion, exposure to a single course of antenatal GCs during fetal life alters the insulin signaling pathway in fetal muscle in a manner dependent on the stage of gestation.

Transcriptome analysis of human primary endothelial cells (HUVEC) from umbilical cords of gestational diabetic mothers reveals candidate sites for an epigenetic modulation of specific gene expression

Within the complex pathological picture associated to diabetes, high glucose (HG) has "per se" effects on cells and tissues that involve epigenetic reprogramming of gene expression. In fetal tissues, epigenetic changes occur genome-wide and are believed to induce specific long term effects. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) obtained at delivery from gestational diabetic women were used to study the transcriptomic effects of chronic hyperglycemia in fetal vascular cells using Affymetrix microarrays. In spite of the small number of samples analyzed (n=6), genes related to insulin sensing and extracellular matrix reorganization were found significantly affected by HG. Quantitative PCR analysis of gene promoters identified a significant differential DNA methylation in TGFB2. Use of Ea.hy926 endothelial cells confirms data on HUVEC. Our study corroborates recent evidences suggesting that epigenetic reprogramming of gene expression occurs with persistent HG and provides a background for future investigations addressing genomic consequences of chronic HG.

Saponin as regulator of biofuel: implication for ethnobotanical management of diabetes

There has been a sharp rise in the global prevalence of diabetes, obesity, and their comorbid conditions within the last decade prompting significant research into possible causes and cure via therapeutic intervention and lifestyle adjustments. Here, the molecular bases of antidiabetic plants used in the prehistorical treatment of diabetes and obesity are reviewed with particular focus on saponin as the phytotherapeutic principle. Until recently, the phytotherapeutic potentials of saponins have been masked in the heterogeneity of phytochemicals co-extractable during traditional preparations. With improved technique of purification and cutting edge biological assay methods, saponins have emerged as a regulator of primary biofuel availability through direct interaction with energy metabolism, cell signaling, and gene expression. Specific cases of lipoprotein lipase/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-gamma/phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI-3-K)/protein kinase B (Akt) activation, adiponectin gene upregulation, fatty acid binding protein 4 repression (FABP4), and glucose transporter type 4 (Glut4) membrane exocytosis have been documented which provide molecular basis for hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, and anti-obesity manifestations observed in experimental animals following saponin treatment. Although intensified research is required to characterize the pharmacophoric features in saponins exhibiting these interactions, however, this preliminary lead is valuable if the world will be free of diabetes, obesity, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and atherosclerosis in no distant future.

Hypoxia signaling pathways in cancer metabolism: the importance of co-selecting interconnected physiological pathways

Both tumor hypoxia and dysregulated metabolism are classical features of cancer. Recent analyses have revealed complex interconnections between oncogenic activation, hypoxia signaling systems and metabolic pathways that are dysregulated in cancer. These studies have demonstrated that rather than responding simply to error signals arising from energy depletion or tumor hypoxia, metabolic and hypoxia signaling pathways are also directly connected to oncogenic signaling mechanisms at many points. This review will summarize current understanding of the role of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) in these networks. It will also discuss the role of these interconnected pathways in generating the cancer phenotype; in particular, the implications of switching massive pathways that are physiologically 'hard-wired’ to oncogenic mechanisms driving cancer.

Cellular regulation of glucose uptake by glucose transporter GLUT4

GLUT4 is regulated by its intracellular localization. In the absence of insulin, GLUT4 is efficiently retained intracellularly within storage compartments in muscle and fat cells. Upon insulin stimulation (and contraction in muscle), GLUT4 translocates from these compartments to the cell surface where it transports glucose from the extracellular milieu into the cell. Its implication in insulin-regulated glucose uptake makes GLUT4 not only a key player in normal glucose homeostasis but also an important element in insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Nevertheless, how GLUT4 is retained intracellularly and how insulin acts on this retention mechanism is largely unclear. In this review, the current knowledge regarding the various molecular processes that govern GLUT4 physiology is discussed as well as the questions that remain.

PI3 kinase directly phosphorylates Akt1/2 at Ser473/474 in the insulin signal transduction pathway

Insulin stimulated translocation of the glucose transporter GLUT4 from the cytosol to the plasma membrane in a concentration (1  nM-1  μM)-dependent manner and increased glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation to the cell surface was prevented by the phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3K) inhibitor wortmannin, the 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1) inhibitor BX912 or the Akt1/2 inhibitor MK2206, and by knocking-down PI3K, PDK1 or Akt1/2. Insulin increased phosphorylation of Akt1/2 at Thr308/309 and Ser473/474, to activate Akt1/2, in the adipocytes. Insulin-induced phosphorylation of Akt1/2 was suppressed by wortmannin and knocking-down PI3K, while no significant inhibition of the phosphorylation was obtained with BX912 or knocking-down PDK1. In the cell-free Akt assay, PI3K phosphorylated Akt1 both at Thr308 and Ser473 and Akt2 at Ser474 alone. In contrast, PDK1 phosphorylates Akt1 at Thr308 and Akt2 at Thr309. The results of this study indicate that PI3K activates Akt1, independently of PDK1, and Akt2 by cooperating with PDK1 in the insulin signal transduction pathway linked to GLUT4 translocation.

Dynamics of Akt activation during mouse embryo development: distinct subcellular patterns distinguish proliferating versus differentiating cells

Akt is a highly conserved serine-threonine protein kinase which has been implicated in a wide variety of cellular functions, from the regulation of growth and metabolism, to activation of pro-survival pathways and cell proliferation, and promotion of differentiation in specific cell types. However, very little is known about the spatial and temporal pattern of Akt activity within cells and whether this pattern changes as cells enter and proceed in their differentiation programs. To address this issue we profiled Akt activation in E8.5-E13.5 mouse embryos and in C2C12 cells. We used a commercial antibody against Akt, phosphorylated on one of its activating residues, Thr-308, and performed high resolution confocal imaging of the immunofluorescence in labeled embryos. We observe strong Akt activity during mitosis in the dermomyotome, the neuroepithelium and some mesenchymal cells. This burst of activity fills the whole cell except for heterochromatin-positive areas in the nucleus. A surge in activity during mitosis is also observed in subconfluent C2C12 cells. Later on in the differentiation programs of skeletal muscle and neural cells, derivatives of the dermomyotome and neuroepithelium, respectively, we find robust, sustained Akt activity in the cytoplasm, but not in the nucleus. Concomitantly with skeletal muscle differentiation, Akt activity becomes concentrated in the sarcomeric Z-disks whereas developing neurons maintain a uniform cytoplasmic pattern of activated Akt. Our findings reveal unprecedented cellular and subcellular details of Akt activity during mouse embryo development, which is spatially and temporally consistent with proposed functions for Akt in mitosis and myogenic and neural differentiation and/or survival. Our results thus demonstrate a subcellular change in the pattern of Akt activation when skeletal muscle and neural progenitor cells cease dividing and progress in their differentiation programs.

Cell survival and metastasis regulation by Akt signaling in colorectal cancer

Dissemination of cancer cells to distant organ sites is the leading cause of death due to treatment failure in different types of cancer. Mehlen and Puisieux have reviewed the importance of the development of inappropriate cell survival signaling for various steps in the metastatic process and have noted the particular importance of aberrant cell survival to successful colonization at the metastatic site. Therefore, the understanding of mechanisms that govern cell survival fate of these metastatic cells could lead to the understanding of a new paradigm for the control of metastatic potential and could provide the basis for developing novel strategies for the treatment of metastases. Numerous studies have documented the widespread role of Akt in cell survival and metastasis in colorectal cancer, as well as many other types of cancer. Akt acts as a key signaling node that bridges the link between oncogenic receptors to many essential pro-survival cellular functions, and is perhaps the most commonly activated signaling pathway in human cancer. In recent years, Akt2 and Akt3 have emerged as significant contributors to malignancy alongside the well-characterized Akt1 isoform, with distinct non-overlapping functions. This review is aimed at gaining a better understanding of the Akt-driven cell survival mechanisms that contribute to cancer progression and metastasis and the pharmacological inhibitors in clinical trials designed to counter the Akt-driven cell survival responses in cancer.

Systematic Analysis Reveals Elongation Factor 2 and α-Enolase as Novel Interaction Partners of AKT2

AKT2 is one of the three isoforms of the protein kinase AKT being involved in the modulation of cellular metabolism. Since protein-protein interactions are one possibility to convey specificity in signal transduction, we performed AKT2-protein interaction analysis to elucidate their relevance for AKT2-dependent cellular functions. We identified heat shock protein 90 kDa (HSP90), Cdc37, heat shock protein 70 kDa (HSP70), 78 kDa glucose regulated protein (GRP78), tubulin, GAPDH, α-enolase and elongation factor 2 (EF2) as AKT2-interacting proteins by a combination of tandem affinity purification and mass spectrometry in HEK293T cells. Quantitative MS-analysis using stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) revealed that only HSP90 and Cdc37 interact stably with AKT2, whereas the other proteins interact with low affinity with AKT2. The interactions of AKT2 with α-enolase and EF2 were further analyzed in order to uncover the functional relevance of these newly discovered binding partners. Despite the interaction of AKT2 and α-enolase, which was additionally validated by proximity ligation assay (PLA), no significant impact of AKT on α-enolase activity was detected in activity measurements. AKT stimulation via insulin and/or inhibition with the ATP-competitive inhibitor CCT128930 did not alter enzymatic activity of α-enolase. Interestingly, the direct interaction of AKT2 and EF2 was found to be dynamically regulated in embryonic rat cardiomyocytes. Treatment with the PI3-kinase inhibitor LY294002 before stimulation with several hormones stabilized the complex, whereas stimulation alone led to complex dissociation which was analyzed in situ with PLA. Taken together, these findings point to new aspects of AKT2-mediated signal transduction in protein synthesis and glucose metabolism.