Natural compounds as obesity pharmacotherapies

Obesity has become a serious global public health problem, affecting over 988 million people worldwide. Nevertheless, current pharmacotherapies have proven inadequate. Natural compounds have garnered significant attention due to their potential antiobesity effects. Over the past three decades, ca. 50 natural compounds have been evaluated for the preventive and/or therapeutic effects on obesity in animals and humans. However, variations in the antiobesity efficacies among these natural compounds have been substantial, owing to differences in experimental designs, including variations in animal models, dosages, treatment durations, and administration methods. The feasibility of employing these natural compounds as pharmacotherapies for obesity remained uncertain. In this review, we systematically summarized the antiobesity efficacy and mechanisms of action of each natural compound in animal models. This comprehensive review furnishes valuable insights for the development of antiobesity medications based on natural compounds.

Independent activation of CREB3L2 by glucose fills a regulatory gap in mouse β-cells by co-ordinating insulin biosynthesis with secretory granule formation

OBJECTIVE

Although individual steps have been characterized, there is little understanding of the overall process whereby glucose co-ordinates the biosynthesis of insulin with its export out of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and incorporation into insulin secretory granules (ISGs). Here we investigate a role for the transcription factor CREB3L2 in this context.

METHODS

MIN6 cells and mouse islets were analysed by immunoblotting after treatment with glucose, fatty acids, thapsigargin and various inhibitors. Knockdown of CREB3L2 was achieved using si or sh constructs by transfection, or viral delivery. In vivo metabolic phenotyping was conducted after deletion of CREB3L2 in β-cells of adult mice using Ins1-CreER+. Islets were isolated for RNAseq and assays of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). Trafficking was monitored in islet monolayers using a GFP-tagged proinsulin construct that allows for synchronised release from the ER.

RESULTS

With a Km ≈3.5 mM, glucose rapidly (T1/2 0.9 h) increased full length (FL) CREB3L2 followed by a slower rise (T1/2 2.5 h) in its transcriptionally-active cleavage product, P60 CREB3L2. Glucose stimulation repressed the ER stress marker, CHOP, and this was partially reverted by knockdown of CREB3L2. Activation of CREB3L2 by glucose was not due to ER stress, however, but a combination of O-GlcNAcylation, which impaired proteasomal degradation of FL-CREB3L2, and mTORC1 stimulation, which enhanced its conversion to P60. cAMP generation also activated CREB3L2, but independently of glucose. Deletion of CREB3L2 inhibited GSIS ex vivo and, following a high-fat diet (HFD), impaired glucose tolerance and insulin secretion in vivo. RNAseq revealed that CREB3L2 regulated genes controlling trafficking to-and-from the Golgi, as well as a broader cohort associated with β-cell compensation during a HFD. Although post-Golgi trafficking appeared intact, knockdown of CREB3L2 impaired the generation of both nascent ISGs and proinsulin condensates in the Golgi, implying a defect in ER export of proinsulin and/or its processing in the Golgi.

CONCLUSION

The stimulation of CREB3L2 by glucose defines a novel, rapid and direct mechanism for co-ordinating the synthesis, packaging and storage of insulin, thereby minimizing ER overload and optimizing β-cell function under conditions of high secretory demand. Upregulation of CREB3L2 also potentially contributes to the benefits of GLP1 agonism and might in itself constitute a novel means of treating β-cell failure.

Potential for NPY receptor-related therapies for polycystic ovary syndrome: an updated review

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a complex endocrine disease that can cause female infertility and bring economic burden to families and to society. The clinical and/or biochemical manifestations include hyperandrogenism, persistent anovulation, and polycystic ovarian changes, often accompanied by insulin resistance and obesity. Although its pathogenesis is unclear, PCOS involves the abnormal regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis and the abnormal activation of GnRH neurons. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is widely distributed in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus and functions as the physiological integrator of two neuroendocrine systems, one governing feeding and the other controlling reproduction. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have focused on the improvement of the reproductive and metabolic status of PCOS through the therapeutic application of NPY and its receptors. In this review, we summarize the central and peripheral regulation of NPY and its receptors in the development of PCOS and discuss the potential for NPY receptor-related therapies for PCOS.

Critical role of lateral habenula circuits in the control of stress-induced palatable food consumption

Chronic stress fuels the consumption of palatable food and can enhance obesity development. While stress- and feeding-controlling pathways have been identified, how stress-induced feeding is orchestrated remains unknown. Here, we identify lateral habenula (LHb) Npy1r-expressing neurons as the critical node for promoting hedonic feeding under stress, since lack of Npy1r in these neurons alleviates the obesifying effects caused by combined stress and high fat feeding (HFDS) in mice. Mechanistically, this is due to a circuit originating from central amygdala NPY neurons, with the upregulation of NPY induced by HFDS initiating a dual inhibitory effect via Npy1r signaling onto LHb and lateral hypothalamus neurons, thereby reducing the homeostatic satiety effect through action on the downstream ventral tegmental area. Together, these results identify LHb-Npy1r neurons as a critical node to adapt the response to chronic stress by driving palatable food intake in an attempt to overcome the negative valence of stress.

The evaluation of cognitive-behavioral therapy-based intervention on type 2 diabetes patients with comorbid metabolic syndrome: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) has been applied in intervention research in diabetes patients with satisfying results. However, there was no research on type 2 diabetes (T2DM) patients with comorbidities. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of CBT on psychological variables, behavior variables, quality of life, sleep quality, and physical variables among adult T2DM patients with comorbid metabolic syndrome (MS).

METHODS

281 patients aged 18-75 years were recruited from Ningbo First Hospital in China from October 2021 to March 2022. Patients were randomized to the intervention group (IG, N = 148) or control group (CG, N = 133). Patients in the IG received 12 CBT-based sessions during a six-month intervention time. Patients in the CG received the usual care only. Univariate General Linear Model was used to analyze the effect of CBT-based interventions. The analysis was conducted by SPSS Version 28.

RESULTS

Results indicated that CBT-based intervention was superior in the following aspects: relieving depression symptoms: IG (4.11 ± 4.35 vs. 1.99 ± 2.12), CG (3.40 ± 3.26 vs. 2.32 ± 1.88), interaction effect (F = 4.074, P = 0.044); enhancing diabetes self-care behaviors: IG (26.79 ± 12.18 vs. 37.49 ± 10.83), CG (25.82 ± 13.71 vs. 31.96 ± 11.72), interaction effect (F = 5.242, P = 0.022); promoting the efficacy of CBT: IG (47.45 ± 6.83 vs. 50.76 ± 4.98), CG (46.74 ± 6.94 vs. 47.87 ± 5.11), interaction effect (F = 5.198, P = 0.023); improving subjective sleep quality: IG (0.93 ± 0.68 vs. 0.69 ± 0.63), CG (1.03 ± 0.72 vs. 1.01 ± 0.68), interaction effect (F = 3.927, P = 0.048).

CONCLUSIONS

The CBT-based intervention was beneficial in improving depression symptoms, diabetes self-care behaviors, the efficacy of CBT, and sleep quality in T2DM patients with comorbid MS. The downtrend of body mass index, systolic blood pressure, diastolic pressure, and glycated hemoglobin was larger in the intervention group but not to a significant level.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study has been prospectively registered at Australia New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (Registration ID: ACTRN12621001348842 website: https://www.anzctr.org.au/trial/MyTrial.aspx ).

Identification of indocyanine green as a STT3B inhibitor against mushroom α-amanitin cytotoxicity

The "death cap", Amanita phalloides, is the world's most poisonous mushroom, responsible for 90% of mushroom-related fatalities. The most fatal component of the death cap is α-amanitin. Despite its lethal effect, the exact mechanisms of how α-amanitin poisons humans remain unclear, leading to no specific antidote available for treatment. Here we show that STT3B is required for α-amanitin toxicity and its inhibitor, indocyanine green (ICG), can be used as a specific antidote. By combining a genome-wide CRISPR screen with an in silico drug screening and in vivo functional validation, we discover that N-glycan biosynthesis pathway and its key component, STT3B, play a crucial role in α-amanitin toxicity and that ICG is a STT3B inhibitor. Furthermore, we demonstrate that ICG is effective in blocking the toxic effect of α-amanitin in cells, liver organoids, and male mice, resulting in an overall increase in animal survival. Together, by combining a genome-wide CRISPR screen for α-amanitin toxicity with an in silico drug screen and functional validation in vivo, our study highlights ICG as a STT3B inhibitor against the mushroom toxin.

Deficiency of neuropeptide Y attenuates neointima formation after vascular injury in mice

BACKGROUND

Restenosis after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) limits therapeutic revascularization. Neuropeptide Y (NPY), co-stored and co-released with the sympathetic nervous system, is involved in this process, but its exact role and underlying mechanisms remain to be fully understood. This study aimed to investigate the role of NPY in neointima formation after vascular injury.

METHODS

Using the left carotid arteries of wild-type (WT, NPY-intact) and NPY-deficient (NPY^-/-) mice, ferric chloride-mediated carotid artery injury induced neointima formation. Three weeks after injury, the left injured carotid artery and contralateral uninjured carotid artery were collected for histological analysis and immunohistochemical staining. RT-qPCR was used to detect the mRNA expression of several key inflammatory markers and cell adhesion molecules in vascular samples. Raw264.7 cells were treated with NPY, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and lipopolysaccharide-free, respectively, and RT-qPCR was used to detect the expression of these inflammatory mediators.

RESULTS

Compared with WT mice, NPY^-/- mice had significantly reduced neointimal formation three weeks after injury. Mechanistically, immunohistochemical analysis showed there were fewer macrophages and more vascular smooth muscle cells in the neointima of NPY^-/- mice. Moreover, the mRNA expression of key inflammatory markers such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) was significantly lower in the injured carotid arteries of NPY^-/- mice, compared to that in the injured carotid arteries of WT mice. In RAW264.7 macrophages, NPY significantly promoted TGF-β1 mRNA expression under unactivated but not LPS-stimulated condition.

CONCLUSIONS

Deletion of NPY attenuated neointima formation after artery injury, at least partly, through reducing the local inflammatory response, suggesting that NPY pathway may provide new insights into the mechanism of restenosis.

Monitoring AKT activity and targeting in live tissue and disease contexts using a real-time Akt-FRET biosensor mouse

Aberrant AKT activation occurs in a number of cancers, metabolic syndrome, and immune disorders, making it an important target for the treatment of many diseases. To monitor spatial and temporal AKT activity in a live setting, we generated an Akt-FRET biosensor mouse that allows longitudinal assessment of AKT activity using intravital imaging in conjunction with image stabilization and optical window technology. We demonstrate the sensitivity of the Akt-FRET biosensor mouse using various cancer models and verify its suitability to monitor response to drug targeting in spheroid and organotypic models. We also show that the dynamics of AKT activation can be monitored in real time in diverse tissues, including in individual islets of the pancreas, in the brown and white adipose tissue, and in the skeletal muscle. Thus, the Akt-FRET biosensor mouse provides an important tool to study AKT dynamics in live tissue contexts and has broad preclinical applications.

β-cell function is regulated by metabolic and epigenetic programming of islet-associated macrophages, involving Axl, Mertk, and TGFβ receptor signaling

We have exploited islet-associated macrophages (IAMs) as a model of resident macrophage function, focusing on more physiological conditions than the commonly used extremes of M1 (inflammation) versus M2 (tissue remodeling) polarization. Under steady state, murine IAMs are metabolically poised between aerobic glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, and thereby exert a brake on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). This is underpinned by epigenetic remodeling via the metabolically regulated histone demethylase Kdm5a. Conversely, GSIS is enhanced by engaging Axl receptors on IAMs, or by augmenting their oxidation of glucose. Following high-fat feeding, efferocytosis is stimulated in IAMs in conjunction with Mertk and TGFβ receptor signaling. This impairs GSIS and potentially contributes to β-cell failure in pre-diabetes. Thus, IAMs serve as relays in many more settings than currently appreciated, fine-tuning insulin secretion in response to dynamic changes in the external environment. Intervening in this nexus might represent a means of preserving β-cell function during metabolic disease.

Osteoporosis pathogenesis and treatment: existing and emerging avenues

Osteoporotic fractures lead to increased disability and mortality in the elderly population. With the rapid increase in the aging population around the globe, more effective treatments for osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures are urgently required. The underlying molecular mechanisms of osteoporosis are believed to be due to the increased activity of osteoclasts, decreased activity of osteoblasts, or both, which leads to an imbalance in the bone remodeling process with accelerated bone resorption and attenuated bone formation. Currently, the available clinical treatments for osteoporosis have mostly focused on factors influencing bone remodeling; however, they have their own limitations and side effects. Recently, cytokine immunotherapy, gene therapy, and stem cell therapy have become new approaches for the treatment of various diseases. This article reviews the latest research on bone remodeling mechanisms, as well as how this underpins current and potential novel treatments for osteoporosis.

Recent progress on the role of non-coding RNA in postoperative cognitive dysfunction

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD), especially in elderly patients, is a serious complication characterized by impairment of cognitive and sensory modalities after surgery. The pathogenesis of POCD mainly includes neuroinflammation, neuronal apoptosis, oxidative stress, accumulation of Aβ, and tau hyperphosphorylation; however, the exact mechanism remains unclear. Non-coding RNA (ncRNA) may play an important role in POCD. Some evidence suggests that microRNA, long ncRNA, and circular RNA can regulate POCD-related processes, making them promising biomarkers in POCD diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. This article reviews the crosstalk between ncRNAs and POCD, and systematically discusses the role of ncRNAs in the pathogenesis and diagnosis of POCD. Additionally, we explored the possible mechanisms of ncRNA-associated POCD, providing new knowledge for developing ncRNA-based treatments for POCD.

[Transcriptomic analysis of tuberculosis peptide-based vaccine MP3RT in humanized mice]

Objective: To identify the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) induced by tuberculosis peptide-based vaccine MP3RT in a humanized mouse model using transcriptomics technology. Methods: This study was conducted from August 2019 to February 2022. We used edgeR software to screen DEGs with a fold change greater than or equal to 1.5 and a P value less than 0.05 as screening conditions. Gene ontology (GO), Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG), and protein interaction network analyses were performed on the screened DEGs. Then, these DEGs were verified by RT-qPCR and statistically analyzed by GraphPad Prism 8 software. Results: A total of 367 DEGs (214 up-regulated and 153 down-regulated) were identified by transcriptomics. Bioinformatics analysis showed that the GO enrichment of the DEGs mentioned above significantly focused on cell metabolism, growth, apoptosis, inflammation, and other terms. In contrast, the KEGG enrichment significantly focused on inflammatory pathways such as the MAPK signaling pathway. Protein interaction network analysis showed that protein Abl1 had the highest aggregation, the highest aggregation coefficient, and the best connectivity. RT-qPCR results showed that gene expressions of cpne4 (t=2.48, P=0.048 0), h2-q10 (t=2.95, P=0.025 6), mef2c (t=2.87, P=0.028 4), cr2 (t=3.23, P=0.178), ablim1 (t=2.91, P=0.033 5), dll1 (t=2.70, P=0.027 3) and ms4a2 (t=3.03, P=0.019 2) genes in the MP3RT group were significantly up-regulated than those in the PBS group, while gene expressions of cd163l1 (t=2.56, P=0.043 0), il1r1 (t=2.91, P=0.022 7) and cd34 (t=2.42, P=0.046 2) genes in the MP3RT group were significantly down-regulated than those in the PBS group. Conclusions: The MP3RT vaccine induced 367 DEGs in humanized mice, which were associated with metabolic and immune responses. Furthermore, we found that p38 MAPK and JNK/MAPK signaling pathways played an important role in the molecular mechanism of the MP3RT vaccine.

Metabolic disorders on cognitive dysfunction after traumatic brain injury

Cognitive dysfunction is a common adverse consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI). After brain injury, the brain and other organs trigger a series of complex metabolic changes, including reduced glucose metabolism, enhanced lipid peroxidation, disordered neurotransmitter secretion, and imbalanced trace element synthesis. In recent years, several research and clinical studies have demonstrated that brain metabolism directly or indirectly affects cognitive dysfunction after TBI, but the mechanisms remain unclear. Drugs that improve the symptoms of cognitive dysfunction caused by TBI are under investigation and treatments that target metabolic processes are expected to improve cognitive function in the future. This review explores the impact of metabolic disorders on cognitive dysfunction after TBI and provides new strategies for the treatment of metabolic disorders.

XBP1 maintains beta cell identity, represses beta-to-alpha cell transdifferentiation and protects against diabetic beta cell failure during metabolic stress in mice

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Pancreatic beta cell dedifferentiation, transdifferentiation into other islet cells and apoptosis have been implicated in beta cell failure in type 2 diabetes, although the mechanisms are poorly defined. The endoplasmic reticulum stress response factor X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1) is a major regulator of the unfolded protein response. XBP1 expression is reduced in islets of people with type 2 diabetes, but its role in adult differentiated beta cells is unclear. Here, we assessed the effects of Xbp1 deletion in adult beta cells and tested whether XBP1-mediated unfolded protein response makes a necessary contribution to beta cell compensation in insulin resistance states.

METHODS

Mice with inducible beta cell-specific Xbp1 deletion were studied under normal (chow diet) or metabolic stress (high-fat diet or obesity) conditions. Glucose tolerance, insulin secretion, islet gene expression, alpha cell mass, beta cell mass and apoptosis were assessed. Lineage tracing was used to determine beta cell fate.

RESULTS

Deletion of Xbp1 in adult mouse beta cells led to beta cell dedifferentiation, beta-to-alpha cell transdifferentiation and increased alpha cell mass. Cell lineage-specific analyses revealed that Xbp1 deletion deactivated beta cell identity genes (insulin, Pdx1, Nkx6.1, Beta2, Foxo1) and derepressed beta cell dedifferentiation (Aldh1a3) and alpha cell (glucagon, Arx, Irx2) genes. Xbp1 deletion in beta cells of obese ob/ob or high-fat diet-fed mice triggered diabetes and worsened glucose intolerance by disrupting insulin secretory capacity. Furthermore, Xbp1 deletion increased beta cell apoptosis under metabolic stress conditions by attenuating the antioxidant response.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

These findings indicate that XBP1 maintains beta cell identity, represses beta-to-alpha cell transdifferentiation and is required for beta cell compensation and prevention of diabetes in insulin resistance states.

TNFAIP3 Reduction-of-Function Drives Female Infertility and CNS Inflammation

Women with autoimmune and inflammatory aetiologies can exhibit reduced fecundity. TNFAIP3 is a master negative regulator of inflammation, and has been linked to many inflammatory conditions by genome wide associations studies, however its role in fertility remains unknown. Here we show that mice harbouring a mild Tnfaip3 reduction-of-function coding variant (Tnfaip3^I325N) that reduces the threshold for inflammatory NF-κB activation, exhibit reduced fecundity. Sub-fertility in Tnfaip3^I325N mice is associated with irregular estrous cycling, low numbers of ovarian secondary follicles, impaired mammary gland development and insulin resistance. These pathological features are associated with infertility in human subjects. Transplantation of Tnfaip3^I325N ovaries, mammary glands or pancreatic islets into wild-type recipients rescued estrous cycling, mammary branching and hyperinsulinemia respectively, pointing towards a cell-extrinsic hormonal mechanism. Examination of hypothalamic brain sections revealed increased levels of microglial activation with reduced levels of luteinizing hormone. TNFAIP3 coding variants may offer one contributing mechanism for the cause of sub-fertility observed across otherwise healthy populations as well as for the wide variety of auto-inflammatory conditions to which TNFAIP3 is associated. Further, TNFAIP3 represents a molecular mechanism that links heightened immunity with neuronal inflammatory homeostasis. These data also highlight that tuning-up immunity with TNFAIP3 comes with the potentially evolutionary significant trade-off of reduced fertility.

Regulation of neuropeptide Y in body microenvironments and its potential application in therapies: a review

Neuropeptide Y (NPY), one of the most abundant neuropeptides in the body, is widely expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems and acts on the cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, and nervous systems. NPY affects the nutritional and inflammatory microenvironments through its interaction with immune cells, brain-derived trophic factor (BDNF), and angiogenesis promotion to maintain body homeostasis. Additionally, NPY has great potential for therapeutic applications against various diseases, especially as an adjuvant therapy for stem cells. In this review, we discuss the research progress regarding NPY, as well as the current evidence for the regulation of NPY in each microenvironment, and provide prospects for further research on related diseases.

Peripheral-specific Y1 receptor antagonism increases thermogenesis and protects against diet-induced obesity

Obesity is caused by an imbalance between food intake and energy expenditure (EE). Here we identify a conserved pathway that links signalling through peripheral Y1 receptors (Y1R) to the control of EE. Selective antagonism of peripheral Y1R, via the non-brain penetrable antagonist BIBO3304, leads to a significant reduction in body weight gain due to enhanced EE thereby reducing fat mass. Specifically thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT) due to elevated UCP1 is enhanced accompanied by extensive browning of white adipose tissue both in mice and humans. Importantly, selective ablation of Y1R from adipocytes protects against diet-induced obesity. Furthermore, peripheral specific Y1R antagonism also improves glucose homeostasis mainly driven by dynamic changes in Akt activity in BAT. Together, these data suggest that selective peripheral only Y1R antagonism via BIBO3304, or a functional analogue, could be developed as a safer and more effective treatment option to mitigate diet-induced obesity.

Repair abilities of mouse autologous adipose-derived stem cells and ShakeGel™3D complex local injection with intrauterine adhesion by BMP7-Smad5 signaling pathway activation

BACKGROUND

The objective was to explore the therapeutic effect of autologous adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) combined with ShakeGel™3D transplantation to activate the BMP7-Smad5 signaling pathway to treat intrauterine adhesions (IUA).

METHODS

Autologous ADSCs were isolated and then merged with ShakeGel™3D. The IUA model was established by mechanical injury. The third generation of autologous ADSCs was injected directly into the uterus in combination with ShakeGel™3D. After 7 days of treatment, endometrial morphology, number of endometrial glands, endometrial fibrosis area, and fibrosis biomarker analysis by RT-PCR and IHC were examined. BMP7 and phosphorylation of Smad5 were also detected, and the recovery of infertility function in treated mice was evaluated.

RESULTS

Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) showed that autologous ADSCs expressed CD105 (99.1%), CD29 (99.6%), and CD73 (98.9%). Autologous ADSCs could still maintain a good growth state in ShakeGel™3D. Histological examination revealed that the number of endometrial glands increased significantly, and the area of fibrosis decreased. At the same time, the expression of BMP7 and Smad5 in the ADSCs + Gel group was significantly upregulated, and the final reproductive function of this group was partly recovered.

CONCLUSIONS

Autologous ADSCs can be used in combination with ShakeGel™3D to maintain functionality and create a viable three-dimensional growth environment. The combined transplantation of autologous ADSCs and ShakeGel™3D promotes the recovery of damaged endometrial tissue by increasing BMP7-Smad5 signal transduction, resulting in endometrium thickening, increased number of glands, and decreased fibrosis, leading to restoration of partial fertility.

Liraglutide Inhibits Osteoclastogenesis and Improves Bone Loss by Downregulating Trem2 in Female Type 1 Diabetic Mice: Findings From Transcriptomics

BACKGROUND

The mechanisms of bone fragility in type 1 diabetes (T1D) are not fully understood. Whether glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonists could improve bone quality in T1D context also remains elusive.

AIMS

We aimed to explore the possible mechanisms of bone loss in T1D and clarify whether liraglutide has effects on bone quality of T1D mice using transcriptomics.

METHODS

Female streptozotocin-induced diabetic C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into four groups and received the following treatments daily for 8 weeks: saline as controls, insulin, liraglutide, and liraglutide combined with insulin. These groups were also compared with non-STZ-treated normal glucose tolerance (NGT) group. Trunk blood and bone tissues were collected for analysis. Three tibia from each of the NGT, saline-treated, and liraglutide-treated groups were randomly selected for transcriptomics.

RESULTS

Compared with NGT mice, saline-treated T1D mice manifested markedly hyperglycemia and weight loss, and micro-CT revealed significantly lower bone mineral density (BMD) and deficient microarchitectures in tibias. Eight weeks of treatment with liraglutide alone or combined with insulin rescued the decreased BMD and partly corrected the compromised trabecular microarchitectures. Transcriptomics analysis showed there were 789 differentially expressed genes mainly mapped to osteoclastogenesis and inflammation pathways. The RT-qPCR verified that the gene expression of Trem2, Nfatc1, Trap, and Ctsk were significantly increased in the tibia of T1D compared with those in the NGT group. Liraglutide treatment alone or combined with insulin could effectively suppress osteoclastogenesis by downregulating the gene expression of Trem2, Nfatc1, Ctsk, and Trap.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, increased osteoclastogenesis with upregulated expression of Trem2 played an important role in bone loss of T1D mice. Liraglutide provided protective effects on bone loss in T1D mice by suppressing osteoclastogenesis.

Microcatheter "First-Pass Effect" Predicts Acute Intracranial Artery Atherosclerotic Disease-Related Occlusion

BACKGROUND

The differentiation between intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis (ICAS) and intracranial embolism as the immediate cause of acute ischemic stroke requiring endovascular therapy is important but challenging. In cases of ICAS, we often observe a phenomenon we call the microcatheter "first-pass effect," which is temporary blood flow through the occluded intracranial artery when the angiographic microcatheter is initially advanced through the site of total occlusion and immediately retrieved proximally.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether this microcatheter first-pass effect can be used to differentiate ICAS from intracranial embolism.

METHODS

A total of 61 patients with acute ischemic stroke resulting from large intracranial artery occlusion and in whom recanalization was achieved by endovascular treatment were included in the study. The microcatheter first-pass effect was tested in these patients. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive values (PPV), and accuracy of the microcatheter first-pass effect for prediction of ICAS were assessed.

RESULTS

The microcatheter first-pass effect was more frequently observed in patients with ICAS than in those with intracranial embolism (90.9% vs 12.8%, P < .001). For identifying ICAS, sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and accuracy of the microcatheter first-pass effect were 90.9%, 87.2%, 80.0%, 88.5%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The sensitivity and PPV of the microcatheter first-pass effect are high for prediction of ICAS in patients with acute symptoms.

Risperidone stimulates food intake and induces body weight gain via the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus 5-HT2c receptor-NPY pathway

Aims

Many patients taking risperidone for the treatment of psychiatric disorders experience substantial body weight gain. Researchers have speculated that risperidone induces obesity by modulating central signals; however, the precise central mechanisms involved remain to be fully elucidated.

Methods

Twenty‐four C57BL/6J mice were divided into four groups: a control group; a risperidone‐treated group; a lorcaserin‐treated group; and a combined risperidone + lorcaserin‐treated group. The mice were received the corresponding treatments for 4 weeks, and their brains were collected for in situ hybridization analysis. A subset of C57BL/6J mice was administrated with risperidone or placebo, and brains were collected 60 minutes post‐treatment for determination of c‐fos activity. In addition, brains of NPY‐GFP mice treated with or without risperidone were collected to perform colocalization of NPY and c‐fos, as well as NPY and 5‐HT2c receptor using immunohistochemistry.

Results

There was significantly elevated c‐fos expression in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (Arc) of risperidone‐treated mice. More than 68% c‐fos‐positive neurons were NPY‐expressing neurons. Furthermore, in situ hybridization revealed that Arc NPY mRNA expression was significantly increased in the risperidone‐treated group compared with control group. Moreover, we identified that 95% 5‐HT2c receptors were colocalized with NPY positive neurons, and increased Arc NPY mRNA expression induced by risperidone was markedly reduced by cotreatment with lorcaserin, a specific 5‐HT2c receptor agonist.

Conclusion

Our findings provide critical insight into the mechanisms underlying antipsychotic‐induced obesity, which may assist the development of therapeutic strategies to address metabolic side effects of risperidone.

Metallothionein 1 negatively regulates glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and is differentially expressed in conditions of beta cell compensation and failure in mice and humans

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

The mechanisms responsible for beta cell compensation in obesity and for beta cell failure in type 2 diabetes are poorly defined. The mRNA levels of several metallothionein (MT) genes are upregulated in islets from individuals with type 2 diabetes, but their role in beta cells is not clear. Here we examined: (1) the temporal changes of islet Mt1 and Mt2 gene expression in mouse models of beta cell compensation and failure; and (2) the role of Mt1 and Mt2 in beta cell function and glucose homeostasis in mice.

METHODS

Mt1 and Mt2 expression was assessed in islets from: (1) control lean (chow diet-fed) and diet-induced obese (high-fat diet-fed for 6 weeks) mice; (2) mouse models of diabetes (db/db mice) at 6 weeks old (prediabetes) and 16 weeks old (after diabetes onset) and age-matched db/+ (control) mice; and (3) obese non-diabetic ob/ob mice (16-week-old) and age-matched ob/+ (control) mice. MT1E, MT1X and MT2A expression was assessed in islets from humans with and without type 2 diabetes. Mt1-Mt2 double-knockout (KO) mice, transgenic mice overexpressing Mt1 under the control of its natural promoter (Tg-Mt1) and corresponding control mice were also studied. In MIN6 cells, MT1 and MT2 were inhibited by small interfering RNAs. mRNA levels were assessed by real-time RT-PCR, plasma insulin and islet MT levels by ELISA, glucose tolerance by i.p. glucose tolerance tests and overnight fasting-1 h refeeding tests, insulin tolerance by i.p. insulin tolerance tests, insulin secretion by RIA, cytosolic free Ca²⁺ concentration with Fura-2 leakage resistant (Fura-2 LR), cytosolic free Zn²⁺ concentration with Fluozin-3, and NAD(P)H by autofluorescence.

RESULTS

Mt1 and Mt2 mRNA levels were reduced in islets of murine models of beta cell compensation, whereas they were increased in diabetic db/db mice. In humans, MT1X mRNA levels were significantly upregulated in islets from individuals with type 2 diabetes in comparison with non-diabetic donors, while MT1E and MT2A mRNA levels were unchanged. Ex vivo, islet Mt1 and Mt2 mRNA and MT1 and MT2 protein levels were downregulated after culture with glucose at 10-30 mmol/l vs 2-5 mmol/l, in association with increased insulin secretion. In human islets, mRNA levels of MT1E, MT1X and MT2A were downregulated by stimulation with physiological and supraphysiological levels of glucose. In comparison with wild-type (WT) mice, Mt1-Mt2 double-KO mice displayed improved glucose tolerance in association with increased insulin levels and enhanced insulin release from isolated islets. In contrast, isolated islets from Tg-Mt1 mice displayed impaired glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). In both Mt1-Mt2 double-KO and Tg-Mt1 models, the changes in GSIS occurred despite similar islet insulin content, rises in cytosolic free Ca²⁺ concentration and NAD(P)H levels, or intracellular Zn²⁺ concentration vs WT mice. In MIN6 cells, knockdown of MT1 but not MT2 potentiated GSIS, suggesting that Mt1 rather than Mt2 affects beta cell function.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

These findings implicate Mt1 as a negative regulator of insulin secretion. The downregulation of Mt1 is associated with beta cell compensation in obesity, whereas increased Mt1 accompanies beta cell failure and type 2 diabetes.

The role of inflammation and endoplasmic reticulum stress in obesity-related cognitive impairment

The epidemiological investigations and animal model experiments have confirmed the impact of obesity on the brain, behavior, and cognition. However, the mechanism by which obesity affects cognitive function is not fully understood. With the development of an aging society, there is an increase in the economic and social burden caused by the decline in cognitive function. This manuscript reviews the effects of inflammation and endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) on the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and the possible impact on cognitive impairment. These findings provide new insights into the pathophysiological mechanisms that lead to the development of cognitive impairment in the context of obesity.

Amygdala NPY Circuits Promote the Development of Accelerated Obesity under Chronic Stress Conditions

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) exerts a powerful orexigenic effect in the hypothalamus. However, extra-hypothalamic nuclei also produce NPY, but its influence on energy homeostasis is unclear. Here we uncover a previously unknown feeding stimulatory pathway that is activated under conditions of stress in combination with calorie-dense food; NPY neurons in the central amygdala are responsible for an exacerbated response to a combined stress and high-fat-diet intervention. Central amygdala NPY neuron-specific Npy overexpression mimics the obese phenotype seen in a combined stress and high-fat-diet model, which is prevented by the selective ablation of Npy. Using food intake and energy expenditure as readouts, we demonstrate that selective activation of central amygdala NPY neurons results in increased food intake and decreased energy expenditure. Mechanistically, it is the diminished insulin signaling capacity on central amygdala NPY neurons under combined stress and high-fat-diet conditions that leads to the exaggerated development of obesity.

Y1 receptor deficiency in β-cells leads to increased adiposity and impaired glucose metabolism

Insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells is critical for maintaining glucose homeostasis and deregulation of circulating insulin levels is associated with the development of metabolic diseases. While many factors have been implicated in the stimulation of insulin secretion, the mechanisms that subsequently reduce insulin secretion remain largely unexplored. Here we demonstrate that mice with β-cell specific ablation of the Y1 receptor exhibit significantly upregulated serum insulin levels associated with increased body weight and adiposity. Interestingly, when challenged with a high fat diet these β-cell specific Y1-deficient mice also develop hyperglycaemia and impaired glucose tolerance. This is most likely due to enhanced hepatic lipid synthesis, resulting in an increase of lipid accumulation in the liver. Together, our study demonstrates that Y1 receptor signaling negatively regulates insulin release, and pharmacological inhibition of Y1 receptor signalling for the treatment of non-insulin dependent diabetes should be taken into careful consideration.

Arcuate nucleus and lateral hypothalamic CART neurons in the mouse brain exert opposing effects on energy expenditure

Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) is widely expressed in the hypothalamus and an important regulator of energy homeostasis; however, the specific contributions of different CART neuronal populations to this process are not known. Here, we show that depolarization of mouse arcuate nucleus (Arc) CART neurons via DREADD technology decreases energy expenditure and physical activity, while it exerts the opposite effects in CART neurons in the lateral hypothalamus (LHA). Importantly, when stimulating these neuronal populations in the absence of CART, the effects were attenuated. In contrast, while activation of CART neurons in the LHA stimulated feeding in the presence of CART, endogenous CART inhibited food intake in response to Arc CART neuron activation. Taken together, these results demonstrate anorexigenic but anabolic effects of CART upon Arc neuron activation, and orexigenic but catabolic effects upon LHA-neuron activation, highlighting the complex and nuclei-specific functions of CART in controlling feeding and energy homeostasis.

Cold exposure promotes obesity and impairs glucose homeostasis in mice subjected to a high‑fat diet

Cold exposure is considered to be a form of stress and has various adverse effects on the body. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of chronic daily cold exposure on food intake, body weight, serum glucose levels and the central energy balance regulatory pathway in mice fed with a high‑fat diet (HFD). C57BL/6 mice were divided into two groups, which were fed with a standard chow or with a HFD. Half of the mice in each group were exposed to ice‑cold water for 1 h/day for 7 weeks, while the controls were exposed to room temperature. Chronic daily cold exposure significantly increased energy intake, body weight and serum glucose levels in HFD‑fed mice compared with the control group. In addition, 1 h after the final cold exposure, c‑fos immunoreactivity was significantly increased in the central amygdala of HFD‑fed mice compared with HFD‑fed mice without cold exposure, indicating neuronal activation in this brain region. Notably, 61% of these c‑fos neurons co‑expressed the neuropeptide Y (NPY), and the orexigenic peptide levels were significantly increased in the central amygdala of cold‑exposed mice compared with control mice. Notably, cold exposure significantly decreased the anorexigenic brain‑derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) messenger RNA (mRNA) levels in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus and increased growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) mRNA in the paraventricular nucleus. NPY‑ergic neurons in the central amygdala were activated by chronic cold exposure in mice on HFD via neuronal pathways to decrease BDNF and increase GHRH mRNA expression, possibly contributing to the development of obesity and impairment of glucose homeostasis.

[Clinical application of Acutegastrointestinal injury grading system assocaited with clinical severity outcome in critically ill patients: a multi-center prospective, observational study]

Objective: To investigate the feasibility of utilizing the current acute gastrointestinal injury(AGI) grading system, and explore the association of severity of AGI grade with clinical outcome in critically ill patients. Methods: The adult patients from 14 general ICUs in Zhejiang Province with an expected admission to ICU for at least 24 h were recruited, and all clinical, laboratory, and survival data were prospectively collected. The AGI grade was daily assessed based on GIsymptoms, feeding details and organ dysfunctionon the first week of admission to ICU.The intra-abdominal pressures(IAP) was measured using AbViser device. Results: Of 550 patients enrolled, mean values for age and APACHE Ⅱ score were (64.9±17.2) years and (19.5±7.4), respectively. 456 patients(82.9%) took mechanical ventilation, and 470 patients were identified for AGI. The distribution of AGI grade on the frist day of ICU admission were 50.6%(Ⅰ grade, n=238), 34.2%(Ⅱ grade, n=161), 12.4%(Ⅲ grade, n=58) and 2.8%(Ⅳ, n=13), respectively, while the distribution of the global AGI grade based on the 7-day AGI assessment of ICU admission were 24.5%(Ⅰ grade, n=115), 49.4%(Ⅱ grade, n=232), 20.6%(Ⅲ grade, n=97) and 5.5%(Ⅳ, n=26), respectively. 28- and 60-day mortality rate was 29.3%(n=161) and 32.5%(n=179), respectively. The patients with AGI had a higher 28-(31.1% vs 18.8%, P=0.025) and 60-day survival rate(34.7% vs 20.0%, P=0.01) than those with non-AGI, and also there were positive correlations between AGI grade and 28- and 60-day mortality(P<0.001). Univariate Cox regression analysis showed that age, the source of medicial admission, diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease, the use of vasoactive drugs, serum creatinine and lactate, mechanical ventilation, APACHE Ⅱ score, the AGI grade in the first day of ICU admission and feeding intolerance within the first week of ICU stay were significantly(P≤0.02) associated with mortality. In multivariate analysis including all these variables, the source of medical admission(χ(2)=4.34, P=0.04), diabete mellitus(χ(2)=3.96, P=0.05), the use of vasoactive drugs(χ(2)=6.55, P=0.01), serum lactate(χ(2)=4.73, P=0.03), the global AGI grade in the 7-day of ICU admission(χ(2)=7.10, P=0.008), and APACHE Ⅱ score(χ(2)=12.1, P<0.001) remained independent predictors for 60-day mortality.In the further subgroup analysis including 402 patients with 7-day survival, the feeding intolerance within the first week of ICU stay could provide independent and incremental prognostic value of 60-day mortality wtih increased χ(2)value of Cox regression model(χ(2)=52.2 vs 41.9, P=0.007) . Conclusion: The AGI grading system is useful for identifying the severity of gastrointestinal dysfunction, and could be used as a strong predictor of impaired outcome. The results provide evidence to support that feeding intolerance within 7 days of admission to ICU was an independent determinant of mortality.

[Morphological characteristics and phenotypic analysis of multiple morphological abnormalities in sperm flagella]

Objective: To analyze the sperm morphological characteristics of multiple morphological abnormalities of the sperm flagella (MMAF), and to analyze their common features and subtypes. Methods: Twenty-eight patients with abnormal morphology of flagella were analyzed by semen analysis. The morphological characteristics were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Histological observation of one case of testicular tissue was performed. Results: Of the 28 patients, only 13 patients (46.4%) had motile spermatozoa, 12 of which had a sperm motility rate of <10% and a sperm survival rate of 9.0%-80.0%. Under light and scanning electron microscope, sperm with absent, short, coiled, bent and irregular width flagella or their combinations were observed. Transmission electron microscopy showed structural abnormalities of sperm fibrous sheath, mitochondrial sheath. Loss rate of central microtubule was 41.4%-84.6%. The semen of the 2 patients with the absence or presence of the kinetic protein arm and both the inner and lateral motilin arms missing had no motile spermatozoa. There was no statistically significant difference in the proportion of flagellar malformations between the two groups of patients (without motile sperm vs with motile spermatozoa). Conclusion: MMAF is a kind of sperm flagella specific abnormalities. Initially diagnosis can be carried out using light microscopy. Clear diagnosis could be conduct using transmission electron microscopy, and the central microtubule loss of the sperm could be seen as the main feature of the flagella abnormalities. Through the morphological analysis and research, MMAF could be precisely classified, which provide a strong basis for the diagnosis.

CART neurons in the arcuate nucleus and lateral hypothalamic area exert differential controls on energy homeostasis

OBJECTIVE

The cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) codes for a pivotal neuropeptide important in the control of appetite and energy homeostasis. However, limited understanding exists for the defined effector sites underlying CART function, as discrepant effects of central CART administration have been reported.

METHODS

By combining Cart-cre knock-in mice with a Cart adeno-associated viral vector designed using the flip-excision switch (AAV-FLEX) technology, specific reintroduction or overexpression of CART selectively in CART neurons in the arcuate nucleus (Arc) and lateral hypothalamic area (LHA), respectively, was achieved. The effects on energy homeostasis control were investigated.

RESULTS

Here we show that CART neuron-specific reintroduction of CART into the Arc and LHA leads to distinct effects on energy homeostasis control. Specifically, CART reintroduction into the Arc of otherwise CART-deficient Cart^cre/cre mice markedly decreased fat mass and body weight, whereas CART reintroduction into the LHA caused significant fat mass gain and lean mass loss, but overall unaltered body weight. The reduced adiposity in Arc^CART;Cart^cre/cre mice was associated with an increase in both energy expenditure and physical activity, along with significantly decreased Npy mRNA levels in the Arc but with no change in food consumption. Distinctively, the elevated fat mass in LHA^CART;Cart^cre/cre mice was accompanied by diminished insulin responsiveness and glucose tolerance, greater spontaneous food intake, and reduced energy expenditure, which is consistent with the observed decrease of brown adipose tissue temperature. This is also in line with significantly reduced tyrosine hydroxylase (Th) and notably increased corticotropin-releasing hormone (Crh) mRNA expressions in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN).

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, these results identify catabolic and anabolic effects of CART in the Arc and LHA, respectively, demonstrating for the first time the distinct and region-specific functions of CART in controlling feeding and energy homeostasis.

Current views on neuropeptide Y and diabetes-related atherosclerosis

Diabetes-induced atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death of diabetic patients. Neuronal regulation plays a critical role in glucose metabolism and cardiovascular function under physiological and pathological conditions, among which, neurotransmitter neuropeptide Y has been shown to be closely involved in these two processes. Elevated central neuropeptide Y level promotes food intake and reduces energy expenditure, thereby increasing adiposity. Neuropeptide Y is co-localized with noradrenaline in central and sympathetic nervous systems. As a major peripheral vascular contractive neurotransmitter, through interactions with its receptors, neuropeptide Y has been implicated in the pathology and progression of diabetes, by promoting the proliferation of endothelial cells and vascular fibrosis, which may contribute to diabetes-induced cardiovascular disease. Neuropeptide Y also participates in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, the major form of cardiovascular disease, via aggravating endothelial dysfunction, growth of vascular smooth muscle cells, formation of foam cells and platelets aggregation. This review highlights the causal role of neuropeptide Y and its receptor system in the development of diabetes mellitus and one of its complications: atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. The information from this review provides both critical insights onto the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and evidence for the development of therapeutic strategies.

Ectodermal-Neural Cortex 1 Isoforms Have Contrasting Effects on MC3T3-E1 Osteoblast Mineralization and Gene Expression

The importance of Wnt pathway signaling in development of bone has been well established. Here we investigated the role of a known Wnt target, ENC1 (ectodermal-neural cortex 1; NRP/B), in osteoblast differentiation. Enc1 expression was detected in mouse osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and osteocytes by in situ hybridization, and osteoblastic expression was verified in differentiating primary cultures and MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblast cells, with 57 kDa and 67 kDa ENC1 protein isoforms detected throughout differentiation. Induced knockdown of both ENC1 isoforms reduced alkaline phosphatase staining and virtually abolished MC3T3-E1 mineralization. At culture confluence, Alpl (alkaline phosphatase liver/bone/kidney) expression was markedly reduced compared with control cells, and there was significant and coordinated alteration of other genes involved in cellular phosphate biochemistry. In contrast, with 67 kDa-selective knockdown mineralized nodule formation was enhanced and there was a two-fold increase in Alpl expression at confluence. There was enhanced expression of Wnt/β-catenin target genes with knockdown of both isoforms at this time-point and a five-fold increase in Frzb (Frizzled related protein) with 67 kDa-selective knockdown at mineralization, indicating possible ENC1 interactions with Wnt signaling in osteoblasts. These results are the first to demonstrate a role for ENC1 in the control of osteoblast differentiation. Additionally, the contrasting mineralization phenotypes and transcriptional patterns seen with coordinate knockdown of both ENC1 isoforms vs selective knockdown of 67 kDa ENC1 suggest opposing roles for the isoforms in regulation of osteoblastic differentiation, through effects on Alpl expression and phosphate cellular biochemistry. This study is the first to report differential roles for the ENC1 isoforms in any cell lineage. J. Cell. Biochem. 118: 2141-2150, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Special Endovascular Treatment for Acute Large Artery Occlusion Resulting From Atherosclerotic Disease

BACKGROUND

Acute intracranial atherosclerotic disease (IAD)-related large artery occlusion (LAO) is typically refractory to mechanical thrombectomy. We evaluated the feasibility and safety of emergency balloon-assisted or stent-assisted angioplasty performed with tirofiban administration for acute IAD-related LAO.

METHODS

We identified, from among 55 consecutive patients who underwent endovascular treatment for LAO, 12 patients with acute IAD-related LAO who underwent balloon-assisted or stent-assisted angioplasty with (n = 3) or without passage of a stent retriever. The treatment included tirofiban administration. We obtained, from patients' clinical records, thrombolysis in cerebral infarction scores (to assess the extent of reperfusion), follow-up magnetic resonance angiography images (to assess patency of the responsive arteries), and 90-day modified Rankin (mRS) scores (to assess outcomes).

RESULTS

Temporary blood flow and severe stenosis were observed angiographically in all 12 patients, either when the stent retriever was deployed or when a microcatheter was advanced through the site of occlusion. Persistent recanalization was achieved in all patients, and there was no operative complication or arterial reocclusion. All 8 patients with an occluded major artery in the anterior circulation had a good outcome, with an mRS score of ≤2. Two of the 4 patients with basilar artery occlusion had a good outcome, with an mRS score of ≤2. One patient (25%) died within 72 hours after procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data point to the safety and feasibility of emergency balloon-assisted or stent-assisted angioplasty performed with tirofiban administration and a single or no passage of the stent retriever for acute IAD-related LAO.

[Study on the kidney impairment and expressions of FGF21 from a rat model of vascular calcification]

Objective: To investigate the injury and pathological changes of kidney in a rat model of aortic vascular calcification and to explore the expressions of fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21). Methods: A total of 14 Spraugue Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into two groups: control group and vitamin D3+ nicotine (VDN) group, with 7 rats in each group.The rats in VDN group received vitamin D3 and nicotine to induce vascular calcification.The content of serum creatinine was determined by sarcosine oxidase method.Alkaline phosphatases (ALP) activity was detected by ALP detection kit.The protein levels of FGF21 were measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA). The structure of kidney was observed by hematoxylin and eosin staining. Results: The serum concentration of creatinine in VDN group was significantly higher than control group[(34.00±4.69) vs (27.17±5.38) μmol/L, P<0.05], and the renal pathological changes in VDN group were more apparent. ALP activity in VDN group was significantly higher than that in control group[(62.59±22.62) vs (29.89±11.78) U/g, P<0.05]. Expression of FGF21 in VDN group increased obviously, compared with that in control group[(0.583±0.340) vs (0.207±0.105) ng/mg, P<0.05]. Meanwhile, the elevated levels of FGF21 were positively correlated with up-regulation of ALP in calcified kidneys (r=0.878, P<0.05). Conclusions: Flushing dose of vitamin D3 and nicotine can induce the change of pathology and function of the kidney.Meanwhile, the expression of FGF21 in kidney up-regulated significantly, suggesting that FGF21 may be involved in the occurrence and development of vascular calcification and subsequent kidney injury.

Temperature dependence of the control of energy homeostasis requires CART signaling

Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) is a key neuropeptide with predominant expression in the hypothalamus central to the regulation of diverse biological processes, including food intake and energy expenditure. While there is considerable information on CART's role in the control of feeding, little is known about its thermoregulatory potential. Here we show the consequences of lack of CART signaling on major parameters of energy homeostasis in CART^-/- mice under standard ambient housing (RT, 22°C), which is considered a mild cold exposure for mice, and thermoneutral conditions (TN, 30°C). WT mice kept at RT showed an increase in food intake, energy expenditure, BAT UCP-1 expression, and physical activity compared with TN condition, reflecting the augmented energy demand for thermogenesis at RT. On the molecular level, RT housing led to upregulated mRNA expression of TH, CRH, and TRH at the PVN, while NPY, AgRP and CART mRNA levels in the Arc were downregulated. CART^-/- mice displayed elevated adiposity and diminished lean mass across both RT and TN. At RT, CART^-/- mice showed unchanged food consumption yet greater body weight gain. In addition, an increase in energy expenditure and heightened BAT thermogenesis marked by UCP-1 protein expression was observed in the CART^-/- mice. In contrast, TN-housed CART^-/- mice exhibited lower weight gain than WT mice accompanied with pronounced reduction in basal feeding. These findings were correlated with reduced BAT temperature, but unchanged energy expenditure and UCP-1 levels. Interestingly, the respiratory exchange ratio for CART^-/- mice, which shifted from lower at RT to higher at TN with respect to WT controls, indicates a transition of relative fuel source preference from fat to carbohydrate in the absence of CART signaling. Taken together, these results demonstrate that CART is a critical regulator of energy expenditure, energy partitioning and utilization dependent on the thermal environment.

Sensitivity of tissue properties derived from MRgFUS temperature data to input errors and data inclusion criteria: ex vivo study in porcine muscle

This study evaluates the sensitivity of two magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) thermal property estimation methods to errors in required inputs and different data inclusion criteria. Using ex vivo pork muscle MRgFUS data, sensitivities to required inputs are determined by introducing errors to ultrasound beam locations (r error  =  -2 to 2 mm) and time vectors (t error  =  -2.2 to 2.2 s). In addition, the sensitivity to user-defined data inclusion criteria is evaluated by choosing different spatial (r fit  =  1-10 mm) and temporal (t fit  =  8.8-61.6 s) regions for fitting. Beam location errors resulted in up to 50% change in property estimates with local minima occurring at r error  =  0 and estimate errors less than 10% when r error  <  0.5 mm. Errors in the time vector led to property estimate errors up to 40% and without local minimum, indicating the need to trigger ultrasound sonications with the MR image acquisition. Regarding the selection of data inclusion criteria, property estimates reached stable values (less than 5% change) when r fit  >  2.5  ×  FWHM, and were most accurate with the least variability for longer t fit. Guidelines provided by this study highlight the importance of identifying required inputs and choosing appropriate data inclusion criteria for robust and accurate thermal property estimation. Applying these guidelines will prevent the introduction of biases and avoidable errors when utilizing these property estimation techniques for MRgFUS thermal modeling applications.

Pancreatic PYY Is Critical in the Control of Insulin Secretion and Glucose Homeostasis in Female Mice

Insulin secretion is tightly controlled through coordinated actions of a number of systemic and local factors. Peptide YY (PYY) is expressed in α-cells of the islet, but its role in control of islet function such as insulin release is not clear. In this study, we generated a transgenic mouse model (Pyy(tg/+)/Rip-Cre) overexpressing the Pyy gene under the control of the rat insulin 2 gene promoter and assessed the impact of islet-released PYY on β-cell function, insulin release, and glucose homeostasis in mice. Our results show that up-regulation of PYY in islet β-cells leads to an increase in serum insulin levels as well as improved glucose tolerance. Interestingly, PYY-overproducing mice show increased lean mass and reduced fat mass with no significant changes in food intake or body weight. Energy expenditure is also increased accompanied by increased respiratory exchange ratio. Mechanistically, the enhanced insulin levels and improved glucose tolerance are primarily due to increased β-cell mass and secretion. This is associated with alterations in the expression of genes important for β-cell proliferation and function as well as the maintenance of the β-cell phenotype. Taken together, these data demonstrate that pancreatic islet-derived PYY plays an important role in controlling glucose homeostasis through the modulation of β-cell mass and function.

Regulation of energy homeostasis by the NPY system

Obesity develops when energy intake exceeds energy expenditure over time. Numerous neurotransmitters, hormones, and factors have been implicated to coordinately control energy homeostasis, centrally and peripherally. However, the neuropeptide Y (NPY) system has emerged as the one with the most critical functions in this process. While NPY centrally promotes feeding and reduces energy expenditure, peptide YY (PYY) and pancreatic polypeptide (PP), the other family members, mediate satiety. Importantly, recent research has uncovered additional functions for these peptides that go beyond the simple feeding/satiety circuits and indicate a more extensive function in controlling energy homeostasis. In this review, we will discuss the actions of the NPY system in the regulation of energy balance, with a particular focus on energy expenditure.

Electroacupuncture decreases the urinary bladder pressure in patients with acute gastrointestinal injury

The present study investigates the effects of electroacupuncture (EA) on urinary bladder pressure (UBP) in patients with acute gastrointestinal injury (AGI). Twenty patients with AGI admitted to the First Hospital of Jiaxing intensive care unit from December 2011 to June 2013 were evaluated. Conventional group patients (n = 10) were administered moderate enteral nutritional support, and electroacupuncture group patients (n = 10) were administered enteral nutritional support followed by EA at bilateral Zusanli (ST-36), Shangjuxu (ST-37), Hegu (LI-4), and QuChi (LI-11) acupoints. UBP was then measured every 6 h and the serum creatinine once daily for 7 days. There were no statistically significant patient demographic differences in the study groups (P > 0.05). The initial UBP of both patient groups was ≥12 mmHg. On days 6 and 7, the UBP significantly decreased in the EA group compared to the conventional group (P < 0.05). The serum creatinine concentration on day 7 was significantly lower in the EA group than in the conventional group (P < 0.05). Based on these results, electroacupuncture contributed to gastrointestinal motility recovery in patients with AGI. This procedure may reduce UBP and provide organ-protective effects in AGI patients.

Genetic diversity and differentiation of the endangered and endemic species Sauvagesia rhodoleuca in China as detected by ISSR analysis

Sauvagesia rhodoleuca (Ochnaceae) is an endangered plant that is endemic to southern China. The levels of genetic variation and patterns of population structure in S. rhodoleuca were investigated using inter-simple sequence repeat markers. Eleven primers were used to amplify DNA samples from 117 individuals, and a total of 92 loci were detected. Our results indicated that genetic diversity was quite low both at the species level (percentage of polymorphic bands (PPB) = 41.30%, Nei's gene diversity (h) = 0.1331, and Shannon information index (I) = 0.2028) and the population level (PPB = 16.30-28.26%, h = 0.0496-0.1012, and I = 0.0756-0.1508). A high level of genetic differentiation among populations was detected based on Nei's genetic diversity analysis (0.4344) and analysis of molecular variance (47.03%). The low genetic diversity within population and high population differentiation of S. rhodoleuca were assumed to result largely from limited gene flow, genetic drift, inbreeding, and clonal growth. Conservation strategies for this endangered species are proposed based on the genetic data.

Double deletion of orexigenic neuropeptide Y and dynorphin results in paradoxical obesity in mice

OBJECTIVE

Orexigenic neuropeptide Y (NPY) and dynorphin (DYN) regulate energy homeostasis. Single NPY or dynorphin deletion reduces food intake or increases fat loss. Future developments of obesity therapeutics involve targeting multiple pathways. We hypothesised that NPY and dynorphin regulate energy homeostasis independently, thus double NPY and dynorphin ablation would result in greater weight and/or fat loss than the absence of NPY or dynorphin alone.

DESIGN AND METHODS

We generated single and double NPY and dynorphin knockout mice (NPYΔ, DYNΔ, NPYDYNΔ) and compared body weight, adiposity, feeding behaviour, glucose homeostasis and brown adipose tissue uncoupling protein-1 (UCP-1) expression to wildtype counterparts.

RESULTS

Body weight and adiposity were significantly increased in NPYDYNΔ, but not in NPYΔ or DYNΔ. This was not due to increased food intake or altered UCP-1 expression, which were not significantly altered in double knockouts. NPYDYNΔ mice demonstrated increased body weight loss after a 24-h fast, with no effect on serum glucose levels after glucose injection.

CONCLUSIONS

Contrary to the predicted phenotype delineated from single knockouts, double NPY and dynorphin deletion resulted in heavier mice, with increased adiposity, despite no significant changes in food intake or UCP-1 activity. This indicates that combining long-term opioid antagonism with blockade of NPY-ergic systems may not produce anti-obesity effects.

PYY3-36 and pancreatic polypeptide reduce food intake in an additive manner via distinct hypothalamic dependent pathways in mice

OBJECTIVE

Peptide YY (PYY3-36) and pancreatic polypeptide (PP) potently inhibit food intake in rodents and humans, however, it is unclear whether they have any synergistic/additive interaction in decreasing food intake.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Fasted WT, Y2(-) (/) (-) , Y4(-) (/) (-) , or Y2Y4(-) (/) (-) mice were i.p. administrated with saline, PYY3-36, and/or PP.

RESULTS

Combined injection of PYY3-36 and PP reduces food intake in an additive manner was demonstrated in this study. This effect is mediated via Y2 and Y4 receptors, respectively. It was demonstrated that PYY3-36 and PP activate distinct neuronal pathways in the hypothalamus, as demonstrated by immunostaining for c-fos, which shows distinct patterns in response to either hormone. After PYY3-36 injection, neurons in the dorsal aspect of the arcuate nucleus (Arc), paraventricular nucleus, and dorso-medial nucleus of the hypothalamus (DMH) are activated with minimal responses seen in the ventro-medial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) and lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) of WT mice. These effects are absent in Y2(-) (/) (-) mice. PP activates preferably the lateral aspect of the Arc, the DMH, VMH, and LHA in a Y4 receptor-dependent manner. Importantly, the expression pattern of c-fos immunoreactive neurons induced by combined treatment appears to be the sum of the effects of single treatments rather than a result of synergistic interaction.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that PYY3-36 and PP activate distinct pathways in the hypothalamus to reduce food intake in an additive manner.

First Report of Tomato chlorosis virus in China

In October 2012, a severe yellowing disease was found on greenhouse and plastic house tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants in Beijing, China. The disease incidence varied from 5 to 80% in each of six fields across Haidian and Daxing districts. The lower leaves showed symptoms of interveinal chlorosis, leaf brittleness, and limited brown necrotic flecks, similar to symptoms induced by Tomato chlorosis virus (ToCV) and Tomato infectious chlorosis virus (TICV) (two members of genus Crinivirus, family Closteroviridae) (4). A large number of whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci) were also observed. Leaf samples were taken from eight symptomatic and two asymptomatic tomato plants in two plastic houses in the Haidian district and total RNA was isolated from the 10 samples using TRIzol reagent (Tiangen, Beijing, China). Nested reverse transcription (RT)-PCR was performed to test the presence of ToCV and TICV with degenerate primers HS-11 and HS-12 and specific primers ToC-5/ToC-6 or TIC-3/TIC-4 for ToCV or TICV, respectively (1). With ToCV primers, a 463-bp specific fragment was amplified from eight symptomatic samples but not from two asymptomatic samples, and there was no amplification with TICV primers from any sample. Sequence analysis of the amplified fragment showed 99% nucleotide sequence identity with the heat shock protein 70 homolog (HSP70h) gene of ToCV isolates from Japan (GenBank Accession No. AB513442), Spain (DQ136146), Florida (AY903448), and Greece (EU284744). The presence of ToCV was confirmed by amplification of a 848-bp fragment covering the coat protein (CP) gene of ToCV with primers CP-F (5'-GAATCTTTTAGAAGCTTTGGTTTAAGG-3') and CP-R (5'-GATCCTCTTGATCCTCATAGATTTC-3') (3). The CP had 97 to 99% amino acid sequence identity to the above-mentioned four ToCV isolates. A sequence of the CP gene obtained from one isolate was deposited at GenBank (KC311375). Additionally, virions were isolated from 25 g of symptomatic samples followed Klaassen's method (2) and their lengths were estimated to be about 800 to 850 nm by transmission electronic microscopy To our knowledge, this is the first report of ToCV on tomato in mainland China. Tomato is one of the most widely cultivated crops in China and the spread of ToCV in China may cause significant economic losses. Further information on the prevalence and incidence of ToCV is required to assess the potential impact of this virus. References: (1) C. I. Dovas et al. Plant Dis. 86:1345, 2002. (2) V. A. Klaassen et al. J. Gen. Virol. 75:1525, 1994. (3) H. Tomoki et al. J. Gen. Plant Pathol. 76:168, 2010. (4) G. C. Wisler et al. Phytopathology 88:402, 1998.

Arcuate NPY controls sympathetic output and BAT function via a relay of tyrosine hydroxylase neurons in the PVN

Neuropepetide Y (NPY) is best known for its powerful stimulation of food intake and its effects on reducing energy expenditure. However, the pathways involved and the regulatory mechanisms behind this are not well understood. Here we demonstrate that NPY derived from the arcuate nucleus (Arc) is critical for the control of sympathetic outflow and brown adipose tissue (BAT) function. Mechanistically, a key change induced by Arc NPY signaling is a marked Y1 receptor-mediated reduction in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN), which is also associated with a reduction in TH expression in the locus coeruleus (LC) and other regions in the brainstem. Consistent with this, Arc NPY signaling decreased sympathetically innervated BAT thermogenesis, involving the downregulation of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) expression in BAT. Taken together, these data reveal a powerful Arc-NPY-regulated neuronal circuit that controls BAT thermogenesis and sympathetic output via TH neurons.

Adult-onset PYY overexpression in mice reduces food intake and increases lipogenic capacity

Peptide YY (PYY) is best known for its important role in appetite regulation, but recent pharmacological studies have suggested that PYY is also involved in regulating energy balance and glucose homeostasis. However, the mechanism behind the regulation of these parameters by PYY is less clear. Here, by utilising an inducible transgenic mouse model where PYY overexpression is induced in adult animals (PYYtg) and release of mature PYY peptides is controlled by endogenous machineries, we show that elevating PYY levels leads to reduced food intake after a 24-h fast. Furthermore, PYYtg mice, although not significantly different from WT with respect to body weight, adiposity, lean mass, physical activity or energy expenditure, exhibited a significantly increased respiratory exchange ratio (RER), indicating decreased lipid oxidation and/or increased lipogenesis. Importantly, PYYtg mice showed a 25% reduction in liver protein levels of phosphorylated acetyl-CoA carboxylase (pACC) in the absence of changes in total ACC levels compared to those of WT mice. Moreover, liver protein levels of AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) in PYYtg mice were 25% lower than those of WT mice, consistent with a reduced pACC in these mice. These data suggest that elevation of PYY levels as seen after a meal can increase lipogenic capacity, which is likely a key contributor to the increased RER seen in PYYtg mice. In addition, PYYtg mice exhibited comparable insulin tolerance and oral glucose tolerance to those of WT, but showed a trend towards decreased insulin levels in response to an oral glucose challenge, indicating that PYY could improve insulin action. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that under physiological conditions, PYY reduces food intake while enhancing lipogenic capacity and insulin action, likely contributing to fuel assimilation in the postprandial state.

Peptide YY regulates bone remodeling in mice: a link between gut and skeletal biology

Background & Aims

Gastrointestinal peptides are increasingly being linked to processes controlling the maintenance of bone mass. Peptide YY (PYY), a gut-derived satiety peptide of the neuropeptide Y family, is upregulated in some states that also display low bone mass. Importantly, PYY has high affinity for Y-receptors, particularly Y1R and Y2R, which are known to regulate bone mass. Anorexic conditions and bariatric surgery for obesity influence circulating levels of PYY and have a negative impact on bone mass, but the precise mechanism behind this is unclear. We thus examined whether alterations in PYY expression affect bone mass.

Methods

Bone microstructure and cellular activity were analyzed in germline PYY knockout and conditional adult-onset PYY over-expressing mice at lumbar and femoral sites using histomorphometry and micro-computed tomography.

Results

PYY displayed a negative relationship with osteoblast activity. Male and female PYY knockout mice showed enhanced osteoblast activity, with greater cancellous bone mass. Conversely, PYY over-expression lowered osteoblast activity in vivo, via a direct Y1 receptor mediated mechanism involving MAPK stimulation evident in vitro. In contrast to PYY knockout mice, PYY over expression also altered bone resorption, as indicated by greater osteoclast surface, despite the lack of Y-receptor expression in osteoclastic cells. While evident in both sexes, cellular changes were generally more pronounced in females.

Conclusions

These data demonstrate that the gut peptide PYY is critical for the control of bone remodeling. This regulatory axis from the intestine to bone has the potential to contribute to the marked bone loss observed in situations of extreme weight loss and higher circulating PYY levels, such as anorexia and bariatric obesity surgery, and may be important in the maintenance of bone mass in the general population.

Y1 and Y5 receptors are both required for the regulation of food intake and energy homeostasis in mice

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) acting in the hypothalamus is one of the most powerful orexigenic agents known. Of the five known Y receptors, hypothalamic Y1 and Y5 have been most strongly implicated in mediating hyperphagic effects. However, knockout of individual Y1 or Y5 receptors induces late-onset obesity – and Y5 receptor knockout also induces hyperphagia, possibly due to redundancy in functions of these genes. Here we show that food intake in mice requires the combined actions of both Y1 and Y5 receptors. Germline Y1Y5 ablation in Y1Y5^−/− mice results in hypophagia, an effect that is at least partially mediated by the hypothalamus, since mice with adult-onset Y1Y5 receptor dual ablation targeted to the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus (Y1Y5^Hyp/Hyp) also exhibit reduced spontaneous or fasting-induced food intake when fed a high fat diet. Interestingly, despite hypophagia, mice with germline or hypothalamus-specific Y1Y5 deficiency exhibited increased body weight and/or increased adiposity, possibly due to compensatory responses to gene deletion, such as the decreased energy expenditure observed in male Y1Y5^−/− animals relative to wildtype values. While Y1 and Y5 receptors expressed in other hypothalamic areas besides the PVN – such as the dorsomedial nucleus and the ventromedial hypothalamus – cannot be excluded from having a role in the regulation of food intake, these studies demonstrate the pivotal, combined role of both Y1 and Y5 receptors in the mediation of food intake.

Absence of SH2B3 mutation in nonobese diabetic mice

Type 1 diabetes is a chronic progressive autoimmune disease characterized by mononuclear cell infiltration, with subsequent destruction of insulin-producing β-cells. Studies have identified strong associations between type 1 diabetes and several chromosome regions, including 12q24. Association between type 1 diabetes and 12q24 arises from SNP rs3184504; rs3184504 is a nonsynonymous SNP in exon 3 of SH2B3 (also known as LNK). Nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice recapitulate many aspects of the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes in humans and are therefore frequently used in studies addressing the cellular and molecular mechanisms of this disease. It is of interest to know whether there is a similar mutation of SH2B3 in NOD mice. We found that the SH2B3 mutation is absent in NOD mice. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the sequence and the protein levels of SH2B3 in NOD mice.