Mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway is involved in the differentiation of muscle cells

In-ovo feeding with creatine monohydrate: implications for chicken energy reserves and breast muscle development during the pre-post hatching period

The most dynamic period throughout the lifespan of broiler chickens is the pre-post-hatching period, entailing profound effects on their energy status, survival rate, body weight, and muscle growth. Given the significance of this pivotal period, we evaluated the effect of in-ovo feeding (IOF) with creatine monohydrate on late-term embryos' and hatchlings' energy reserves and post-hatch breast muscle development. The results demonstrate that IOF with creatine elevates the levels of high-energy-value molecules (creatine and glycogen) in the liver, breast muscle and yolk sac tissues 48 h post IOF, on embryonic day 19 (p < 0.03). Despite this evidence, using a novel automated image analysis tool on day 14 post-hatch, we found a significantly higher number of myofibers with lower diameter and area in the IOF creatine group compared to the control and IOF NaCl groups (p < 0.004). Gene expression analysis, at hatch, revealed that IOF creatine group had significantly higher expression levels of myogenin (MYOG) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), related to differentiation of myogenic cells (p < 0.01), and lower expression of myogenic differentiation protein 1 (MyoD), related to their proliferation (p < 0.04). These results imply a possible effect of IOF with creatine on breast muscle development through differential expression of genes involved in myogenic proliferation and differentiation. The findings provide valuable insights into the potential of pre-hatch enrichment with creatine in modulating post-hatch muscle growth and development.

Therapeutic Myogenesis Induced by Ultrasound Exposure in a Volumetric Skeletal Muscle Loss Injury Model

BACKGROUND

Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) irradiation has been shown to induce various responses in different cells. It has been shown that LIPUS activates extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) through integrin.

PURPOSE

To study the effects of LIPUS on myogenic regulatory factors and other related myogenesis elements in a volumetric skeletal muscle loss injury model.

STUDY DESIGN

Controlled laboratory study.

METHODS

C57BL/6J mice were subjected to full-thickness muscle defect injury of the quadriceps and treated with direct application of LIPUS 20 min/d or non-LIPUS treatment (control) for 3, 7, and 14 days. LIPUS was also applied to C2C12 cells in culture in the presence of low and high doses of lipopolysaccharides. The expression levels of myogenic regulatory factors and the expression levels of myokine-related and angiogenic-related proteins of the control and LIPUS groups were analyzed.

RESULTS

Muscle volume in the injury site was restored at day 14 with LIPUS treatment. Paired-box protein 7, myogenic factor 5, myogenin, and desmin expressions were significantly different between control and LIPUS groups at days 7 and 14. Myokine and angiogenic cytokine-related factors were significantly increased in the LIPUS group at day 3 and decreased with no significant difference between the groups by day 14. LIPUS induced different responses of myogenic regulatory factors in C2C12 cells with low and high doses of lipopolysaccharides. LIPUS promoted myogenesis through short-lived increase in interleukin-6 and heme oxygenase 1, together with activation of ERK1/2.

CONCLUSION

LIPUS had a constant effect on the variables of tissue damage, from macrotrauma to microtrauma, leading to efficient muscle regeneration.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The focus of therapeutic strategies with LIPUS has been not only for microvascular regeneration but also for skeletal muscle and related local tissue recovery from acute or chronic damage.

The Comparison of Commercial Serum-Free Media for Hanwoo Satellite Cell Proliferation and the Role of Fibroblast Growth Factor 2

Fetal bovine serum (FBS), which contains various nutrients, comprises 20% of the growth medium for cell-cultivated meat. However, ethical, cost, and scientific issues, necesitates identification of alternatives. In this study, we investigated commercially manufactured serum-free media capable of culturing Hanwoo satellite cells (HWSCs) to identify constituent proliferation enhancing factors. Six different serum-free media were selected, and the HWSC proliferation rates in these serum-free media were compared with that of control medium supplemented with 20% FBS. Among the six media, cell proliferation rates were higher only in StemFlexTM Medium (SF) and Mesenchymal Stem Cell Growth Medium DXF (MS) than in the control medium. SF and MS contain high fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) concentrations, and we found upregulated FGF2 protein expression in cells cultured in SF or MS. Activation of the fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1)-mediated signaling pathway and stimulation of muscle satellite cell proliferation-related factors were confirmed by the presence of related biomarkers (FGFR1, FRS2, Raf1, ERK, p38, Pax7, and MyoD) as indicated by quantitative polymerase chain reaction, western blotting, and immunocytochemistry. Moreover, PD173074, an FGFR1 inhibitor suppressed cell proliferation in SF and MS and downregulated related biomarkers (FGFR1, FRS2, Raf1, and ERK). The promotion of cell proliferation in SF and MS was therefore attributed to FGF2, which indicates that FGFR1 activation in muscle satellite cells may be a target for improving the efficiency of cell-cultivated meat production.

DNA repair byproduct 8-oxoguanine base promotes myoblast differentiation

Muscle contraction increases the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which has been acknowledged as key signaling entities in muscle remodeling and to underlie the healthy adaptation of skeletal muscle. ROS inevitably endows damage to various cellular molecules including DNA. DNA damage ought to be repaired to ensure genome integrity; yet, how DNA repair byproducts affect muscle adaptation remains elusive. Here, we showed that exercise elicited the generation of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoG), that was primarily found in mitochondrial genome of myofibers. Upon exercise, TA muscle's 8-oxoG excision capacity markedly enhanced, and in the interstitial fluid of TA muscle from the post-exercise mice, the level of free 8-oxoG base was significantly increased. Addition of 8-oxoG to myoblasts triggered myogenic differentiation via activating Ras-MEK-MyoD signal axis. 8-Oxoguanine DNA glycosylase1 (OGG1) silencing from cells or Ogg1 KO from mice decreased Ras activation, ERK phosphorylation, MyoD transcriptional activation, myogenic regulatory factors gene (MRFs) expression. In reconstruction experiments, exogenously added 8-oxoG base enhanced the expression of MRFs and accelerated the recovery of the injured skeletal muscle. Collectively, these data not only suggest that DNA repair metabolite 8-oxoG function as a signal entity for muscle remodeling and contribute to exercise-induced adaptation of skeletal muscle, but also raised the potential for utilizing 8-oxoG in clinical treatment to skeletal muscle damage-related disorders.

MAPK family genes' influences on myogenesis in cattle: Genome-wide analysis and identification

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family is highly conserved in mammals, and is involved in a variety of physiological phenomena like regeneration, development, cell proliferation, and differentiation. In this study, 13 MAPK genes were identified in cattle and their corresponding protein properties were characterized using genome-wide identification and analysis. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the 13 BtMAPKs were cluster grouped into eight major evolutionary branches, which were segmented into three large subfamilies: ERK, p38 and JNK MAPK. BtMAPKs from the same subfamily had similar protein motif compositions, but considerably different exon-intron patterns. The heatmap analysis of transcriptome sequencing data showed that the expression of BtMAPKs was tissue-specific, with BtMAPK6 and BtMAPK12 highly expressed in muscle tissues. Furthermore, knockdown of BtMAPK6 and BtMAPK12 revealed that BtMAPK6 had no effect on myogenic cell proliferation, but negatively affected the differentiation of myogenic cells. In contrast, BtMAPK12 improved both the cell proliferation and differentiation. Taken together, these results provide novel insights into the functions of MAPK families in cattle, which could serve as a basis for further studies on the specific mechanisms of the genes in myogenesis.

Phosphoproteomics Profiling Defines a Target Landscape of the Basophilic Protein Kinases AKT, S6K, and RSK in Skeletal Myotubes

Phosphorylation-dependent signal transduction plays an important role in regulating the functions and fate of skeletal muscle cells. Central players in the phospho-signaling network are the protein kinases AKT, S6K, and RSK as part of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR-S6K and RAF-MEK-ERK-RSK pathways. However, despite their functional importance, knowledge about their specific targets is incomplete because these kinases share the same basophilic substrate motif RxRxxp[ST]. To address this, we performed a multifaceted quantitative phosphoproteomics study of skeletal myotubes following kinase inhibition. Our data corroborate a cross talk between AKT and RAF, a negative feedback loop of RSK on ERK, and a putative connection between RSK and PI3K signaling. Altogether, we report a kinase target landscape containing 49 so far unknown target sites. AKT, S6K, and RSK phosphorylate numerous proteins involved in muscle development, integrity, and functions, and signaling converges on factors that are central for the skeletal muscle cytoskeleton. Whereas AKT controls insulin signaling and impinges on GTPase signaling, nuclear signaling is characteristic for RSK. Our data further support a role of RSK in glucose metabolism. Shared targets have functions in RNA maturation, stability, and translation, which suggests that these basophilic kinases establish an intricate signaling network to orchestrate and regulate processes involved in translation.

Exogenous porcine somatotropin administered to late pregnant gilts alters liver and muscle functionalities in pig foetuses

Neonatal maturity depends on the maternal capacity to provide nutrients for foetal growth. This study aimed to investigate the effects of systemic administration of recombinant porcine somatotropin (pST), one of the main regulators of growth and metabolism, to pregnant gilts during late gestation on circulating nutrients and expression levels of genes in liver and skeletal muscle of their 110-day-old foetuses. Gilts received either daily injections of sterile water (control [CTL] group, n = 15) or of 5 mg of pST (pST group, n = 17) from days 90 to 109 of gestation. At day 110 postconceptus, pairs of foetuses (one of small and one of average size within a litter) were selected. Circulating fructose concentrations were greater, but circulating concentrations of urea were lower in pST than in CTL foetuses. Expression levels of genes involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism were more affected by pST treatment in liver than in muscle. Hepatic molecular changes suggest an inhibition of energy-consuming processes (glycogen and lipid biosynthesis) and the activation of energy-producing pathway (mitochondrial oxidation) in pST compared to CTL foetuses. Expression levels of some genes involved in intracellular degradation of proteins were greater in the liver of pST foetuses, and combined with lower uremia, this suggests a higher utilisation of protein sources in pST foetuses than in CTL foetuses. In muscle, molecular changes were mainly observed in the IGF-insulin axis. Altogether, pST-treated gilts seem to have a greater ability to support foetal liver development by the reorientation of energy and protein metabolism.

A Review of free fatty acid-induced cell signaling, angiopoietin-like protein 4, and skeletal muscle differentiation

Postnatal skeletal muscle differentiation from quiescent satellite cells is a highly regulated process, although our understanding of the contribution of nutritional factors in myogenesis is limited. Free fatty acids (FFAs) are known to cause detrimental effects to differentiated skeletal muscle cells by increasing oxidative stress which leads to muscle wasting and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle. In addition, FFAs are thought to act as inhibitors of skeletal muscle differentiation. However, the precise molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of FFAs on skeletal muscle differentiation remains to be elucidated. There is a clear relationship between dietary FFAs and their ability to suppress myogenesis and we propose the hypothesis that the FFA-mediated increase in angiopoietin-like protein 4 (ANGPTL4) may play a role in the inhibition of differentiation. This review discusses the role of FFAs in skeletal muscle differentiation to-date and proposes potential mechanisms of FFA-induced ANGPTL4 mediated inhibition of skeletal muscle differentiation.

Functional analysis reveals that Tinagl1 is required for normal muscle development in mice through the activation of ERK signaling

Tinagl1 (tubulointerstitial nephritis antigen-like 1) is a matricellular protein involved in female infertility and breast cancer tumorigenesis. In this study, we analyzed the function of Tinagl1 in skeletal muscle using knockout mice and cell experiments. Although primary myoblasts isolated from Tinagl1-decifient (Tinagl1^-/-) mice differentiated into normal myotubes, and treatment with recombinant Tinagl1 did not affect the proliferation or differentiation of C2C12 myoblasts, Tinagl1^-/- mice exhibited reduced body mass and calf muscle weights compared to the control group (Tinagl1^flox/flox). Furthermore, Tinagl1^-/- mice showed myofibers with centrally located nuclei, which is a morphological marker of regenerating muscle or myopathy. In addition, the capillary density in the soleus muscle of Tinagl1^-/- mice showed a decreasing trend compared to that of the control group. Importantly, si-RNA-mediated knockdown of TINAGL1 resulted in reduced tube formation in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), whereas treatment with Tinagl1 promoted tube formation. Immunoblot analysis revealed that Tinagl1 activates ERK signaling in both HUVECs and C2C12 myoblasts and myotubes, which are involved in the regulation of myogenic differentiation, proliferation, metabolism, and angiogenesis. Our results demonstrate that Tinagl1 may be required for normal muscle and capillary development through the activation of ERK signaling.

Identification and functional analysis of miRNAs in skeletal muscle of juvenile and adult largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are considered key regulators to post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression affecting multiple biological activities. However, the developmental process of fish skeletal muscles is regulated by complicated molecular mechanism that has not been completely well-described. In this study, two small RNAs libraries from skeletal muscle of juvenile as well as adult largemouth bass (LMB) were obtained and sequenced using deep sequencing to investigate the development-related miRNAs. We identified an overall number of 486 already recognized miRNAs in addition to 43 novel miRNAs. Comparison of two different skeletal muscle development stages led to the identification of 220 differently expressed miRNAs between juvenile and adult LMB containing 116 up-regulated as well as 104 down-regulated miRNAs. Of them, confirmation of some differently expressed miRNAs was performed via a stem-loop qRT-PCR, which exhibited differently expressed level in juvenile and adult LMB. Furthermore, GO and KEGG enrichment analyses of targets of differently-expressed miRNAs were carried out. Additionally, the analysis of miRNAs-targets interaction network showed that miR-181b-5p_R-1, miR-725 and miR-103 as the nodal miRNAs has over 20 target genes. Moreover, miR-103 could bind the 3'-UTR of actr8, which was validated via dual-luciferase reporter assay. It has been reasonably hypothesized that miR-103 may play a crucial role, which regulate skeletal muscle development of LMB. The present study provides the first identification of miRNA expression profiles at two different skeletal muscle development stages in LMB. Results may be valuable in interpreting the regulatory role miRNAs plays in the growth and developmental process of skeletal muscle and its possible use in LMB breeding.

Global Quantitative Proteomics Analysis Reveals the Downstream Signaling Networks of Msx1 and Msx2 in Myoblast Differentiation

The msh homeobox 1 (Msx1) and msh homeobox 2 (Msx2) coordinate in myoblast differentiation and also contribute to muscle defects if altered during development. Deciphering the downstream signaling networks of Msx1 and Msx2 in myoblast differentiation will help us to understand the molecular events that contribute to muscle defects. Here, the proteomics characteristics in Msx1- and Msx2-mediated myoblast differentiation was evaluated  using isobaric tags for the relative and absolute quantification labeling technique (iTRAQ). The downstream regulatory proteins of Msx1- and Msx2-mediated differentiation were identified. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that these proteins were primarily associated with xenobiotic metabolism by cytochrome P450, fatty acid degradation, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, arginine and proline metabolism, and apoptosis. In addition, our data show Acta1 was probably a core of the downstream regulatory networks of Msx1 and Msx2 in myoblast differentiation.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43657-022-00049-y.

Preliminary evidence of differential expression of myogenic and stress factors in skeletal muscle of older adults with low muscle strength

The age-related loss of muscle strength and mass, or sarcopenia, is a growing concern in the ageing population. Yet, it is not fully understood which molecular mechanisms underlie sarcopenia. Therefore, the present study compared the protein expression profile, such as catabolic, oxidative, stress-related and myogenic pathways, between older adults with preserved (8 ♀ and 5 ♂; 71.5 ±2.6 years) and low muscle strength (6 ♀ and 5 ♂; 78.0±5.0 years). Low muscle strength was defined as chair stand test time >15 seconds and/or handgrip strength <16kg (women) or <27kg (men) according the EWGSOP2 criteria. Catabolic signaling (i.e. FOXO1/3a, MuRF1, MAFbx, LC3b, Atg5, p62) was not differentially expressed between both groups, whereas the mitochondrial marker COX-IV, but not PGC1α and citrate synthase, was lower in the low muscle strength group. Stress factors CHOP and p-ERK1/2 were higher (~1.5-fold) in older adults with low muscle strength. Surprisingly, the inflammatory marker p-p65NF-κB was ~7-fold higher in older adults with preserved muscle strength. Finally, expression of myogenic factors (i.e. Pax7, MyoD, desmin; ~2-fold) was higher in adults with low muscle strength. To conclude, whereas the increased stress factors might reflect the age-related deterioration of tissue homeostasis, e.g. due to misfolded proteins (CHOP), upregulation of myogenic markers in the low strength group might be an attempt to compensate for the gradual loss in muscle quantity and quality. These data might provide valuable insights in the processes that underlie sarcopenia.

Nucleoprotein-enriched diet enhances protein synthesis pathway and satellite cell activation via ERK1/2 phosphorylation in unloaded rat muscles

NEW FINDINGS

What is the central question of this study? The purpose of this study was to determine whether the nucleotides in a nucleoprotein-enriched diet could ameliorate the unloading-associated decrease in soleus muscle mass and fibre size. What is the main finding and its importance? The results indicate that the nucleotides in the nucleoprotein-enriched diet could ameliorate the unloading-associated decrease in type I fibre size and muscle mass, most probably owing to the activation of protein synthesis pathways and satellite cell proliferation and differentiation via ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Thus, nucleotide supplementation appears to be an effective countermeasure for muscle atrophy.

ABSTRACT

Hindlimb unloading decreases both the protein synthesis pathway and satellite cell activation and results in muscle atrophy. Nucleotides are included in nucleoprotein and provide the benefits of increasing extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 phosphorylation. ERK1/2 phosphorylation is also important in the activation of satellite cells, especially for myoblast proliferation and stimulating protein synthesis pathways. Therefore, we hypothesized that nucleotides in the nucleoproteins would ameliorate muscle atrophy by increasing the protein synthesis pathways and satellite cell activation during hindlimb unloading in rat soleus muscle. Twenty-four female Wistar rats were divided into four groups: control rats fed a basal diet without nucleoprotein (CON), control rats fed a nucleoprotein-enriched diet (CON+NP), hindlimb-unloaded rats fed a basal diet (HU) or hindlimb-unloaded rats fed a nucleoprotein-enriched diet (HU+NP). HU for 2 weeks resulted in reductions in phosphorylation of p70S6K and rpS6, the numbers of myoblast determination protein (MyoD)- and myogenin- positive nuclei, type I muscle fibre size and muscle mass. Both CON+NP and HU+NP rats showed an increase in ERK1/2, phosphorylation of p70S6K and rpS6, and the numbers of MyoD- and myogenin-positive nuclei compared with their basal diet groups. The NP diet also ameliorated the unloading-associated decrease in type I muscle fibre size and muscle mass. The results indicate that the nucleotides in the nucleoprotein-enriched diet could ameliorate the unloading-associated decrease in type I fibre size and muscle mass, most probably owing to the activation of protein synthesis pathways and satellite cell proliferation and differentiation via ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Thus, nucleotide supplementation appears to be an effective countermeasure for muscle atrophy.

PDGF-PDGFR network differentially regulates the fate, migration, proliferation, and cell cycle progression of myogenic cells

Platelet-derived growth factors (PDGFs) regulate embryonic development, tissue regeneration, and wound healing through their binding to PDGF receptors, PDGFRα and PDGFRβ. However, the role of PDGF signaling in regulating muscle development and regeneration remains elusive, and the cellular and molecular responses of myogenic cells are understudied. Here, we explore the PDGF-PDGFR gene expression changes and their involvement in skeletal muscle myogenesis and myogenic fate. By surveying bulk RNA sequencing and single-cell profiling data of skeletal muscle stem cells, we show that myogenic progenitors and muscle stem cells differentially express PDGF ligands and PDGF receptors during myogenesis. Quiescent adult muscle stem cells and myoblasts preferentially express PDGFRβ over PDGFRα. Remarkably, cell culture- and injury-induced muscle stem cell activation altered PDGF family gene expression. In myoblasts, PDGF-AB and PDGF-BB treatments activate two pro-chemotactic and pro-mitogenic downstream transducers, RAS-ERK1/2 and PI3K-AKT. PDGFRs inhibitor AG1296 inhibited ERK1/2 and AKT activation, myoblast migration, proliferation, and cell cycle progression induced by PDGF-AB and PDGF-BB. We also found that AG1296 causes myoblast G0/G1 cell cycle arrest. Remarkably, PDGF-AA did not promote a noticeable ERK1/2 or AKT activation, myoblast migration, or expansion. Also, myogenic differentiation reduced the expression of both PDGFRα and PDGFRβ, whereas forced PDGFRα expression impaired myogenesis. Thus, our data highlight PDGF signaling pathway to stimulate satellite cell proliferation aiming to enhance skeletal muscle regeneration and provide a deeper understanding of the role of PDGF signaling in non-fibroblastic cells.

Considerations for the development of cost-effective cell culture media for cultivated meat production

Innovation in cultivated meat development has been rapidly accelerating in recent years because it holds the potential to help attenuate issues facing production of dietary protein for a growing world population. There are technical obstacles still hindering large-scale commercialization of cultivated meat, of which many are related to the media that are used to culture the muscle, fat, and connective tissue cells. While animal cell culture media has been used and refined for roughly a century, it has not been specifically designed with the requirements of cultivated meat in mind. Perhaps the most common industrial use of animal cell culture is currently the production of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies, which sell for orders of magnitude more than meat. Successful production of cultivated meat requires media that is food grade with minimal cost, can regulate large-scale cell proliferation and differentiation, has acceptable sensory qualities, and is animal ingredient-free. Much insight into strategies for achieving media formulations with these qualities can be obtained from knowledge of conventional culture media applications and from the metabolic pathways involved in myogenesis and protein synthesis. In addition, application of principles used to optimize media for large-scale microbial fermentation processes producing lower value commodity chemicals and food ingredients can also be instructive. As such, the present review shall provide an overview of the current understanding of cell culture media as it relates to cultivated meat.

Mechanical Stimulation of Adhesion Receptors Using Light-Responsive Nanoparticle Actuators Enhances Myogenesis

The application of cyclic strain is known to enhance myoblast differentiation and muscle growth in vitro and in vivo. However, current techniques apply strain to full tissues or cell monolayers, making it difficult to evaluate whether mechanical stimulation at the subcellular or single-cell scales would drive myoblast differentiation. Here, we report the use of optomechanical actuator (OMA) particles, comprised of a ∼0.6 μm responsive hydrogel coating a gold nanorod (100 × 20 nm) core, to mechanically stimulate the integrin receptors in myoblasts. When illuminated with near-infrared (NIR) light, OMA nanoparticles rapidly collapse, exerting mechanical forces to cell receptors bound to immobilized particles. Using a pulsed illumination pattern, we applied cyclic integrin forces to C2C12 myoblasts cultured on a monolayer of OMA particles and then measured the cellular response. We found that 20 min of OMA actuation resulted in cellular elongation in the direction of the stimulus and enhancement of nuclear YAP1 accumulation, an effector of ERK phosphorylation. Cellular response was dependent on direct conjugation of RGD peptides to the OMA particles. Repeated OMA mechanical stimulation for 5 days led to enhanced myogenesis as quantified using cell alignment, fusion, and sarcomeric myosin expression in myotubes. OMA-mediated myogenesis was sensitive to the geometry of stimulation but not to MEK1/2 inhibition. Finally, we found that OMA stimulation in regions proximal to the nucleus resulted in localization of the transcription activator YAP-1 to the nucleus, further suggesting the role of YAP1 in mechanotransduction in C2C12 cells. These findings demonstrate OMAs as a novel tool for studying the role of spatially localized forces in influencing myogenesis.

Regulation of the Mammalian SWI/SNF Family of Chromatin Remodeling Enzymes by Phosphorylation during Myogenesis

Myogenesis is the biological process by which skeletal muscle tissue forms. Regulation of myogenesis involves a variety of conventional, epigenetic, and epigenomic mechanisms that control chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, histone modification, and activation of transcription factors. Chromatin remodeling enzymes utilize ATP hydrolysis to alter nucleosome structure and/or positioning. The mammalian SWItch/Sucrose Non-Fermentable (mSWI/SNF) family of chromatin remodeling enzymes is essential for myogenesis. Here we review diverse and novel mechanisms of regulation of mSWI/SNF enzymes by kinases and phosphatases. The integration of classic signaling pathways with chromatin remodeling enzyme function impacts myoblast viability and proliferation as well as differentiation. Regulated processes include the assembly of the mSWI/SNF enzyme complex, choice of subunits to be incorporated into the complex, and sub-nuclear localization of enzyme subunits. Together these processes influence the chromatin remodeling and gene expression events that control myoblast function and the induction of tissue-specific genes during differentiation.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy hiPSC-derived myoblast drug screen identifies compounds that ameliorate disease in mdx mice

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is the most common muscular dystrophy. In the present study, when human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) were differentiated into myoblasts, the myoblasts derived from DMD patient hiPSCs (DMD hiPSC-derived myoblasts) exhibited an identifiable DMD-relevant phenotype: myogenic fusion deficiency. Based on this model, we developed a DMD hiPSC-derived myoblast screening platform employing a high-content imaging (BD Pathway 855) approach to generate parameters describing morphological as well as myogenic marker protein expression. Following treatment of the cells with 1524 compounds from the Johns Hopkins Clinical Compound Library, compounds that enhanced myogenic fusion of DMD hiPSC-derived myoblasts were identified. The final hits were ginsenoside Rd and fenofibrate. Transcriptional profiling revealed that ginsenoside Rd is functionally related to FLT3 signaling, while fenofibrate is linked to TGF-β signaling. Preclinical tests in mdx mice showed that treatment with these 2 hit compounds can significantly ameliorate some of the skeletal muscle phenotypes caused by dystrophin deficiency, supporting their therapeutic potential. Further study revealed that fenofibrate could inhibit mitochondrion-induced apoptosis in DMD hiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes. We have developed a platform based on DMD hiPSC-derived myoblasts for drug screening and identified 2 promising small molecules with in vivo efficacy.

Chromatin accessibility is associated with the changed expression of miRNAs that target members of the Hippo pathway during myoblast differentiation

miRNAs reportedly participate in various biological processes, such as skeletal muscle proliferation and differentiation. However, the regulation of differentially expressed (DE) miRNAs and their function in myogenesis remain unclear. Herein, miRNA expression profiles and regulation during C2C12 differentiation were analyzed in relation to chromatin states by RNA-seq, ATAC-seq, and ChIP-seq. We identified 19 known and nine novel differentially expressed miRNAs at days 0, 1, 2, and 4. The expression of the differentially expressed miRNAs was related to the chromatin states of the 113 surrounding open chromatin regions defined by ATAC-seq peaks. Of these open chromatin regions, 44.25% were colocalized with MyoD/MyoG binding sites. The remainder of the above open chromatin regions were enriched with motifs of the myoblast-expressed AP-1 family, Ctcf, and Bach2 transcription factors (TFs). Additionally, the target genes of the above differentially expressed miRNAs were enriched primarily in muscle growth and development pathways, especially the Hippo signaling pathway. Moreover, via combining a loss-of-function assay with Q-PCR, western blotting, and immunofluorescence, we confirmed that the Hippo signaling pathway was responsible for C2C12 myoblast differentiation. Thus, our results showed that these differentially expressed miRNAs were regulated by chromatin states and affected muscle differentiation through the Hippo signaling pathway. Our findings provide new insights into the function of these differentially expressed miRNAs and the regulation of their expression during myoblast differentiation.

Modulation of osteogenic and myogenic differentiation by a phytoestrogen formononetin via p38MAPK-dependent JAK-STAT and Smad-1/5/8 signaling pathways in mouse myogenic progenitor cells

Formononetin (FN), a typical phytoestrogen has attracted substantial attention as a novel agent because of its diverse biological activities including, osteogenic differentiation. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying osteogenic and myogenic differentiation by FN in C2C12 progenitor cells remain unknown. Therefore the objective of the current study was to investigate the action of FN on myogenic and osteogenic differentiation and its impact on signaling pathways in C2C12 cells. FN significantly increased myogenic markers such as Myogenin, myosin heavy chains, and myogenic differentiation 1 (MyoD). In addition, the expression of osteogenic specific genes alkaline phosphatase (ALP), Run-related transcription factor 2(RUNX2), and osteocalcin (OCN) were up-regulated by FN treatment. Moreover, FN enhanced the ALP level, calcium deposition and the expression of bone morphogenetic protein isoform (BMPs). Signal transduction pathways mediated by p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK), extracellular signal-related kinases (ERKs), protein kinase B (Akt), Janus kinases (JAKs), and signal transducer activator of transcription proteins (STATs) in myogenic and osteogenic differentiation after FN treatment were also examined. FN treatment activates myogenic differentiation by increasing p38MAPK and decreasing JAK1-STAT1 phosphorylation levels, while osteogenic induction was enhanced by p38MAPK dependent Smad, 1/5/8 signaling pathways in C2C12 progenitor cells.

β2-Adrenergic receptor (β2-AR) agonist formoterol suppresses differentiation of L6 myogenic cells by blocking PI3K-AKT pathway

β₂-Adrenergic receptor (β₂-AR) is implicated in muscle metabolic activities such as glycogen metabolism, glucose uptake, lipolysis and muscle growth. However, the functional role of β₂-AR in the differentiation of skeletal muscle is largely unknown. Here, we examined the functional role of β₂-AR in L6 myoblast differentiation using the long-term-acting β₂-AR-specific agonist formoterol. We observed that formoterol treatment strongly suppressed L6 myoblast differentiation and the expression of myosin heavy chain (MHC) in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Showing that both long-acting agonist (formoterol) and short-acting agonist (terbutaline) inhibited the induction of MHC protein, whereas β₂-AR antagonist (ICI-118,551) upregulated MHC expression, we clearly demonstrated that β₂-AR is involved in L6 myoblast differentiation. Furthermore, our pharmacological inhibition study revealed that the PI3K–AKT pathway is the main signaling pathway for myotube formation. Formoterol inhibited the activation of PI3K–AKT signaling, but not that of ERK signaling. Moreover, formoterol selectively inhibited AKT activation by IGF-I, but not by insulin. Collectively, our findings reveal a previously undocumented role of β₂-AR activation in modulating the differentiation of L6 myoblasts.

MicroRNA let-7b inhibits keratinocyte differentiation by targeting IL-6 mediated ERK signaling in psoriasis

Background

The extensive involvement of microRNA (miRNA) in the pathophysiology of psoriasis is well documented. However, in order for this information to be useful in therapeutic manipulation of miRNA levels, it is essential that detailed functional mechanisms are elucidated. This study aimed to explore the effects of IL-6 targeting by let-7b and ERK1/2 mediated signaling on keratinocyte differentiation in psoriasis.

Methods

Following imiquimod cream (IMQ) application to let-7b^TG (keratinocyte-specific let-7b overexpression mouse) and control mice for 7 days, we analyzed erythema, scaling and thickening of skin. A dual luciferase reporter assay and bioinformatics was carried out to detect target gene of let-7b. Additionally, the differentiation markers were measured. Immunohistochemistry analyses demonstrate a relationship of let-7b with IL-6 and ERK signaling.

Results

we found let-7b^TG inhibits acanthosis and reduces the disease severity by treatment with IMQ compared to wild-type mice. Further study illustrated that let-7b promotes differentiation of keratinocytes in vivo and in vitro. Using bioinformatics and reporter gene assays, we found that IL-6 is a target gene of let-7b. In psoriasis, high expression levels of IL-6 lead to increased acivation of p-ERK1/2. High levels of let-7b^TG transgene expression suppresses IL-6 expression and leads to increased keratinocyte differentiation. Moreover, let-7b acts as an upstream negative regulator of the ERK signaling pathway in keratinocytes of psoriasis.

Conclusions

Our result reveals a previously unknown mechanism for regulation of IL-6 levels during psoriasis by let-7b and highlights a critical role for the ERK1/2 signaling pathway in epidermal differentiation during psoriasis.

Trial registration

The ethical approval for this study was from the Affiliated Hospital of Medical University of Anhui _ Fast_ PJ2017–11–14.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12964-018-0271-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Platelet-rich plasma and alignment enhance myogenin via ERK mitogen activated protein kinase signaling

Volumetric muscle loss is debilitating and involves extensive rehabilitation. One approach to accelerate healing, rehabilitation, and muscle function is to repair damaged skeletal muscle using regenerative medicine strategies. In sports medicine and orthopedics, a common clinical approach is to treat minor to severe musculoskeletal injuries with platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injections. While these types of treatments have become commonplace, there are limited data demonstrating their effectiveness. The goal of this study was to determine the effect of PRP on myoblast gene expression and protein production when incorporated into a polymer fiber. To test this, we generated extracellular matrix mimicking scaffolds using aligned polydioxanone (PDO) fibers containing lyophilized PRP (SmartPReP^® 2, Harvest Technologies Corporation, Plymouth, MA). Scaffolds with PRP caused a dose-dependent increase in myogenin and myosin heavy chain but did not affect myogenic differentiation factor-1 (MyoD). Integrin α7β1D decreased and α5β1A did not change in response to PRP scaffolds. ERK inhibition decreased myogenin and increased Myod on the PDO-PRP scaffolds. Taken together, these data suggest that alignment and PRP produce a substrate-dependent, ERK-dependent, and dose-dependent effect on myogenic differentiation.

Nilotinib impairs skeletal myogenesis by increasing myoblast proliferation

Background

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are effective therapies with demonstrated antineoplastic activity. Nilotinib is a second-generation FDA-approved TKI designed to overcome Imatinib resistance and intolerance in patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Interestingly, TKIs have also been shown to be an efficient treatment for several non-malignant disorders such fibrotic diseases, including those affecting skeletal muscles.

Methods

We investigated the role of Nilotinib on skeletal myogenesis using the well-established C2C12 myoblast cell line. We evaluated the impact of Nilotinib during the time course of skeletal myogenesis. We compared the effect of Nilotinib with the well-known p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580. MEK1/2 UO126 and PI3K/AKT LY294002 inhibitors were used to identify the signaling pathways involved in Nilotinib-related effects on myoblast. Adult primary myoblasts were also used to corroborate the inhibition of myoblasts fusion and myotube-nuclei positioning by Nilotinib.

Results

We found that Nilotinib inhibited myogenic differentiation, reducing the number of myogenin-positive myoblasts and decreasing myogenin and MyoD expression. Furthermore, Nilotinib-mediated anti-myogenic effects impair myotube formation, myosin heavy chain expression, and compromise myotube-nuclei positioning. In addition, we found that p38 MAPK is a new off-target protein of Nilotinib, which causes inhibition of p38 phosphorylation in a similar manner as the well-characterized p38 inhibitor SB203580. Nilotinib induces the activation of ERK1/2 and AKT on myoblasts but not in myotubes. We also found that Nilotinib stimulates myoblast proliferation, a process dependent on ERK1/2 and AKT activation.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that Nilotinib may have important negative effects on muscle homeostasis, inhibiting myogenic differentiation but stimulating myoblasts proliferation. Additionally, we found that Nilotinib stimulates the activation of ERK1/2 and AKT. On the other hand, we suggest that p38 MAPK is a new off-target of Nilotinib. Thus, there is a necessity for future studies to investigate the long-term effects of TKIs on skeletal muscle homeostasis, along with potential detrimental effects in cell differentiation and proliferation in patients receiving TKI therapies.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13395-018-0150-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Isolation and Characterization of Intrinsically Active (MEK-Independent) Mutants of Mpk1/Erk

The extracellular-regulated kinase (Erk) pathway is a major determinant in the control of diverse cellular processes, such as proliferation, differentiation, survival, and motility. The pathway executes its effects through kinases of the Erk family. Erks are not only critical for a variety of physiological processes, but are also associated with neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and a large number of human cancers. However, the exact role of each Erk molecule in these biological and pathological processes is not fully determined. An efficient strategy for revealing these roles is to activate each Erk isoform individually, in a signal independent manner, and to monitor the molecular, physiological, and pathological effects. This could be achieved by developing intrinsically active variants for each Erk isoform and splicing variant and expressing these molecules individually in biological systems. A screening method that selects for relevant and useful active mutants of Erks is described in this chapter. The main principle of the method is to screen for mutants of Erk that function in the total absence of their relevant MEKs. Another principle is that the screen should be unbiased toward particular domains or mechanisms of action. We describe how these principles are combined into a screen that takes advantage of the yeast Mpk1/Erk pathway. Following the description of how intrinsically active Mpk1 molecules are isolated, we provide comprehensive and detailed descriptions of the methods used to characterize their catalytic activity, autophosphorylation capabilities, and phosphorylation status, as well as the methods used to determine the precise phosphorylated sites. The principles of the screen and the methods described here could be easily adapted for any Erk molecule in any organism.

Key Age-Imposed Signaling Changes That Are Responsible for the Decline of Stem Cell Function

This chapter analyzes recent developments in the field of signal transduction of ageing with the focus on the age-imposed changes in TGF-beta/pSmad, Notch, Wnt/beta-catenin, and Jak/Stat networks. Specifically, this chapter delineates how the above-mentioned evolutionary-conserved morphogenic signaling pathways operate in young versus aged mammalian tissues, with insights into how the age-specific broad decline of stem cell function is precipitated by the deregulation of these key cell signaling networks. This chapter also provides perspectives onto the development of defined therapeutic approaches that aim to calibrate intensity of the determinant signal transduction to health-youth, thereby rejuvenating multiple tissues in older people.

Engineering the geometrical shape of mesenchymal stromal cells through defined cyclic stretch regimens

Stem cells have been predicted to improve disease outcomes and patient lives. Steering stem cell fate - through controlling cell shape - may substantially accelerate progress towards this goal. As mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are continuously exposed in vivo to a dynamically changing biomechanical environment, we hypothesized that exogenous forces can be applied for engineering a variety of significantly different MSC shapes. We applied specific cyclic stretch regimens to human MSCs and quantitatively measured the resulting cell shape, alignment, and expression of smooth muscle (SMC) differentiation markers, as those have been associated with elongated morphology. As proof of principle, a range of different shapes, alignments, and correlating SMC marker levels were generated by varying strain, length, and repetition of stretch. However, the major determinant of biomechanically engineering cellular shape was the repetition of a chosen stretch regimen, indicating that the engineered shape and associated differentiation were complex non-linear processes relying on sustained biomechanical stimulation. Thus, forces are key regulators of stem cell shape and the targeted engineering of specific MSC shapes through biomechanical forces represents a novel mechanobiology concept that could exploit naturally occurring in vivo forces for improving stem cell fate in clinical regenerative therapies.

Akirin2 regulates proliferation and differentiation of porcine skeletal muscle satellite cells via ERK1/2 and NFATc1 signaling pathways

Akirin2, a novel nuclear factor, plays an important role in myogenesis. To investigate the role of Akirin2 in proliferation and differentiation of porcine skeletal muscle satellite cells, Akirin2 overexpression and Akirin2 silence technologies were employed. Our results showed that overexpression of Akirin2 markedly enhanced the proliferation and differentiation of porcine skeletal muscle satellite cells, whereas silencing of Akirin2 got the opposite results. Furthermore, our results showed that Akirin2 affected proliferation and differentiation of porcine skeletal muscle satellite cells through extracellular-signal regulated kinase-1/2 (ERK1/2) and NFATc1 signaling pathways. These results indicate that Akirin2 can effectively promote skeletal muscle satellite cells proliferation and differentiation, acting through ERK1/2- and NFATc1-dependent mechanisms.

Nucleoprotein supplementation enhances the recovery of rat soleus mass with reloading after hindlimb unloading-induced atrophy via myonuclei accretion and increased protein synthesis

Hindlimb unloading results in muscle atrophy and a period of reloading has been shown to partially recover the lost muscle mass. Two of the mechanisms involved in this recovery of muscle mass are the activation of protein synthesis pathways and an increase in myonuclei number. The additional myonuclei are provided by satellite cells that are activated by the mechanical stress associated with the reloading of the muscles and eventually incorporated into the muscle fibers. Amino acid supplementation with exercise also can increase skeletal muscle mass through enhancement of protein synthesis and nucleotide supplements can promote cell cycle activity. Therefore, we hypothesized that nucleoprotein supplementation, a combination of amino acids and nucleotides, would enhance the recovery of muscle mass to a greater extent than reloading alone after a period of unloading. Adult rats were assigned to 4 groups: control, hindlimb unloaded (HU; 14 days), reloaded (5 days) after hindlimb unloading (HUR), and reloaded after hindlimb unloading with nucleoprotein supplementation (HUR + NP). Compared with the HUR group, the HUR + NP group had larger soleus muscles and fiber cross-sectional areas, higher levels of phosphorylated rpS6, and higher numbers of myonuclei and myogenin-positive cells. These results suggest that nucleoprotein supplementation has a synergistic effect with reloading in recovering skeletal muscle properties after a period of unloading via rpS6 activation and satellite cell differentiation and incorporation into the muscle fibers. Therefore, this supplement may be an effective therapeutic regimen to include in rehabilitative strategies for a variety of muscle wasting conditions such as aging, cancer cachexia, muscular dystrophy, bed rest, and cast immobilization.

Lrrc75b is a novel negative regulator of C2C12 myogenic differentiation

Many transcription factors and signaling molecules involved in the guidance of myogenic differentiation have been investigated in previous studies. However, the precise molecular mechanisms of myogenic differentiation remain largely unknown. In the present study, by performing a meta-analysis of C2C12 myogenic differentiation microarray data, we found that leucine-rich repeat-containing 75B (Lrrc75b), also known as AI646023, a molecule of unknown biological function, was downregulated during C2C12 myogenic differentiation. The knockdown of Lrrc75b using specific siRNA in C2C12 myoblasts markedly enhanced the expression of muscle-specific myogenin and increased myoblast fusion and the myotube diameter. By contrast, the adenovirus-mediated overexpression of Lrrc75b in C2C12 cells markedly inhibited myoblast differentiation accompanied by a decrease in myogenin expression. In addition, the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (Erk1/2) was suppressed in the cells in which Lrrc75b was silenced. Taken together, our results demonstrate that Lrrc75b is a novel suppressor of C2C12 myogenic differentiation by modulating myogenin and Erk1/2 signaling.

The role of sex steroid hormones in the pathophysiology and treatment of sarcopenia

Sex steroids influence the maintenance and growth of muscles. Decline in androgens, estrogens and progesterone by aging leads to the loss of muscular function and mass, sarcopenia. These steroid hormones can interact with different signaling pathways through their receptors. To date, sex steroid hormone receptors and their exact roles are not completely defined in skeletal and smooth muscles. Although numerous studies focused on the effects of sex steroid hormones on different types of cells, still many unexplained molecular mechanisms in both skeletal and smooth muscle cells remain to be investigated. In this paper, many different molecular mechanisms that are activated or inhibited by sex steroids and those that influence the growth, proliferation, and differentiation of skeletal and smooth muscle cells are reviewed. Also, the similarities of cellular and molecular pathways of androgens, estrogens and progesterone in both skeletal and smooth muscle cells are highlighted. The reviewed signaling pathways and participating molecules can be targeted in the future development of novel therapeutics.

Insulin-like Growth Factor-II Delays Early but Enhances Late Regeneration of Skeletal Muscle

This study tested whether administration of insulin-like growth factor-II (IGF-II) enhances muscle regeneration. Rat biceps femoris muscle was damaged with notexin and then IGF-II was administered for up to 7 days. Results show that the proportion of nuclei containing or surrounded by immunoreactivity to MyoD, myogenin, and developmental myosin heavy chain (dMHC) is less in the IGF-II treatment group relative to the control group on days 1 (p=0.057), 2 (p=0.034), and 3 (p=0.047), respectively. This indicates a delay in muscle precursor cell (MPC) proliferation and differentiation with IGF-II administration. This effect was not associated with decreased binding capacity of the type 1 IGF receptor, as determined by receptor autoradiography in day 1 muscle sections (NS), but was associated with inhibition of phagocytic processes. The cross-sectional area of regenerating muscle fibers was significantly greater in the IGF-II treatment group than in the control group by day 7 (p=0.0092). The enhancing effect of IGF-II on late muscle regeneration, when the main process taking place is fiber enlargement, coincides with the period in which IGF-II is normally expressed by regenerating muscle, indicating that greater endogenous production of IGF-II would be associated with improved regeneration.

Raf kinase inhibitor protein1 is a myogenic inhibitor with conserved function in avians and mammals

BACKGROUND

Raf Kinase Inhibitor Protein1 (RKIP) is a tumor suppressor that is present in several adult tissues. It functions as an inhibitor of both Raf/Mek/Erk and NFĸB signaling when unphosphorylated, but following phosphorylation the ability to inhibit Raf/Mek/Erk signaling is lost and RKIP becomes an activator of G-protein coupled receptor signaling. In neonates and adults, RKIP is known to be expressed in muscle; however, its physiological function is currently unknown.

RESULTS

In this study, we show by in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence that RKIP is also expressed in developing chick embryonic muscle, and mouse C2C12 myoblasts. Furthermore, we demonstrate that, in these systems, it functions as an inhibitor of myogenesis: increased levels of RKIP suppress myotube differentiation whereas decreasing RKIP promotes differentiation. Additionally, we show that the ability of RKIP to inhibit myogenesis is dependent upon its phosphorylation state as only the nonphosphorylated form of RKIP suppresses myogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

This study, therefore, clearly demonstrates that RKIP has conserved functions as a myogenic inhibitor in both mammalian and avian muscle. Developmental Dynamics 245:902-912, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Human cytomegalovirus inhibits apoptosis involving upregulation of the antiapoptotic protein Bag-1

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is an important opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised individuals and is recognized as a major viral cause of birth defects. HCMV has the ability to establish lifelong persistence and latent infection following primary exposure. Apoptosis is an innate cellular defense response to viral infection. HCMV can block apoptosis in various cell types. Here we show that HCMV promotes survival of human embryonic lung fibroblasts by activating of MAPK/ERK signaling pathway. Bag-1 is up-regulated in a MAPK/ERK-dependent fashion in infected cells. Depletion of Bag-1 suppresses the antiapoptotic effect of HCMV. Taken together, these data indicate that Bag-1 up-regulation is required to maintain apoptosis resistance in HCMV infected cells.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1: function and regulation in bone and related tissues

In this review, we have highlighted work that has clearly demonstrated that mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphatase-1 (MKP-1), a negative regulator of MAPKs, is an important signaling mediator in bone, muscle, and fat tissue homeostasis and differentiation. Further, we examined recent studies with particular focus on MKP-1 overexpression or deletion and its impact on tissues connected to bone. We also summarized regulation of MKP-1 by known skeletal regulators like parathyroid hormone (PTH)/PTH-related peptide (PTHrP) and bone morphogenic proteins. MKP-1's integration into the pathophysiological state of osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, obesity, and muscular dystrophy are examined to emphasize possible involvement of MKP-1 both at the molecular level and in disease complications such as sarcopenia- or diabetes-related osteoporosis. We predict that understanding the mechanism of MKP-1-mediated signaling in bone-muscle-fat crosstalk will be a key in coordinating their activities and developing therapeutics to improve clinical outcomes for diseases associated with advanced age.

Integrative Analyses of miRNA-mRNA Interactions Reveal let-7b, miR-128 and MAPK Pathway Involvement in Muscle Mass Loss in Sex-Linked Dwarf Chickens

The sex-linked dwarf (SLD) chicken is an ideal model system for understanding growth hormone (GH)-action and growth hormone receptor (GHR) function because of its recessive mutation in the GHR gene. Skeletal muscle mass is reduced in the SLD chicken with a smaller muscle fiber diameter. Our previous study has presented the mRNA and miRNA expression profiles of the SLD chicken and normal chicken between embryo day 14 and seven weeks of age. However, the molecular mechanism of GHR-deficient induced muscle mass loss is still unclear, and the key molecules and pathways underlying the GHR-deficient induced muscle mass loss also remain to be illustrated. Here, by functional network analysis of the differentially expressed miRNAs and mRNAs between the SLD and normal chickens, we revealed that let-7b, miR-128 and the MAPK pathway might play key roles in the GHR-deficient induced muscle mass loss, and that the reduced cell division and growth are potential cellular processes during the SLD chicken skeletal muscle development. Additionally, we also found some genes and miRNAs involved in chicken skeletal muscle development, through the MAPK, PI3K-Akt, Wnt and Insulin signaling pathways. This study provides new insights into the molecular mechanism underlying muscle mass loss in the SLD chickens, and some regulatory networks that are crucial for chicken skeletal muscle development.

β-Arrestin scaffolds and signaling elements essential for the obestatin/GPR39 system that determine the myogenic program in human myoblast cells

Obestatin/GPR39 signaling stimulates skeletal muscle repair by inducing the expansion of satellite stem cells as well as myofiber hypertrophy. Here, we describe that the obestatin/GPR39 system acts as autocrine/paracrine factor on human myogenesis. Obestatin regulated multiple steps of myogenesis: myoblast proliferation, cell cycle exit, differentiation and recruitment to fuse and form multinucleated hypertrophic myotubes. Obestatin-induced mitogenic action was mediated by ERK1/2 and JunD activity, being orchestrated by a G-dependent mechanism. At a later stage of myogenesis, scaffolding proteins β-arrestin 1 and 2 were essential for the activation of cell cycle exit and differentiation through the transactivation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Upon obestatin stimulus, β-arrestins are recruited to the membrane, where they functionally interact with GPR39 leading to Src activation and signalplex formation to EGFR transactivation by matrix metalloproteinases. This signalplex regulated the mitotic arrest by p21 and p57 expression and the mid- to late stages of differentiation through JNK/c-Jun, CAMKII, Akt and p38 pathways. This finding not only provides the first functional activity for β-arrestins in myogenesis but also identify potential targets for therapeutic approaches by triggering specific signaling arms of the GPR39 signaling involved in myogenesis.

Craniofacial Muscle Development

The developmental mechanisms that control head muscle formation are distinct from those that operate in the trunk. Head and neck muscles derive from various mesoderm populations in the embryo and are regulated by distinct transcription factors and signaling molecules. Throughout the last decade, developmental, and lineage studies in vertebrates and invertebrates have revealed the peculiar nature of the pharyngeal mesoderm that forms certain head muscles and parts of the heart. Studies in chordates, the ancestors of vertebrates, revealed an evolutionarily conserved cardiopharyngeal field that progressively facilitates the development of both heart and craniofacial structures during vertebrate evolution. This ancient regulatory circuitry preceded and facilitated the emergence of myogenic cell types and hierarchies that exist in vertebrates. This chapter summarizes studies related to the origins, signaling circuits, genetics, and evolution of the head musculature, highlighting its heterogeneous characteristics in all these aspects, with a special focus on the FGF-ERK pathway. Additionally, we address the processes of head muscle regeneration, and the development of stem cell-based therapies for treatment of muscle disorders.

Role of Raf-kinase inhibitor protein in colorectal cancer and its regulation by hydroxycamptothecine

Background

Recently accumulated evidence suggests that Raf kinase inhibitor protein (RKIP) participates in regulation of many signaling pathways and plays an important role in tumorigenesis and tumor metastasis. However, studies investigating the role of RKIP in colorectal cancer have not been reported. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of RKIP on colorectal cancer cell differentiation, progression and its correlation with chemosensitivity.

Results

Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that RKIP expression was higher in non-neoplastic colorectal tissue (NCRCT) and colorectal cancer tissue (CRCT) than that in metastatic lymph node tissue (MLNT) (P <0.05). P-ERK protein expression was higher in MLNT and CRCT than that in NCRCT (P = 0.02). Immunocytochemical analysis further revealed that RKIP expression was higher in the well differentiated cell line SW1116 as compared to that in the poorly differentiated cell line LoVo. Matrigel invasive assay demonstrated that the inhibition of RKIP by short hairpin RNA (shRNA) 271 transfection significantly increased the number of migrated cells (90.67 ± 4.04 vs. 37.33 ± 2.51, P <0.05), whereas over-expression of RKIP by PEBP-1 plasmid transfection significantly suppressed the number of migrated cells (79.24 ± 5.18 vs. 154.33 ± 7.25, P <0.05). Meanwhile, down-regulation of RKIP induced an increase in the cell survival rate by inhibiting apoptosis induced by hydroxycamptothecine.

Conclusions

RKIP was also found to be associated with cell differentiation, with a higher activity in well differentiated colorectal cancer cells than in poorly differentiated ones. The upregulated expression of RKIP in colorectal cancer cells inhibited cell invasion and metastasis, while downregulation of RKIP reduced chemosensitivity by inhibiting apoptosis induced by HCPT.

The role of Na+/K+-ATPase during chick skeletal myogenesis

The formation of a vertebrate skeletal muscle fiber involves a series of sequential and interdependent events that occurs during embryogenesis. One of these events is myoblast fusion which has been widely studied, yet not completely understood. It was previously shown that during myoblast fusion there is an increase in the expression of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. This fact prompted us to search for a role of the enzyme during chick in vitro skeletal myogenesis. Chick myogenic cells were treated with the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase inhibitor ouabain in four different concentrations (0.01-10 μM) and analyzed. Our results show that 0.01, 0.1 and 1 μM ouabain did not induce changes in cell viability, whereas 10 μM induced a 45% decrease. We also observed a reduction in the number and thickness of multinucleated myotubes and a decrease in the number of myoblasts after 10 μM ouabain treatment. We tested the involvement of MEK-ERK and p38 signaling pathways in the ouabain-induced effects during myogenesis, since both pathways have been associated with Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. The MEK-ERK inhibitor U0126 alone did not alter cell viability and did not change ouabain effect. The p38 inhibitor SB202190 alone or together with 10 μM ouabain did not alter cell viability. Our results show that the 10 μM ouabain effects in myofiber formation do not involve the MEK-ERK or the p38 signaling pathways, and therefore are probably related to the pump activity function of the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase.

Action of obestatin in skeletal muscle repair: stem cell expansion, muscle growth, and microenvironment remodeling

The development of therapeutic strategies for skeletal muscle diseases, such as physical injuries and myopathies, depends on the knowledge of regulatory signals that control the myogenic process. The obestatin/GPR39 system operates as an autocrine signal in the regulation of skeletal myogenesis. Using a mouse model of skeletal muscle regeneration after injury and several cellular strategies, we explored the potential use of obestatin as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of trauma-induced muscle injuries. Our results evidenced that the overexpression of the preproghrelin, and thus obestatin, and GPR39 in skeletal muscle increased regeneration after muscle injury. More importantly, the intramuscular injection of obestatin significantly enhanced muscle regeneration by simulating satellite stem cell expansion as well as myofiber hypertrophy through a kinase hierarchy. Added to the myogenic action, the obestatin administration resulted in an increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)/vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) and the consequent microvascularization, with no effect on collagen deposition in skeletal muscle. Furthermore, the potential inhibition of myostatin during obestatin treatment might contribute to its myogenic action improving muscle growth and regeneration. Overall, our data demonstrate successful improvement of muscle regeneration, indicating obestatin is a potential therapeutic agent for skeletal muscle injury and would benefit other myopathies related to muscle regeneration.

Mice lacking MKP-1 and MKP-5 Reveal Hierarchical Regulation of Regenerative Myogenesis

The relative contribution of the MAP kinase phosphatases (MKPs) in the integration of MAP kinase-dependent signaling during regenerative myogenesis has yet to be fully investigated. MKP-1 and MKP-5 maintain skeletal muscle homeostasis by providing positive and negative effects on regenerative myogenesis, respectively. In order to define the hierarchical contributions of MKP-1 and MKP-5 in the regulation of regenerative myogenesis we genetically ablated both MKPs in mice. MKP-1/MKP 5-deficient double-knockout (MKP1/5- DKO) mice were viable, and upon skeletal muscle injury, were severely impaired in their capacity to regenerate skeletal muscle. Satellite cells were fewer in number in MKP1/5-DKO mice and displayed a reduced proliferative capacity as compared with those derived from wild-type mice. MKP1/5-DKO mice exhibited increased inflammation and the macrophage M1 to M2 transition during the resolution of inflammation was impaired following injury. These results demonstrate that the actions of MKP-1 to positively regulate myogenesis predominate over those of MKP-5, which negatively regulates myogenesis. Hence, MKP-1 and MKP-5 function to maintain skeletal muscle homeostasis through non-overlapping and opposing signaling pathways.

Angiotensin type 2 receptor signaling in satellite cells potentiates skeletal muscle regeneration

Patients with advanced congestive heart failure (CHF) or chronic kidney disease (CKD) often have increased angiotensin II (Ang II) levels and cachexia. Ang II infusion in rodents causes sustained skeletal muscle wasting and decreases muscle regenerative potential through Ang II type 1 receptor (AT1R)-mediated signaling, likely contributing to the development of cachexia in CHF and CKD. However, the potential role of Ang II type 2 receptor (AT2R) signaling in skeletal muscle physiology is unknown. We found that AT2R expression was increased robustly in regenerating skeletal muscle after cardiotoxin (CTX)-induced muscle injury in vivo and differentiating myoblasts in vitro, suggesting that the increase in AT2R played an important role in regulating myoblast differentiation and muscle regeneration. To determine the potential role of AT2R in muscle regeneration, we infused C57BL/6 mice with the AT2R antagonist PD123319 during CTX-induced muscle regeneration. PD123319 reduced the size of regenerating myofibers and expression of the myoblast differentiation markers myogenin and embryonic myosin heavy chain. On the other hand, AT2R agonist CGP42112 infusion potentiated CTX injury-induced myogenin and embryonic myosin heavy chain expression and increased the size of regenerating myofibers. In cultured myoblasts, AT2R knockdown by siRNA suppressed myoblast differentiation marker expression and myoblast differentiation via up-regulation of phospho-ERK1/2, and ERK inhibitor treatment completely blocked the effect of AT2R knockdown. These data indicate that AT2R signaling positively regulates myoblast differentiation and potentiates skeletal muscle regenerative potential, providing a new therapeutic target in wasting disorders such as CHF and CKD.

Chlamydia inhibit host cell apoptosis by inducing Bag-1 via the MAPK/ERK survival pathway

Chlamydia are obligate intracellular bacteria that frequently cause human disease. Host cells infected with Chlamydia are profoundly resistant to diverse apoptotic stimuli. The inhibition of apoptosis is thought to be an important immune escape mechanism allowing Chlamydia to productively complete their obligate intracellular growth cycle. Chlamydial antiapoptotic activity involves activation of the MAPK/ERK survival pathway. However, the molecular mechanisms are not well understood. Here we show that Bag-1 is up-regulated in Chlamydia-infected cells. U0126 and GW5074 suppress the induction of Bag-1 by Chlamydia, implying that Chlamydia may up-regulate Bag-1 via the MAPK/ERK survival pathway. Overexpression of Bag-1 is sufficient to protect against apoptosis, while depletion of Bag-1 suppresses the antiapoptotic effect of Chlamydia. The data indicate Chlamydia may up-regulate Bag-1 through the MAPK/ERK survival pathway to suppress apoptosis.

In situ mechanotransduction via vinculin regulates stem cell differentiation

Human mesenchymal stem cell (hMSC) proliferation, migration, and differentiation have all been linked to extracellular matrix stiffness, yet the signaling pathway(s) that are necessary for mechanotransduction remain unproven. Vinculin has been implicated as a mechanosensor in vitro, but here we demonstrate its ability to also regulate stem cell behavior, including hMSC differentiation. RNA interference-mediated vinculin knockdown significantly decreased stiffness-induced MyoD, a muscle transcription factor, but not Runx2, an osteoblast transcription factor, and impaired stiffness-mediated migration. A kinase binding accessibility screen predicted a cryptic MAPK1 signaling site in vinculin which could regulate these behaviors. Indeed, reintroduction of vinculin domains into knocked down cells indicated that MAPK1 binding site-containing vinculin constructs were necessary for hMSC expression of MyoD. Vinculin knockdown does not appear to interfere with focal adhesion assembly, significantly alter adhesive properties, or diminish cell traction force generation, indicating that its knockdown only adversely affected MAPK1 signaling. These data provide some of the first evidence that a force-sensitive adhesion protein can regulate stem cell fate.

Suppression of protein kinase C theta contributes to enhanced myogenesis in vitro via IRS1 and ERK1/2 phosphorylation

Background

Differentiation and fusion of skeletal muscle myoblasts into multi-nucleated myotubes is required for neonatal development and regeneration in adult skeletal muscle. Herein, we report novel findings that protein kinase C theta (PKCθ) regulates myoblast differentiation via phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 and ERK1/2.

Results

In this study, PKCθ knockdown (PKCθ^shRNA) myotubes had reduced inhibitory insulin receptor substrate-1 ser1095 phosphorylation, enhanced myoblast differentiation and cell fusion, and increased rates of protein synthesis as determined by [³H] phenylalanine incorporation. Phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 ser632/635 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2) was increased in PKCθ^shRNA cells, with no change in ERK5 phosphorylation, highlighting a PKCθ-regulated myogenic pathway. Inhibition of PI3-kinase prevented cell differentiation and fusion in control cells, which was attenuated in PKCθ^shRNA cells. Thus, with reduced PKCθ, differentiation and fusion occur in the absence of PI3-kinase activity. Inhibition of the ERK kinase, MEK1/2, impaired differentiation and cell fusion in control cells. Differentiation was preserved in PKCθ^shRNA cells treated with a MEK1/2 inhibitor, although cell fusion was blunted, indicating PKCθ regulates differentiation via IRS1 and ERK1/2, and this occurs independently of MEK1/2 activation.

Conclusion

Cellular signaling regulating the myogenic program and protein synthesis are complex and intertwined. These studies suggest that PKCθ regulates myogenic and protein synthetic signaling via the modulation of IRS1and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Myotubes lacking PKCθ had increased rates of protein synthesis and enhanced myotube development despite reduced activation of the canonical anabolic-signaling pathway. Further investigation of PKCθ regulated signaling may reveal important interactions regulating skeletal muscle health in an insulin resistant state.

Epidermal growth factor receptor down-regulation triggers human myoblast differentiation

Initiation of human myoblast differentiation requires a negative shift (hyperpolarization) of the resting potential of myoblasts that depends on the activation of Kir2.1 potassium channels. These channels are regulated by a tyrosine phosphorylation. Using human primary myoblast culture, we investigated a possible role of various receptor tyrosine kinases in the induction of the differentiation process. We found that Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) is a key regulator of myoblast differentiation. EGFR activity is down-regulated during early human myoblast differentiation, and this event is required for normal differentiation to take place. Furthermore, EGFR silencing in proliferation conditions was able to trigger the differentiation program. This occurs through an increase of Kir2.1 channel activity that, via a rise of store-operated Ca²⁺ entry, leads to the expression of myogenic transcription factors and muscle specific proteins (Myogenin, Myocyte Enhancer Factor 2 (MEF2), Myosin Heavy Chain (MyHC)). Finally, blocking myoblast cell cycle in proliferation conditions using a cdk4 inhibitor greatly decreased myoblast proliferation but was not able, on its own, to promote myoblast differentiation. Taken together, these results show that EGFR down-regulation is an early event that is required for the induction of myoblast differentiation.