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Elgundi Z, Papanicolaou M, Major G, Cox TR, Melrose J, Whitelock JM, Farrugia BL. Cancer Metastasis: The Role of the Extracellular Matrix and the Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Perlecan. Front Oncol 2020; 9:1482. [PMID: 32010611 PMCID: PMC6978720 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.01482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer metastasis is the dissemination of tumor cells to new sites, resulting in the formation of secondary tumors. This process is complex and is spatially and temporally regulated by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. One important extrinsic factor is the extracellular matrix, the non-cellular component of tissues. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are constituents of the extracellular matrix, and through their heparan sulfate chains and protein core, modulate multiple events that occur during the metastatic cascade. This review will provide an overview of the role of the extracellular matrix in the events that occur during cancer metastasis, primarily focusing on perlecan. Perlecan, a basement membrane HSPG is a key component of the vascular extracellular matrix and is commonly associated with events that occur during the metastatic cascade. Its contradictory role in these events will be discussed and we will highlight the recent advances in cancer therapies that target HSPGs and their modifying enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zehra Elgundi
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Michael Papanicolaou
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, UNSW Sydney, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia.,School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Gretel Major
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, UNSW Sydney, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia
| | - Thomas R Cox
- The Garvan Institute of Medical Research and The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, UNSW Sydney, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - James Melrose
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Research Laboratories, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital, University of Sydney, St Leonards, NSW, Australia
| | - John M Whitelock
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Brooke L Farrugia
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Melbourne School of Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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2
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Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) as a Cancer Biomarker and MMP-9 Biosensors: Recent Advances. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18103249. [PMID: 30262739 PMCID: PMC6211011 DOI: 10.3390/s18103249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 406] [Impact Index Per Article: 67.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 09/23/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
As one of the most widely investigated matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), MMP-9 is a significant protease which plays vital roles in many biological processes. MMP-9 can cleave many extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins to regulate ECM remodeling. It can also cleave many plasma surface proteins to release them from the cell surface. MMP-9 has been widely found to relate to the pathology of cancers, including but not limited to invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis. Some recent research evaluated the value of MMP-9 as biomarkers to various specific cancers. Besides, recent research of MMP-9 biosensors discovered various novel MMP-9 biosensors to detect this enzyme. In this review, some recent advances in exploring MMP-9 as a biomarker in different cancers are summarized, and recent discoveries of novel MMP-9 biosensors are also presented.
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3
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Solymar M, Ivic I, Balasko M, Fulop BD, Toth G, Tamas A, Reman G, Koller A, Reglodi D. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide ameliorates vascular dysfunction induced by hyperglycaemia. Diab Vasc Dis Res 2018; 15:277-285. [PMID: 29466879 DOI: 10.1177/1479164118757922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Short-lasting hyperglycaemia occurs frequently in prediabetes and poorly controlled diabetes mellitus leading to vascular damage. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) has been shown to play a protective role in vascular complications of diabetes; moreover, antioxidant effects of PACAP were also described. Therefore, we hypothesized that PACAP exerts protective effects in short-term hyperglycaemia-induced vascular dysfunctions. METHODS After short-term hyperglycaemia, acetylcholine-induced and sodium nitroprusside-induced vascular relaxation of mouse carotid arteries were tested with a myograph with or without the presence of PACAP or superoxide dismutase. Potential direct antioxidant superoxide-scavenging action of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide was tested with pyrogallol autoxidation assay; furthermore, the effect of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide or superoxide dismutase was investigated on hyperglycaemia-associated vascular markers. RESULTS PACAP administration resulted in reduced endothelial dysfunction after a 1-h hyperglycaemic episode. PACAP was able to restore acetylcholine-induced relaxation of the vessels and improved sodium nitroprusside-induced relaxation. This effect was comparable to the protective effect of superoxide dismutase, but PACAP was unable to directly scavenge superoxide produced by autoxidation of pyrogallol. Endothelial dysfunction was associated with elevated levels of fibroblast growth factor basic, matrix metalloproteinase 9 and nephroblastoma overexpressed gene proteins. Their release was reduced by PACAP administration. CONCLUSION These results suggest a strong protective role of PACAP in the vascular complications of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margit Solymar
- 1 Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Ivan Ivic
- 2 Department of Anatomy, MTA-PTE PACAP Research Team, Centre for Neuroscience, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Marta Balasko
- 1 Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Balazs D Fulop
- 2 Department of Anatomy, MTA-PTE PACAP Research Team, Centre for Neuroscience, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Gabor Toth
- 3 Department of Medical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Andrea Tamas
- 2 Department of Anatomy, MTA-PTE PACAP Research Team, Centre for Neuroscience, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Gyongyver Reman
- 2 Department of Anatomy, MTA-PTE PACAP Research Team, Centre for Neuroscience, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Akos Koller
- 4 Department of Physiology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA
- 5 Department of Neurosurgery, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
- 6 Institute of Natural Sciences, University of Physical Education, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Dora Reglodi
- 2 Department of Anatomy, MTA-PTE PACAP Research Team, Centre for Neuroscience, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
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4
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Abstract
Matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) are a family of structurally related enzymes that are capable of degrading proteins of the extracellular matrix. These enzymes play a role in tissue remodelling associated with both physiological and pathogenic processes. A high expression of MMPs is associated with cancer malignancy: it is related to the tumor's ability to metastasize and to the process of angiogenesis. Treatment with MMP inhibitors alone or in combination with cytotoxic therapy is an interesting novel approach to control tumor progression. The expected mechanism of action of these compounds and the difference in side effects compared to cytotoxic drugs make the definition of endpoints and the assessment of response difficult. Furthermore, it is not yet clear whether tumor vascularization or, more specifically, MMP expression/activation should be a criterion of eligibility for this kind of treatment. This review provides an overview of the characteristics of MMPs and their role in tumor progression, metastasis and angiogenesis. Preclinical and clinical studies with synthetic MMP inhibitors are described. The presence of MMPs in biological fluids of patients and their use in prognostic evaluation and in determining the efficacy of treatment with MMP inhibitors is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Belotti
- Laboratory of the Biology and Treatment of Metastasis, Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Bergamo, Italy
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5
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Impact of exogenous adrenocorticotropic hormone on gelatinase expression and steroidogenesis in the newly formed corpus luteum in sows. Livest Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.livsci.2017.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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6
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Heusschen R, Muller J, Binsfeld M, Marty C, Plougonven E, Dubois S, Mahli N, Moermans K, Carmeliet G, Léonard A, Baron F, Beguin Y, Menu E, Cohen-Solal M, Caers J. SRC kinase inhibition with saracatinib limits the development of osteolytic bone disease in multiple myeloma. Oncotarget 2017; 7:30712-29. [PMID: 27095574 PMCID: PMC5058712 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.8750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple myeloma (MM)-associated osteolytic bone disease is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in MM patients and the development of new therapeutic strategies is of great interest. The proto-oncogene SRC is an attractive target for such a strategy. In the current study, we investigated the effect of treatment with the SRC inhibitor saracatinib (AZD0530) on osteoclast and osteoblast differentiation and function, and on the development of MM and its associated bone disease in the 5TGM.1 and 5T2MM murine MM models. In vitro data showed an inhibitory effect of saracatinib on osteoclast differentiation, polarization and resorptive function. In osteoblasts, collagen deposition and matrix mineralization were affected by saracatinib. MM cell proliferation and tumor burden remained unaltered following saracatinib treatment and we could not detect any synergistic effects with drugs that are part of standard care in MM. We observed a marked reduction of bone loss after treatment of MM-bearing mice with saracatinib as reflected by a restoration of trabecular bone parameters to levels observed in naive control mice. Histomorphometric analyses support that this occurs through an inhibition of bone resorption. In conclusion, these data further establish SRC inhibition as a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of MM-associated osteolytic bone disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Heusschen
- Laboratory of Hematology, GIGA-Research, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Joséphine Muller
- Laboratory of Hematology, GIGA-Research, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Marilène Binsfeld
- Laboratory of Hematology, GIGA-Research, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Caroline Marty
- INSERM-UMR-1132, Hôpital Lariboisière and Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Erwan Plougonven
- Department of Chemical Engineering, PEPs (Products, Environments, Processes), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Sophie Dubois
- Laboratory of Hematology, GIGA-Research, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Nadia Mahli
- Laboratory of Hematology, GIGA-Research, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Karen Moermans
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Geert Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Angélique Léonard
- Department of Chemical Engineering, PEPs (Products, Environments, Processes), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Frédéric Baron
- Laboratory of Hematology, GIGA-Research, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, University and CHU of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Yves Beguin
- Laboratory of Hematology, GIGA-Research, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, University and CHU of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Eline Menu
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Martine Cohen-Solal
- INSERM-UMR-1132, Hôpital Lariboisière and Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Jo Caers
- Laboratory of Hematology, GIGA-Research, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, University and CHU of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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7
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Hua D, Kong W, Zheng X, Zhou Z, Yu B, Li Y, Wang Y, Yang X, Liu C, Tang L, Li Y, Gong M. Potent tumor targeting drug release system comprising MMP-2 specific peptide fragment with self-assembling characteristics. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2014; 8:1839-49. [PMID: 25342883 PMCID: PMC4206202 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s67305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Self-assembling peptides are capable of forming a complex containing a cavity where cytotoxic agents can be wrapped in a self-assembling manner. These complexes are beneficial for improving the pharmacological properties and pharmacokinetics of cytotoxic agents, such as doxorubicin and paclitaxel. In the present study, this self-assembling feature was successfully integrated into a hexapeptide with matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 specific targeting activity, producing a supramolecule possessing controlled drug release characteristics. The MMP-2 specific substrate fragment, PVGLIG, makes this supramolecule disassociate in the presence of MMP-2, and this system is considered to be a powerful tool for the treatment of tumors with high expression of MMP-2 or tumor metastasis. Our findings show that this modified self-assembling peptide with the PVGLIG fragment was able to significantly enhance specificity against HT1080 cells, a tumor cell line with high expression of MMP-2. In addition, residence time of the complex in blood was prolonged since paclitaxel was wrapped into the supramolecule. Our results suggest that the modified MMP-2 specific substrate, SAMTA7, could act as a controlled and sustained drug carrier for treatment of tumors with high expression of MMP-2 and for tumor metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Hua
- School of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Weiling Kong
- Tianjin Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Delivery and Pharmacokinetics, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuemin Zheng
- Tianjin Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Delivery and Pharmacokinetics, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhixing Zhou
- Tianjin Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Delivery and Pharmacokinetics, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Bing Yu
- Tianjin Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Delivery and Pharmacokinetics, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Yazhou Li
- Tianjin Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Delivery and Pharmacokinetics, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuli Wang
- Tianjin Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Delivery and Pharmacokinetics, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue Yang
- Tianjin Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Delivery and Pharmacokinetics, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Changxiao Liu
- Tianjin Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Delivery and Pharmacokinetics, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Lida Tang
- Tianjin Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Delivery and Pharmacokinetics, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Li
- Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Min Gong
- Tianjin Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Delivery and Pharmacokinetics, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
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8
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O'Sullivan S, Medina C, Ledwidge M, Radomski MW, Gilmer JF. Nitric oxide-matrix metaloproteinase-9 interactions: biological and pharmacological significance--NO and MMP-9 interactions. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2014; 1843:603-17. [PMID: 24333402 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2013.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2013] [Revised: 12/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) levels are found to increase in inflammation states and in cancer, and their levels may be reciprocally modulated. Understanding interactions between NO and MMP-9 is of biological and pharmacological relevance and may prove crucial in designing new therapeutics. The reciprocal interaction between NO and MMP-9 have been studied for nearly twenty years but to our knowledge, are yet to be the subject of a review. This review provides a summary of published data regarding the complex and sometimes contradictory effects of NO on MMP-9. We also analyse molecular mechanisms modulating and mediating NO-MMP-9 interactions. Finally, a potential therapeutic relevance of these interactions is presented.
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9
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Yabluchanskiy A, Ma Y, Iyer RP, Hall ME, Lindsey ML. Matrix metalloproteinase-9: Many shades of function in cardiovascular disease. Physiology (Bethesda) 2014; 28:391-403. [PMID: 24186934 DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00029.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 331] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, one of the most widely investigated MMPs, regulates pathological remodeling processes that involve inflammation and fibrosis in cardiovascular disease. MMP-9 directly degrades extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins and activates cytokines and chemokines to regulate tissue remodeling. MMP-9 deletion or inhibition has proven overall beneficial in multiple animal models of cardiovascular disease. As such, MMP-9 expression and activity is a common end point measured. MMP-9 cell-specific overexpression, however, has also proven beneficial and highlights the fact that little information is available on the underlying mechanisms of MMP-9 function. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of MMP-9 physiology, including structure, regulation, activation, and downstream effects of increased MMP-9. We discuss MMP-9 roles during inflammation and fibrosis in cardiovascular disease. By concentrating on the substrates of MMP-9 and their roles in cardiovascular disease, we explore the overall function and discuss future directions on the translational potential of MMP-9 based therapies.
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10
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Lovren F, Verma S. Evolving role of microparticles in the pathophysiology of endothelial dysfunction. Clin Chem 2013; 59:1166-74. [PMID: 23529703 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2012.199711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Endothelial dysfunction is an early event in the development and progression of a wide range of cardiovascular diseases. Various human studies have identified that measures of endothelial dysfunction may offer prognostic information with respect to vascular events. Microparticles (MPs) are a heterogeneous population of small membrane fragments shed from various cell types. The endothelium is one of the primary targets of circulating MPs, and MPs isolated from blood have been considered biomarkers of vascular injury and inflammation. CONTENT This review summarizes current knowledge of the potential functional role of circulating MPs in promoting endothelial dysfunction. Cells exposed to different stimuli such as shear stress, physiological agonists, proapoptotic stimulation, or damage release MPs, which contribute to endothelial dysfunction and the development of cardiovascular diseases. Numerous studies indicate that MPs may trigger endothelial dysfunction by disrupting production of nitric oxide release from vascular endothelial cells and subsequently modifying vascular tone. Circulating MPs affect both proinflammatory and proatherosclerotic processes in endothelial cells. In addition, MPs can promote coagulation and inflammation or alter angiogenesis and apoptosis in endothelial cells. SUMMARY MPs play an important role in promoting endothelial dysfunction and may prove to be true biomarkers of disease state and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fina Lovren
- Division of Cardiac Surgery, Keenan Research Centre in the Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute at St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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11
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Tramentozzi E, Tibaldi E, Brunati AM, Pagetta A, Finotti P. Crucial role of HSP90 in the Akt-dependent promotion of angiogenic-like effect of glucose-regulated protein94 (Grp94)-IgG complexes. J Cell Mol Med 2012; 15:2768-80. [PMID: 21323861 PMCID: PMC4373444 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2011.01275.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous observations showed that complexes of glucose-regulated protein94 (Grp94) with human IgG, both those isolated from plasma of diabetic subjects and complexes formed in vitro, displayed cytokine-like effects on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), including angiogenic-like transformation capacity that predicted an increased risk of vascular damage. The aim of the present work was to find an effective inhibitor of the angiogenic-like effect of Grp94-IgG complexes. Because this effect is mediated by an increased expression of matrix metalloprotease-9 (MMP-9), we tested the selective MMP-9 inhibitor, the cyclic decapeptide CTT (CTTHWGFTLC) at 5, 10 and 20 μM. CCT failed to inhibit any morphological alteration induced by Grp94-IgG on HUVECs, on its own displaying a paradoxical angiogenic-like activity. We identified the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway as the specific target activated by both Grp94-IgG and CTT for sustaining the angiogenic-like transformation of HUVECs. Functioning of the PI3K/Akt pathway was crucially dependent on functional heat-shock protein (HSP)90, and both Grp94-IgG and CTT caused and increased expression of HSP90, promoting its localization to podosomes. CTT appeared to enhance the angiogenic-like effect of Grp94-IgG by increasing the rate of secretion of both HSP90 and MMP-9. By preventing the chaperoning capacity of HSP90 with the inhibitor purine-scaffold (PU)-H71 that blocked the ATP-binding site on HSP90, it was possible to inhibit the expression of Akt and secretion of HSP90 and MMP-9 induced by Grp94-IgG, thus completely reversing the angiogenic pattern. Results reveal a fundamental role of HSP90 in the PI3K/Akt pathway-mediated angiogenic-like effect of Grp94-IgG, also questioning the capacity of CTT to serve as an effective inhibitor of the angiogenic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Tramentozzi
- Department of Pharmacology and Anesthesiology, University of Padova, Largo E. Meneghetti, Padova, Italy
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12
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van den Akker J, van Weert A, Afink G, Bakker ENTP, van der Pol E, Böing AN, Nieuwland R, VanBavel E. Transglutaminase 2 is secreted from smooth muscle cells by transamidation-dependent microparticle formation. Amino Acids 2011; 42:961-73. [PMID: 21830119 PMCID: PMC3266506 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-011-1010-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2011] [Accepted: 06/28/2011] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a pleiotropic enzyme involved in both intra- and extracellular processes. In the extracellular matrix, TG2 stabilizes the matrix by both covalent cross-linking and disulfide isomerase activity. These functions become especially apparent during matrix remodeling as seen in wound healing, tumor development and vascular remodeling. However, TG2 lacks the signal sequence for a classical secretory mechanism, and the cellular mechanism of TG2 secretion is currently unknown. We developed a green fluorescent TG2 fusion protein to study the hypothesis that TG2 is secreted via microparticles. Characterization of TG2/eGFP, using HEK/293T cells with a low endogenous TG2 expression, showed that cross-linking activity and fibronectin binding were unaffected. Transfection of TG2/eGFP into smooth muscle cells resulted in the formation of microparticles (MPs) enriched in TG2, as detected both by immunofluorescent microscopy and flow cytometry. The fraction of TG2-positive MPs was significantly lower for cross-linking-deficient mutants of TG2, implicating a functional role for TG2 in the formation of MPs. In conclusion, the current data suggest that TG2 is secreted from the cell via microparticles through a process regulated by TG2 cross-linking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen van den Akker
- Departmentt of Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Academic Medical Center L0-120, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Angela van Weert
- Departmentt of Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Academic Medical Center L0-120, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gijs Afink
- Molecular Obstetrics Research Group, Laboratory for Reproductive Biology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Erik N. T. P. Bakker
- Departmentt of Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Academic Medical Center L0-120, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Edwin van der Pol
- Departmentt of Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Academic Medical Center L0-120, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anita N. Böing
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rienk Nieuwland
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ed VanBavel
- Departmentt of Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Academic Medical Center L0-120, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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13
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Cauwe B, Opdenakker G. Intracellular substrate cleavage: a novel dimension in the biochemistry, biology and pathology of matrix metalloproteinases. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2010; 45:351-423. [DOI: 10.3109/10409238.2010.501783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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14
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Modulation of metalloproteinase-9 in U87MG glioblastoma cells by A3 adenosine receptors. Biochem Pharmacol 2010; 79:1483-95. [PMID: 20096265 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2010.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2009] [Revised: 01/11/2010] [Accepted: 01/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we investigated the biological functions of adenosine (ado) in metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) regulation in U87MG human glioblastoma cells. The nucleoside was able to increase both MMP-9 mRNA and protein levels through A3 receptors activation. We revealed that A3 receptor stimulation induced an increase of MMP-9 protein levels in cellular extracts of U87MG cells by phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases (ERK1/2), c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase (pJNK/SAPK), protein kinase B (Akt/PKB) and finally activator protein 1 (AP-1). A3 receptor activation stimulated also an increase of extracellular MMP-9 in the supernatants from U87MG glioblastoma cells. Finally, the Matrigel invasion assay demonstrated that A3 receptors, by inducing an increase in MMP-9 levels, was responsible for an increase of glioblastoma cells invasion. Collectively, these results suggest that ado, through A3 receptors activation, modulates MMP-9 protein levels and plays a role in increasing invasion of U87MG cells.
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15
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Ebrahem Q, Chaurasia SS, Vasanji A, Qi JH, Klenotic PA, Cutler A, Asosingh K, Erzurum S, Anand-Apte B. Cross-talk between vascular endothelial growth factor and matrix metalloproteinases in the induction of neovascularization in vivo. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2009; 176:496-503. [PMID: 19948826 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2010.080642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), a specialized group of enzymes capable of proteolytically degrading extracellular matrix proteins, have been postulated to play an important role in angiogenesis. It has been suggested that MMPs can regulate neovascularization using mechanisms other than simple remodeling of the capillary basement membrane. To determine the interplay between vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and MMPs, we investigated the induction of angiogenesis by recombinant active MMPs and VEGF in vivo. Using a rat corneal micropocket in vivo angiogenesis assay, we observed that the active form of MMP-9 could induce neovascularization in vivo when compared with the pro- form of the enzyme as a control. This angiogenic response could be inhibited by neutralizing VEGF antibody, which suggests that MMPs acts upstream of VEGF. Additional in vitro studies using extracellular matrix loaded with radiolabeled VEGF determined that active MMPs can enzymatically release sequestered VEGF. Interestingly, in vivo angiogenesis induced by VEGF could be inhibited by MMP inhibitors, indicating that MMPs also act downstream of VEGF. In addition, inflammation plays an important role in the induction of angiogenesis mediated by both VEGF and MMPs. Our results suggest that MMPs act both upstream and downstream of VEGF and imply that potential combination therapies of VEGF and MMP inhibitors may be a useful therapeutic approach in diseases of pathological neovascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quteba Ebrahem
- Department of Ophthalmology, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
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16
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Kolaczkowska E, Koziol A, Plytycz B, Arnold B, Opdenakker G. Altered apoptosis of inflammatory neutrophils in MMP-9-deficient mice is due to lower expression and activity of caspase-3. Immunol Lett 2009; 126:73-82. [PMID: 19682497 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2009.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2009] [Revised: 07/21/2009] [Accepted: 08/05/2009] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) is a Zn(2+)-dependent endopeptidase that degrades some of the components of basement membranes and extracellular matrix and thus participates in leukocyte infiltration during inflammation. In a model of zymosan peritonitis, neutrophil infiltration in MMP-deficient (MMP-9(-/-)) mice was significantly weaker at the time of their maximal influx in wild-type mice (6h). However, during the late stages of peritonitis (24h) an extended accumulation of neutrophils was observed in MMP-9(-/-)versus the wild-type mice. Recently, we reported that the ratio of apoptosis of inflammatory leukocytes is impaired in MMP-9(-/-) mice during late peritonitis and the process depends on COX-1-driven PGE(2). Here we scrutinized the alterations in apoptotic mechanisms by comparisons between MMP-9(-/-) and the wild-type mice. Altered apoptosis occurred only during late (24h) peritonitis and concerned only neutrophils, and not macrophages, mast cells or lymphocytes. Furthermore, expression and activity of caspases was altered in MMP-9(-/-) animals, delayed for caspase-8 and -9, and decreased in the case of caspase-3. Also the expression of Bax/Bcl-2 proteins was changed in MMP-9(-/-) mice. These changes, and in particular the impaired neutrophil apoptosis and weaker caspase-3 activity, were restored by the selective COX-1 inhibition. We conclude that in mice lacking MMP-9 the enhanced COX-1-PGE(2) decreases caspase-3 expression and activity leading to impaired apoptosis of inflammatory neutrophils resulting in abnormal accumulation of the cells at the inflammatory focus. The data also reinforce the notion that MMP-9 is a key enzyme in neutrophil biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elzbieta Kolaczkowska
- Department of Evolutionary Immunobiology, Institute of Zoology, Jagiellonian University, ul. Ingardena 6, PL-30-060 Krakow, Poland.
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17
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Tung MC, Tsai CSS, Tung JN, Tsao TY, Chen HC, Yeh KT, Liao CF, Jiang MC. Higher prevalence of secretory CSE1L/CAS in sera of patients with metastatic cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009; 18:1570-7. [PMID: 19383891 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-08-0948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Metastatic markers are highly useful diagnostic and prognostic indicators of cancer metastasis. Herein, we report that secretory CSE1L/CAS, a cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein, is a new marker for metastatic cancer. CAS was colocalized with matrix metalloproteinase-2 in vesicles surrounding the outside of MCF-7 cell membranes, and the COOH-terminal domain of CAS was associated with matrix metalloproteinase-2-containing vesicles. Immunohistochemical staining for CAS was positive in the stroma and gland lumens of human metastatic cancer tissues. CAS was also detected in conditioned medium from B16-F10 melanoma cells and more frequently in the sera of patients with metastatic cancer than in sera from patients with primary cancer. Specifically, the prevalence of serum CAS in serum samples from 146 patients was 58.2% (32 of 55), 32.0% (8 of 25), and 12.1% (8 of 66) for patients with metastatic, invasive, and primary cancers, respectively. Our results suggest that CAS is a secretory protein associated with cancer metastasis, which may have clinical utility in metastatic cancer screening and diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Che Tung
- Department of Medical Research, Tungs' Taichung MetroHarbor Hospital, Taichung County 435, Taiwan
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18
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Lubbe WJ, Pitari GM. Antimetastatic Therapy in Colorectal Cancer: Role of Tumor Cell Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 (Methodology). COLORECTAL CANCER 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-9545-0_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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19
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20
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van Engelen E, Breeveld-Dwarkasing VNA, Taverne MAM, Everts ME, van der Weijden GC, Rutten VPMG. MMP-2 expression precedes the final ripening process of the bovine cervix. Mol Reprod Dev 2008; 75:1669-77. [PMID: 18361420 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.20908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Collagen is denatured in the gradual cervical ripening process during late pregnancy, already before the onset of final cervical ripening at parturition. Matrix Metallo Proteinases (MMPs) might be responsible for this process. To investigate the presence and potential function of MMPs at the different stages of the ripening process, serial cervical biopsies were obtained from 10 cows at Days 185 and 275 of pregnancy (approximately 5 days before calving), at parturition and at 30 days after parturition. The mRNA and protein expression of MMP-1, MMP-2, and MMP-9 and of the tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMP)-1 and TIMP-2 were semi-quantitatively determined using RT-PCR, respectively, zymography, Westernblot, and ELISA techniques and the localization of MMP-2 protein and presence of granulocytes by immunohistochemistry and Luna staining. At parturition compared to 185 days pregnancy the MMP-1 protein expression and the numbers of granulocytes were significantly increased by 3 and 26-fold respectively. MMP-2 mRNA and protein expression had already increased 2.5 (P < 0.05) and twofold (P < 0.05) at 5 days before parturition, prior to final ripening. At that time, MMP-2 was present in smooth muscle cells and extra cellular matrix. TIMP-1 mRNA expression was significantly increased at parturition and TIMP-2 mRNA expression peaked at 5 days before parturition. The increased expression of MMP-2 at 5 days before parturition, suggests that in the cow MMP-2 is responsible for collagen denaturation in the last part of gradual cervical ripening, while MMP-1 and MMP-9 are only active during the final cervical ripening process at parturition.
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Affiliation(s)
- E van Engelen
- Department of Pathobiology, Division of Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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21
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Liao CF, Luo SF, Li LT, Lin CY, Chen YC, Jiang MC. CSE1L/CAS, the cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein, enhances invasion and metastasis but not proliferation of cancer cells. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2008; 27:15. [PMID: 18597698 PMCID: PMC2474842 DOI: 10.1186/1756-9966-27-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2008] [Accepted: 07/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background The cellular apoptosis susceptibility (CAS) protein is regarded as a proliferation-associated protein that associates with tumour proliferation as it associates with microtubule and functions in the mitotic spindle checkpoint. However, there is no any actual experimental study showing CAS (or CSE1 and CSE1L) can increase the proliferation of cancer cells. Previous pathological study has reported that CAS was strongly positive stained in all of the metastasis melanoma that be examined. Thus, CAS may regulate the invasion and metastasis of cancers. CAS is highly expressed in cancers; if CAS is associated with cancer proliferation, then increased CAS expression should be able to increase the proliferation of cancer cells. We studied whether increased CAS expression can increase cancer cell proliferation and whether CAS regulates the invasion of cancer cells. Methods We enhanced or reduced CAS expression by transfecting CAS or anti-CAS expression vectors into human MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The proliferations of cells were determined by trypan blue exclusion assay and flow cytometry analysis. Invasion of cancer cells were determined by matrigel-based invasion assay. Results Our studies showed that increased CAS expression was unable to enhance cancer cell proliferation. Immunofluorescence showed CAS was distributed in cytoplasm areas near cell membrane and cell protrusions. CAS was localized in cytoplasmic vesicle and immunogold electronmicroscopy showed CAS was located in vesicle membrane. CAS overexpression enhanced matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) secretion and cancer cell invasion. Animal experiments showed CAS reduction inhibited the metastasis of B16-F10 melanoma cells by 56% in C57BL/6 mice. Conclusion Our results indicate that CAS increases the invasion but not the proliferation of cancer cells. Thus, CAS plus ECM-degradation proteinases may be used as the markers for predicting the advance of tumour metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching-Fong Liao
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, PR China.
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22
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Bakos RM, Bakos L, Albano Edelweiss MI, Cartell A, Mariante JC, Soles Masiero NCM. Immunohistochemical expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 in melanocytic nevi is altered by ultraviolet B. PHOTODERMATOLOGY PHOTOIMMUNOLOGY & PHOTOMEDICINE 2007; 23:250-4. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0781.2007.00322.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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23
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Ries C, Pitsch T, Mentele R, Zahler S, Egea V, Nagase H, Jochum M. Identification of a novel 82 kDa proMMP-9 species associated with the surface of leukaemic cells: (auto-)catalytic activation and resistance to inhibition by TIMP-1. Biochem J 2007; 405:547-58. [PMID: 17489740 PMCID: PMC2267301 DOI: 10.1042/bj20070191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2007] [Revised: 04/12/2007] [Accepted: 05/10/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
MMP-9 (matrix metalloproteinase 9) plays a critical role in tumour progression. Although the biochemical properties of the secreted form of proMMP-9 are well characterized, little is known about the function and activity of cell surface-associated proMMP-9. We purified a novel 82 kDa species of proMMP-9 from the plasma membrane of THP-1 leukaemic cells, which has substantial differences from the secreted 94 kDa proMMP-9. The 82 kDa form was not detected in the medium even upon stimulation with a phorbol ester. It is truncated by nine amino acid residues at its N-terminus, lacks O-linked oligosaccharides present in the 94 kDa proMMP-9, but retains N-linked carbohydrates. Incubation of 94 kDa proMMP-9 with MMP-3 generated the well-known 82 kDa active form, but the 82 kDa proMMP-9 was converted into an active species of 35 kDa, which was also produced by autocatalytic processing in the absence of activating enzymes. The activated 35 kDa MMP-9 efficiently degraded gelatins, native collagen type IV and fibronectin. The enzyme was less sensitive to TIMP-1 (tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1) inhibition with IC50 values of 82 nM compared with 1 nM for the 82 kDa active MMP-9. The synthetic MMP inhibitor GM6001 blocked the activity of both enzymes, with similar IC50 values below 1 nM. The 82 kDa proMMP-9 is also produced in HL-60 and NB4 leukaemic cell lines as well as ex vivo leukaemic blast cells. It is, however, absent from neutrophils and mononuclear cells isolated from peripheral blood of healthy individuals. Thus, the 82 kDa proMMP-9 expressed on the surface of malignant cells may escape inhibition by natural TIMP-1, thereby facilitating cellular invasion in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Ries
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Biochemistry in the Surgical Department, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
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24
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Qian LW, Xie J, Ye F, Gao SJ. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus infection promotes invasion of primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells by inducing matrix metalloproteinases. J Virol 2007; 81:7001-10. [PMID: 17442715 PMCID: PMC1933284 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00016-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play important roles in cancer invasion, angiogenesis, and inflammatory infiltration. Kaposi's sarcoma is a highly disseminated angiogenic tumor of proliferative endothelial cells linked to infection by Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV). In this study, we showed that KSHV infection increased the invasiveness of primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) in a Matrigel-based cell invasion assay. KSHV-induced cell invasion was abolished by an inhibitor of MMPs, BB-94, and occurred in both autocrine- and paracrine-dependent fashions. Analysis by zymography and Western blotting showed that KSHV-infected HUVEC cultures had increased secretion of MMP-1, -2, and -9. KSHV increased the secretion of MMP-2 within 1 h following infection without upregulating its mRNA expression level. In contrast, the secretion of MMP-1 and -9 was not increased until 6 h after KSHV infection and was correlated with the upregulation of their mRNA expression levels. Promoter analysis by reporter assays and electrophoretic mobility shift assays identified an AP-1 cis-element as the dominant KSHV-responsive site in the MMP-1 promoter. Together, these results suggest that KSHV infection modulates the production of multiple MMPs to increase cell invasiveness and thus contributes to the pathogenesis of KSHV-induced malignancies.
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MESH Headings
- Autocrine Communication/drug effects
- Cell Transformation, Viral
- Cells, Cultured
- Collagenases/biosynthesis
- Endothelial Cells/enzymology
- Endothelial Cells/pathology
- Endothelial Cells/virology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic/drug effects
- Herpesvirus 8, Human/metabolism
- Humans
- Neoplasm Invasiveness/pathology
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/enzymology
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/pathology
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/virology
- Paracrine Communication/drug effects
- Phenylalanine/analogs & derivatives
- Phenylalanine/pharmacology
- Protease Inhibitors/pharmacology
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- RNA, Neoplasm/biosynthesis
- Response Elements
- Sarcoma, Kaposi/enzymology
- Sarcoma, Kaposi/pathology
- Thiophenes/pharmacology
- Transcription Factor AP-1/metabolism
- Umbilical Veins/enzymology
- Umbilical Veins/pathology
- Umbilical Veins/virology
- Up-Regulation/drug effects
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Wu Qian
- Tumor Virology Program, Greehey Children's Cancer Research Institute, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
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25
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Zozulya AL, Reinke E, Baiu DC, Karman J, Sandor M, Fabry Z. Dendritic cell transmigration through brain microvessel endothelium is regulated by MIP-1alpha chemokine and matrix metalloproteinases. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:520-9. [PMID: 17182592 PMCID: PMC1950722 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.1.520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) accumulate in the CNS during inflammatory diseases, but the exact mechanism regulating their traffic into the CNS remains to be defined. We now report that MIP-1alpha increases the transmigration of bone marrow-derived, GFP-labeled DCs across brain microvessel endothelial cell monolayers. Furthermore, occludin, an important element of endothelial tight junctions, is reorganized when DCs migrate across brain capillary endothelial cell monolayers without causing significant changes in the barrier integrity as measured by transendothelial electrical resistance. We show that DCs produce matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) -2 and -9 and GM6001, an MMP inhibitor, decreases both baseline and MIP-1alpha-induced DC transmigration. These observations suggest that DC transmigration across brain endothelial cell monolayers is partly MMP dependent. The migrated DCs express higher levels of CD40, CD80, and CD86 costimulatory molecules and induce T cell proliferation, indicating that the transmigration of DCs across brain endothelial cell monolayers contributes to the maintenance of DC Ag-presenting function. The MMP dependence of DC migration across brain endothelial cell monolayers raises the possibility that MMP blockers may decrease the initiation of T cell recruitment and neuroinflammation in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alla L. Zozulya
- Department of Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Emily Reinke
- Department of Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53792
| | - Dana C. Baiu
- Department of Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Jozsef Karman
- Cellular and Molecular Pathology Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53792
| | - Matyas Sandor
- Department of Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Zsuzsanna Fabry
- Department of Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Zsuzsanna Fabry, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1300 University Avenue, 6130 MSC, Madison, WI 53706. E-mail address:
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26
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Carneiro SM, Fernandes W, Sant'Anna SS, Yamanouye N. Microvesicles in the venom of Crotalus durissus terrificus (Serpentes, Viperidae). Toxicon 2007; 49:106-10. [PMID: 17084429 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2005] [Revised: 03/17/2006] [Accepted: 04/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Microvesicles with electron-dense content are consistently observed by transmission electron microscopy on the luminal face of secretory cells of venom glands of viperid snakes. In this work, we evaluated their presence in Crotalus durissus terrificus venom glands and also in freshly collected venom. Microvesicles were found in the venom glands mainly in regions of exocytosis. They ranged from 40 to 80 nm in diameter. Freeze-fracture replicas of the glands revealed particles on the cytoplasmic leaflet (P-face) of these vesicles, suggesting that they carry transmembrane proteins. Vesicles separated by ultracentrifugation from cell-free venom were similar in size and structure to the microvesicles observed in the glands. A fine fuzzy coat surrounded each microvesicle. The function of these venom vesicles is still unknown, but they may contribute to inactivation of stored venom components, or their activation after the venom is released.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Mendes Carneiro
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, São Paulo, SP 05503-900, Brasil.
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27
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Stevens TA, Meech R. BARX2 and estrogen receptor-alpha (ESR1) coordinately regulate the production of alternatively spliced ESR1 isoforms and control breast cancer cell growth and invasion. Oncogene 2006; 25:5426-35. [PMID: 16636675 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1209529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The estrogen receptor-alpha gene (ESR1) was previously identified as a direct target of the homeobox transcription factor BARX2 in MCF7 cells. Here, we show that BARX2 and ESR1 proteins bind to different ESR1 gene promoters and regulate the expression of alternatively spliced mRNAs that encode 66 and 46 kDa ESR1 protein isoforms. BARX2 increases the expression of both ESR1 isoforms; however, it has a greater effect on the 46 kDa isoform, leading to an increased ratio between the 46 and 66 kDa proteins. BARX2 also influences estrogen-dependent processes such as anchorage-independent growth and modulates the expression of the estrogen-responsive genes SOX5, RBM15, Dynein and Mortalin. In addition, BARX2 expression promotes cellular invasion and increases the expression of active matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9). BARX2 also increases the expression of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP) genes, TIMP1 and TIMP3, in cooperation with estrogen signaling. Overall, these data indicate that BARX2 and ESR1 may coordinately regulate cell growth, survival and invasion pathways that are critical to breast cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Stevens
- Department of Neurobiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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28
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Xue M, Le NTV, Jackson CJ. Targeting matrix metalloproteases to improve cutaneous wound healing. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2006; 10:143-55. [PMID: 16441234 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.10.1.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Wound repair is a physiological event in which tissue injury initiates a repair process leading to restoration of structure and function of the tissue. Cutaneous wound repair can be divided into a series of overlapping phases including formation of fibrin clot, inflammatory response, granulation tissue formation incorporating re-epithelialisation and angiogenesis and finally, matrix formation and remodelling. Matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) are a family of neutral proteases that play a vital role throughout the entire wound healing process. They regulate inflammation, degrade the extracellular matrix (ECM) to facilitate the migration of cells and remodel the new ECM. However, excessive MMP activity contributes to the development of chronic wounds. Selective control of MMP activity may prove to be a valuable therapeutic approach to promote healing of chronic ulcers. Recent evidence indicates that the anticoagulant, activated protein C may be useful in the treatment of non-healing wounds by preventing excessive protease activity through inhibition of inflammation and selectively increasing MMP-2 activity to enhance angiogenesis and re-epithelialisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meilang Xue
- Sutton Arthritis Research Laboratory Level 1, Royal North Shore Hospital, The University of Sydney, St Leonards, NSW, 2065, Australia
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29
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Kebebew E, Peng M, Reiff E, Duh QY, Clark OH, McMillan A. Diagnostic and prognostic value of angiogenesis-modulating genes in malignant thyroid neoplasms. Surgery 2005; 138:1102-9; discussion 1109-10. [PMID: 16360397 DOI: 10.1016/j.surg.2005.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2005] [Revised: 05/05/2005] [Accepted: 05/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Angiogenesis is an essential biologic event in the pathogenesis of human malignancies. We postulated that expression analysis of genes that modulate angiogenesis would identify differentially expressed genes that would help to distinguish benign from malignant thyroid neoplasms and serve as markers of aggressive differentiated thyroid cancer. METHODS A complementary DNA (cDNA) array with 96 genes that modulate angiogenesis was used to identify differentially expressed genes (2-fold higher or lower) in malignant versus benign thyroid neoplasms. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to confirm cDNA array expression data in 123 patients (4 normal thyroid, 26 hyperplastic nodules, 27 follicular adenomas, 23 follicular cancers, 18 follicular variant of papillary cancers, 25 papillary cancers). RESULTS Twenty-two genes were upregulated in malignant thyroid neoplasms by cDNA array analysis, but only 13 genes had higher messenger RNA (mRNA) expression levels in malignant than in benign thyroid neoplasms by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (P < or = .04). Of the 13 differentially expressed genes, the combined use of angiopoietin 2 (ANGPT2) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP1) mRNA expression levels was best for distinguishing malignant from benign thyroid neoplasms, with a sensitivity of 90%, specificity of 85%, positive predictive value of 75%, and negative predictive value of 94%. Epidermal growth factor receptor and ephrin B2 mRNA expression was elevated in higher TNM stage neoplasms and in patients with high-risk AMES (Age, distant Metastasis, Extrathyroidal invasion, and tumor Size) differentiated thyroid cancers (P < or = .005). CONCLUSIONS Angiopoietin 2 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 are diagnostic markers of malignant thyroid nodules and could improve the diagnostic accuracy of FNA biopsy. Epidermal growth factor receptor and ephrin B2 are markers of aggressive differentiated thyroid cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Electron Kebebew
- Endocrine Surgery and Oncology Program, University of California, San Francisco Comprehensive Cancer Center, CA 94143-1674, USA.
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30
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Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of enzymes that proteolytically degrade various components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Angiogenesis is the process of forming new blood vessels from existing ones and requires degradation of the vascular basement membrane and remodeling of the ECM in order to allow endothelial cells to migrate and invade into the surrounding tissue. MMPs participate in this remodeling of basement membranes and ECM. However, it has become clear that MMPs contribute more to angiogenesis than just degrading ECM components. Specific MMPs have been shown to enhance angiogenesis by helping to detach pericytes from vessels undergoing angiogenesis, by releasing ECM-bound angiogenic growth factors, by exposing cryptic proangiogenic integrin binding sites in the ECM, by generating promigratory ECM component fragments, and by cleaving endothelial cell-cell adhesions. MMPs can also contribute negatively to angiogenesis through the generation of endogenous angiogenesis inhibitors by proteolytic cleavage of certain collagen chains and plasminogen and by modulating cell receptor signaling by cleaving off their ligand-binding domains. A number of inhibitors of MMPs that show antiangiogenic activity are already in early stages of clinical trials, primarily to treat cancer and cancer-associated angiogenesis. However, because of the multiple effects of MMPs on angiogenesis, careful testing of these MMP inhibitors is necessary to show that these compounds do not actually enhance angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce E Rundhaug
- Department of Carcinogenesis, Science Park--Research Division, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Smithville, TX, 78957, USA.
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31
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Pereira AMM, Strasberg-Rieber M, Rieber M. Invasion-associated MMP-2 and MMP-9 are Up-regulated Intracellularly in Concert with Apoptosis Linked to Melanoma Cell Detachment. Clin Exp Metastasis 2005; 22:285-95. [PMID: 16170665 DOI: 10.1007/s10585-005-8672-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2005] [Accepted: 06/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases, like MMP-2 and MMP-9 gelatinases, show multiple functions as extracellular/cell-surface enzymes, and are broadly recognised for their matrix-degrading ability and involvement in cell motility. Given that adherent cells have reduced attachment during migration and also detach from their substratum during apoptosis, we now investigated whether extracellular matrix-bound gelatinases and intracellular MMP-2 and MMP-9 are modified with progression of death-inducing stimuli. This report shows that melanoma cells undergoing death in response to 2-acetyl furanonaphtoquinone (FNQ) as evidenced by greater Annexin V binding, increased cytosolic expression of pro-MMP-2 and intracellular activation of particulate MMP-9. These changes were associated with early activation of a substrate-attached 40 kDa gelatinase reciprocal with changes in extracellular matrix-bound activated MMP-2. A subsequent activation of secreted MMP-9 and induction of apoptosis-associated fragmentation of poly ADP-Ribose polymerase (PARP) correlated with cell detachment. Our data suggests that intracellularly activated gelatinases may cleave survival-associated substrates other than gelatin that share the Gly-Leu/Iso-Pro like collagen-binding acetylcholinesterase, thereby linking them to apoptosis associated with cell detachment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Maria Mendes Pereira
- Laboratory of Tumor Cell Biology, Centre for Microbiology and Cell Biology, IVIC, Apartado 21827, Caracas, 1020 A, Venezuela.
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32
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Eatock M, Cassidy J, Johnson J, Morrison R, Devlin M, Blackey R, Owen S, Choi L, Twelves C. A dose-finding and pharmacokinetic study of the matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor MMI270 (previously termed CGS27023A) with 5-FU and folinic acid. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2004; 55:39-46. [PMID: 15368080 DOI: 10.1007/s00280-004-0856-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2003] [Accepted: 05/04/2004] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The orally bioavailable matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor MMI270 reduces tumour growth metastasis in preclinical models. We assessed the feasibility and pharmacokinetic interactions of combining MMI270 with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and folinic acid (FA). Entered into the study were 33 patients with advanced colorectal cancer. They received FA 200 mg/m2 over 2 h followed by 5-FU 400 mg/m2 over 15 min and 5-FU 600 mg/m2 over 22 h on days 1 and 2 of a 14-day cycle. MMI270 commenced with the second cycle at either 50 mg once daily, 150 mg three times daily or 300 mg twice daily. No dose-limiting toxicity was observed at any MMI270 dose level. Ten patients (61%) experienced joint symptoms independent of MMI270 dose, leading to interruption, modification, or discontinuation of treatment in seven patients (23%). MMI270 did not alter 5-FU pharmacokinetics. Six patients had a partial response and seven had stable disease. 5-FU/FA with MMI270 at a dose of 300 mg twice daily is well tolerated. MMI270 has no significant effect on 5-FU pharmacokinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Eatock
- Cancer Research UK Department of Medical Oncology, Beatson Laboratories, Alexander Stone Building, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Glasgow, UK.
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Deem TL, Cook-Mills JM. Vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) activation of endothelial cell matrix metalloproteinases: role of reactive oxygen species. Blood 2004; 104:2385-93. [PMID: 15265790 PMCID: PMC2710031 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2004-02-0665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Lymphocytes bound at endothelial cell junctions extravasate within minutes. Lymphocyte-endothelial cell binding is mediated by receptors such as vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1). VCAM-1 activates endothelial cell nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase in minutes, and this activity is required for VCAM-1-dependent lymphocyte migration. In this report, we examined mechanisms for activation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) during VCAM-1-dependent lymphocyte migration. Lymphocyte binding to VCAM-1 rapidly activated endothelial cell-associated MMPs. Furthermore, inhibition of MMPs on the endothelial cells but not on the lymphocytes blocked VCAM-1-dependent lymphocyte migration across endothelial cells. The activation of endothelial cell MMPs required VCAM-1-stimulated endothelial cell NADPH oxidase activity as determined by scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and by pharmacologic or antisense inhibition of NADPH oxidase. Exogenous addition of 1 microM H(2)O(2), the level of H(2)O(2) generated by VCAM-1-stimulated endothelial cells, rapidly activated endothelial cell-associated MMPs. In contrast, activation of lymphocyte-associated MMPs was delayed by hours after binding to VCAM-1, and this activation was blocked by inhibition of endothelial cell ROS generation. There was also a delay in H(2)O(2)-induced decrease in lymphocyte-associated tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), resulting in an increase in MMP/TIMP ratio. In summary, this is the first report of a mechanism for ROS function in VCAM-1 activation of endothelial cell MMPs during VCAM-1-dependent lymphocyte migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy L Deem
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, PO Box 670529, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0529, USA
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Zhao YG, Xiao AZ, Park HI, Newcomer RG, Yan M, Man YG, Heffelfinger SC, Sang QXA. Endometase/matrilysin-2 in human breast ductal carcinoma in situ and its inhibition by tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases-2 and -4: a putative role in the initiation of breast cancer invasion. Cancer Res 2004; 64:590-8. [PMID: 14744773 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-1932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Local disruption of the integrity of both the myoepithelial cell layer and the basement membrane is an indispensable prerequisite for the initiation of invasion and the conversion of human breast ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) to infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IDC). We previously reported that human endometase/matrilysin-2/matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 26-mediated pro-gelatinase B (MMP-9) activation promoted invasion of human prostate carcinoma cells by dissolving basement membrane proteins (Y. G. Zhao et al., J. Biol. Chem., 278: 15056-15064, 2003). Here we report that tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP)-2 and TIMP-4 are potent inhibitors of MMP-26, with apparent K(i) values of 1.6 and 0.62 nM, respectively. TIMP-2 and TIMP-4 also inhibited the activation of pro-MMP-9 by MMP-26 in vitro. The expression levels of MMP-26, MMP-9, TIMP-2, and TIMP-4 proteins in DCIS were significantly higher than those in IDC, atypical intraductal hyperplasia, and normal breast epithelia adjacent to DCIS and IDC by immunohistochemistry and integrated morphometry analysis. Double immunofluorescence labeling and confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that MMP-26 was colocalized with MMP-9, TIMP-2, and TIMP-4 in DCIS cells. Higher levels of MMP-26 mRNA were also detected in DCIS cells by in situ hybridization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Ge Zhao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
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35
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Goldman S, Shalev E. The role of the matrix metalloproteinases in human endometrial and ovarian cycles. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2003; 111:109-21. [PMID: 14597237 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-2115(03)00341-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are part of an expanded family of proteins called the astacin family of zinc metalloproteinases. The MMPs, probably balanced by their tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), are essential effectors of developmental processes participating in cell migration, cell proliferation, apoptosis and tissue morphogenesis. The MMPs regulate the function of biologically active molecules as well as fulfilling an important role in endothelial cell invasion, angiogenesis and in tumor progression. The dynamic normal physiology of the human reproductive system involves almost all of the above-mentioned aspects of MMPs activity. This review presents and discusses new insights into the role of MMPs, and their TIMPs, in human endometrial cycle and ovarian function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shlomit Goldman
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ha'Emek Medical Center, Afula 18101, Israel
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36
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Avolio C, Giuliani F, Liuzzi GM, Ruggieri M, Paolicelli D, Riccio P, Livrea P, Trojano M. Adhesion molecules and matrix metalloproteinases in Multiple Sclerosis: effects induced by Interferon-beta. Brain Res Bull 2003; 61:357-64. [PMID: 12909305 DOI: 10.1016/s0361-9230(03)00098-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In Multiple Sclerosis (MS) pathology, early inflammation involves leukocyte migration across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) within the central nervous system. In this process, adhesion molecules (AMs), both membrane-bound and soluble-circulating forms, and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) certainly play a regulatory role. In MS, recombinant Interferon-beta (rIFNbeta) is effective in reducing gadolinium contrast-enhancing lesions on magnetic resonance imaging and this suggests that it may reduce BBB damage or even restore its integrity by different mechanisms that include interference with both AM and MMP pathways. This review will highlight the effects induced by rIFNbeta, both in vitro and in vivo, on cell-bound and soluble forms of AMs and on MMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Avolio
- Neurology Unit, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy.
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37
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Wagner S, Fueller T, Hummel V, Rieckmann P, Tonn JC. Influence of VEGF-R2 inhibition on MMP secretion and motility of microvascular human cerebral endothelial cells (HCEC). J Neurooncol 2003; 62:221-31. [PMID: 12777073 DOI: 10.1023/a:1023335732264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Neovascularization and invasion are key features of malignant gliomas. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are supposed to play a major role mediating these processes. To analyze the expression patterns of MMPs in microvascular human cerebral endothelial cells (HCEC), we isolated endothelial cells from normal human brain microvessels. Characterization of cellular origin was performed by immunostaining, using the endothelial cell markers Ulex europaeus Agglutinin-1, von-Willebrand-Factor and Glucose-transporter-1. Contamination by other cell types was tracked by immunohistochemistry for GFAP (astrocytes), ASM (pericytes) and CD68 (macrophages). Secretion of MMPs was evaluated by ELISA and zymography. To determine whether HCEC show any difference in MMP expression compared to endothelial cells of other origin we analyzed human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). HCEC show a decrease of MMP-3 and MMP-2 protein when treated with SU5416, a VEGF-R2 (KDR/flk-1) inhibitor, whereas MMP expression remained unchanged in HUVEC. To determine whether these findings show any effect in the motility of these cells we used a three-dimensional co-culture assay of avascular glioblastoma spheroids with primary HCEC spheroids. Untreated controls showed invasion of both cell populations into each other whereas treatment of the co-cultures with SU5416 resulted in complete inhibition of endothelial cell invasion hence indicating that flk-1 related motility of endothelial cells is critically involved in this process and can be studied with this assay. The results of different effects of anti-angiogenic treatment on proteolytic properties of two endothelial cell populations suggest that neovascularization of human brain tumors in vitro is dependent on the surrounding endothelial cell type and should therefore be studied with organ-specific human microvascular cerebral endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Wagner
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wuerzburg, Germany
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38
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Zhao YG, Xiao AZ, Newcomer RG, Park HI, Kang T, Chung LWK, Swanson MG, Zhau HE, Kurhanewicz J, Sang QXA. Activation of pro-gelatinase B by endometase/matrilysin-2 promotes invasion of human prostate cancer cells. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:15056-64. [PMID: 12586837 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m210975200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
This work has explored a putative biochemical mechanism by which endometase/matrilysin-2/matrix metalloproteinase-26 (MMP-26) may promote human prostate cancer cell invasion. Here, we showed that the levels of MMP-26 protein in human prostate carcinomas from multiple patients were significantly higher than those in prostatitis, benign prostate hyperplasia, and normal prostate glandular tissues. The role of MMP-26 in prostate cancer progression is unknown. MMP-26 was capable of activating pro-MMP-9 by cleavage at the Ala(93)-Met(94) site of the prepro-enzyme. This activation proceeded in a time- and dose-dependent manner, facilitating the efficient cleavage of fibronectin by MMP-9. The activated MMP-9 products generated by MMP-26 appeared more stable than those cleaved by MMP-7 under the conditions tested. To investigate the contribution of MMP-26 to cancer cell invasion via the activation of MMP-9, highly invasive and metastatic human prostate carcinoma cells, androgen-repressed prostate cancer (ARCaP) cells were selected as a working model. ARCaP cells express both MMP-26 and MMP-9. Specific anti-MMP-26 and anti-MMP-9 functional blocking antibodies both reduced the invasiveness of ARCaP cells across fibronectin or type IV collagen. Furthermore, the introduction of MMP-26 antisense cDNA into ARCaP cells significantly reduced the MMP-26 protein level in these cells and strongly suppressed the invasiveness of ARCaP cells. Double immunofluorescence staining and confocal laser scanning microscopic images revealed that MMP-26 and MMP-9 were co-localized in parental and MMP-26 sense-transfected ARCaP cells. Moreover, MMP-26 and MMP-9 proteins were both expressed in the same human prostate carcinoma tissue samples examined. These results indicate that MMP-26 may be a physiological and pathological activator of pro-MMP-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Ge Zhao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-4390, USA
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39
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Arkell J, Jackson CJ. Constitutive secretion of MMP9 by early-passage cultured human endothelial cells. Cell Biochem Funct 2003; 21:381-6. [PMID: 14624478 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.1037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) plays an important role during angiogenesis. It is an inducible enzyme which is known to be secreted from human endothelial cells in response to phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), but thought not to be constitutively expressed. We examined the secretion of MMP9 by primary culture (P0), passage 1 (P1) and passage 2 (P2) human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVE). Whereas there was no detectable MMP9 in P2 cells under basal conditions, P0 HUVE secreted MMP9, as detected by zymography and ELISA. RT-PCR and cycloheximide inhibition studies confirmed that MMP was synthesized by P0 HUVE. MMP9 secretion was passage-dependent, decreasing rapidly as the cells were passaged in culture and was not detected at P2. The decrease was largely due to the population doubling of cells as they are cultured. This is the first report to show that cultured HUVE constitutively express MMP9 and that this secretion is restricted to very early-passage cells. These findings may be relevant to the angiogenic potential of human endothelial cells as they age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacky Arkell
- Sutton Arthritis Research Laboratories, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, NSW 2065, Australia
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40
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Smith MF, Ricke WA, Bakke LJ, Dow MPD, Smith GW. Ovarian tissue remodeling: role of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2002; 191:45-56. [PMID: 12044918 DOI: 10.1016/s0303-7207(02)00054-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Follicular formation, growth or atresia, and ovulation as well as luteal formation and subsequent regression are dependent upon cyclical remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM). The proteinaceous and nonproteinaceous components of the ECM provide the tissue specific, extracellular architecture to which cells attach. Furthermore, the ECM modulates cellular activities through cellular surface receptors and serves as a reservoir for specific growth factors, cytokines, and binding proteins. The ability of the ECM to direct the proliferation, differentiation and function of cells implicates ECM remodeling in normal ovarian function. Specific components of the ECM are cleaved by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) whose activities are specifically inhibited by tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). MMPs are zinc- and calcium-dependent enzymes that collectively degrade proteinaceous components of the ECM. Controlled turnover of ECM by MMPs and TIMPs may be essential for creating and (or) preserving microenvironments conducive to follicular and luteal function and is likely dependent upon the ratio of enzyme to inhibitor. To date, most studies have focused upon correlating ovarian expression of MMPs and TIMPs with various stages of the reproductive cycle. From these studies, many potential key regulators of ovarian ECM remodeling have been identified. This review presents evidence for the involvement of MMPs and TIMPs in ECM remodeling associated with follicular and luteal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael F Smith
- Department of Animal Sciences, 160 Animal Science Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
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41
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VanMeter TE, Rooprai HK, Kibble MM, Fillmore HL, Broaddus WC, Pilkington GJ. The role of matrix metalloproteinase genes in glioma invasion: co-dependent and interactive proteolysis. J Neurooncol 2002. [PMID: 11716072 DOI: 10.1023/a: 1012280925031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are cation-dependent endopeptidases which have been implicated in the malignancy of gliomas. It is thought that the MMPs play a critical role in both metastasis and angiogenesis, and that interference with proteases might therefore deter local tumor dissemination and neovascularization. However, the attempt to control tumor-associated proteolysis will rely on better definition of the normal tissue function of MMPs, an area of study still in its infancy in the central nervous system (CNS). Understanding the role of MMP-mediated proteolysis in the brain relies heavily on advances in other areas of molecular neuroscience, most notably an understanding of extracellular matrix (ECM) composition and the function of cell adhesion molecules such as integrins, which communicate knowledge of ECM composition intracellularly. Recently, protease expression and function has been shown to be strongly influenced by the functional state and signaling properties of integrins. Here we review MMP function and expression in gliomas and present examples of MMP profiling studies in glioma tissues and cell lines by RT-PCR and Western blotting. Co-expression of MMPs and certain integrins substantiates the gathering evidence of a functional intersection between the two, and inhibition studies using recombinant TIMP-1 and integrin antisera demonstrate significant inhibition of glioma invasion in vitro. Use of promising new therapeutic compounds with anti-MMP and anti-invasion effects are discussed. These data underline the importance of functional interaction of MMPs with accessory proteins such as integrins during invasion, and the need for further studies to elucidate the molecular underpinnings of this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- T E VanMeter
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London, UK
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42
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Ricke WA, Smith GW, Reynolds LP, Redmer DA, Smith MF. Matrix metalloproteinase (2, 9, and 14) expression, localization, and activity in ovine corpora lutea throughout the estrous cycle. Biol Reprod 2002; 66:1083-94. [PMID: 11906929 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod66.4.1083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family collectively degrade extracellular matrix (ECM) and help regulate luteal function. The objectives of these experiments were to characterize the mRNA expression, localization, and activity of MMPs 2, 9, and 14 in ovine corpora lutea (CL). Ovine CL were collected on Days 2, 4, 10, and 15 of the estrous cycle (Day 0 = estrus). Messenger RNA transcripts for MMPs 2 and 14 were detected using Northern analysis; however, expression of MMP-9 was undetectable. Expression of MMP-14 mRNA (membrane type-1 MMP) was increased (P < 0.05) on Day 4; whereas, expression of MMP-2 mRNA was highest (P < 0.05) on Day 10, which corresponded to the observed increases in gelatinolytic activity in luteal homogenates as measured by a fluroscein-labeled gelatin substrate assay. MMP 2 and 9 proteins were localized predominantly to large luteal cells (LLCs), whereas MMP-14 was localized primarily to cells other than LLCs as demonstrated by immunohistochemistry. Immunolocalization of MMP-2 to putative endothelial cells was also observed on Day 15. Localization of MMP activity was determined using in situ zymography. Luteal tissues contained gelatinolytic activity primarily localized pericellularly to various cell types, including LLCs. These results support the hypothesis that ECM remodeling occurs throughout the luteal phase and may help potentiate cellular migration, differentiation, angiogenesis, and growth factor bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A Ricke
- Department of Animal Science, 160 Animal Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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43
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Taraboletti G, D'Ascenzo S, Borsotti P, Giavazzi R, Pavan A, Dolo V. Shedding of the matrix metalloproteinases MMP-2, MMP-9, and MT1-MMP as membrane vesicle-associated components by endothelial cells. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2002; 160:673-80. [PMID: 11839588 PMCID: PMC1850663 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)64887-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 407] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/15/2001] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Production of matrix-degrading proteases, particularly matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), by endothelial cells is a critical event during angiogenesis, the process of vessel neoformation that occurs in normal and pathological conditions. MMPs are known to be highly regulated at the level of synthesis and activation, however, little is known about the regulation of MMP secretion by endothelial cells. We found that cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells shed vesicles (300 to 600 nm) originating from localized areas of the cell plasma membrane, as revealed by ultrastructural analysis. Normal and reverse zymography, Western blot, and immunogold analyses of the vesicles showed two gelatinases, MMP-2 and MMP-9, in both the active and proenzyme forms, the MT1-MMP proenzyme located on the external side of the vesicle membrane and the two inhibitors TIMP-1 and TIMP-2. Serum and the angiogenic factors, fibroblast growth factor-2 and vascular endothelial growth factor, stimulated the shedding of MMPs as vesicle components. Shedding the vesicle was rapid, as it was already completed after 4 hours. Addition of shed vesicles to human umbilical vein endothelial cells resulted in autocrine stimulation of invasion through a layer of reconstituted basement membrane (Matrigel) and cord formation on Matrigel. We conclude that endothelial cells shed MMP-containing vesicles and this may be a mechanism for regulating focalized proteolytic activity vital to invasive and morphogenic events during angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Taraboletti
- Department of Oncology, Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Bergamo, Italy
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44
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Gasche Y, Copin JC, Sugawara T, Fujimura M, Chan PH. Matrix metalloproteinase inhibition prevents oxidative stress-associated blood-brain barrier disruption after transient focal cerebral ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2001; 21:1393-400. [PMID: 11740200 DOI: 10.1097/00004647-200112000-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 288] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress generated during stroke is a critical event leading to blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption with secondary vasogenic edema and hemorrhagic transformation of infarcted brain tissue, restricting the benefit of thrombolytic reperfusion. In this study, the authors demonstrate that ischemia-reperfusion-induced BBB disruption in mice deficient in copper/zinc-superoxide dismutase (SOD1) was reduced by 88% ( P < 0.0001) and 73% ( P < 0.01), respectively, after 3 and 7 hours of reperfusion occurring after 1 hour of ischemia by the inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases. Accordingly, the authors show that local metalloproteinase-generated proteolytic imbalance is more intense in ischemic regions of SOD1 mice than in wild-type litter mates. Moreover, active in situ proteolysis is, for the first time, demonstrated in ischemic leaking capillaries that produce reactive oxygen species. By showing that oxidative stress mediates BBB disruption through metalloproteinase activation in experimental ischemic stroke, this study provides a new target for future therapeutic strategies to prevent BBB disruption and potentially reperfusion-triggered intracerebral hemorrhage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Gasche
- Department of Neurosurgery, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, and Program in Neurosciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5487, USA
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45
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Martel-Pelletier J, Welsch DJ, Pelletier JP. Metalloproteases and inhibitors in arthritic diseases. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2001; 15:805-29. [PMID: 11812023 DOI: 10.1053/berh.2001.0195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Controlling degradation of the extracellular matrix is crucial in arthritic diseases such as osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA), as conventional treatments do not positively affect the structural properties of the articular tissues. Metalloproteases, a family of zinc-dependent enzymes, and more specifically the matrix metalloproteases (MMPs), play a premier role in joint articular tissue degeneration. Additional enzymes of the metalloprotease family, such as the membrane-type metalloproteases (MT-MMPs) and the adamalysins that include the ADAMs and the ADAMTS families, have also been found to be involved in these disease processes. At present, therapeutic intervention based on the inhibition of metalloproteases, and more particularly of the MMPs, is under intensive investigation, and several MMP inhibitors are in clinical development. Currently, MMP inhibitors are exemplified by several chemical classes: hydroxamic acids, carboxylic acids and thiols. One key issue in the clinical development of MMP inhibitors relates to whether broad-spectrum inhibitors active against a range of different enzymes or selective inhibitors targeted against a single enzyme or particular subset of the MMPs represents the optimal strategy. In this chapter, we address the different metalloprotease enzymes and sub-families and their implication in arthritic diseases. Furthermore, we assess physiological and chemical metalloprotease inhibitors, and for the latter, the current inhibitory classes of compounds being studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Martel-Pelletier
- Osteoarthritis Research Unit, Hôpital Notre-Dame, Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, 1560 rue Sherbrooke Est, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
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46
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VanMeter TE, Rooprai HK, Kibble MM, Fillmore HL, Broaddus WC, Pilkington GJ. The role of matrix metalloproteinase genes in glioma invasion: co-dependent and interactive proteolysis. J Neurooncol 2001; 53:213-35. [PMID: 11716072 DOI: 10.1023/a:1012280925031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are cation-dependent endopeptidases which have been implicated in the malignancy of gliomas. It is thought that the MMPs play a critical role in both metastasis and angiogenesis, and that interference with proteases might therefore deter local tumor dissemination and neovascularization. However, the attempt to control tumor-associated proteolysis will rely on better definition of the normal tissue function of MMPs, an area of study still in its infancy in the central nervous system (CNS). Understanding the role of MMP-mediated proteolysis in the brain relies heavily on advances in other areas of molecular neuroscience, most notably an understanding of extracellular matrix (ECM) composition and the function of cell adhesion molecules such as integrins, which communicate knowledge of ECM composition intracellularly. Recently, protease expression and function has been shown to be strongly influenced by the functional state and signaling properties of integrins. Here we review MMP function and expression in gliomas and present examples of MMP profiling studies in glioma tissues and cell lines by RT-PCR and Western blotting. Co-expression of MMPs and certain integrins substantiates the gathering evidence of a functional intersection between the two, and inhibition studies using recombinant TIMP-1 and integrin antisera demonstrate significant inhibition of glioma invasion in vitro. Use of promising new therapeutic compounds with anti-MMP and anti-invasion effects are discussed. These data underline the importance of functional interaction of MMPs with accessory proteins such as integrins during invasion, and the need for further studies to elucidate the molecular underpinnings of this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- T E VanMeter
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London, UK
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47
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Foda HD, Zucker S. Matrix metalloproteinases in cancer invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis. Drug Discov Today 2001; 6:478-482. [PMID: 11344033 DOI: 10.1016/s1359-6446(01)01752-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of proteinases that play an important role in cancer as well as in numerous other diseases. In this article, we summarize the current views on the role of MMPs in cancer with respect to invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis. A positive correlation between tumor progression and the expression of multiple MMP family members in tumor tissues has been demonstrated in numerous human and animal studies. It has been assumed that cancer cells are responsible for producing the MMPs in human tumors. However, recent evidence suggests that tumor cells have docking sites that bind stromal-cell-secreted MMPs. Furthermore, the role of MMPs produced by endothelial cells, especially MMP-2 and MT1-MMP, appear to be crucial for tumor angiogenesis, which is a requirement for cancer growth and dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- H D. Foda
- Dept of Medicine and Research VAMC Northport and the Divisions of Pulmonary/Critical Care Medicine and Medical Oncology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, 11794, New York, NY, USA
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Schönherr E, Schaefer L, O'Connell BC, Kresse H. Matrix metalloproteinase expression by endothelial cells in collagen lattices changes during co-culture with fibroblasts and upon induction of decorin expression. J Cell Physiol 2001; 187:37-47. [PMID: 11241347 DOI: 10.1002/1097-4652(2001)9999:9999<::aid-jcp1048>3.0.co;2-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
EA.hy 926 cells, a derivative of human umbilical vein endothelial cells, in the presence of fibroblasts show the phenomena of angiogenesis, express the proteoglycan decorin and escape apoptosis, when they are maintained in collagen lattices, while fibroblast-free cultures do not show these changes. Virus-mediated decorin expression can substitute for the presence of fibroblasts. Since the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) is an essential step in the formation of capillaries, several MMPs and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) were investigated. MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9, and the cell-associated MMP-14 were augmented on the protein level in the presence of fibroblasts. No effect was seen with respect to MMP-3, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2. Semiquantitative RT-PCRs of endothelial cells in co-culture revealed a 7-, 19-, and 11-fold increase for mRNAs of MMP-1, MMP-2, and MMP-14 after six days, respectively. Virus-mediated decorin expression also was accompanied by an up-regulation of these MMPs. The expression of MMP-1 mRNAs increased 5-fold after 2 days and gradually declined thereafter. In contrast, MMP-2 and MMP-14 showed a 7-fold and a 14-fold increase on day two which returned to basal levels within 24 h, indicating that the expression of MMP-1 is differentially regulated from MMP-2 and MMP-14. In spite of the upregulation of the proteases, an enhanced degradation of decorin was not observed. These results indicate that the expression of decorin is a sufficient signal in EA.hy 926 cells for a finely tuned induction of selected MMPs which are involved in angiogenesis whereas the up-regulation of MMPs does not lead to the degradation of the responsible proteoglycan.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Schönherr
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Waldeyerstrasse 15, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
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Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) are a family of structurally related proteinases most widely recognized for their ability to degrade extracellular matrix, although recent investigations have demonstrated other biologic functions for these enzymes. MMP are typically not constitutively expressed, but are regulated by: (1) cytokines, growth factors, and cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions that control gene expression; (2) activation of their proenzyme form; and (3) the presence of MMP inhibitors [tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases, (TIMP)]. MMP have important roles in normal processes including development, wound healing, mammary gland, and uterine involution, but are also involved in angiogenesis, tumor growth, and metastasis. Angiogenesis, characteristically defined as the establishment of new vessels from pre-existing vasculature, is required for biologic processes such as wound healing and pathologic processes such as arthritis, tumor growth, and metastasis. Blocking of MMP activity has been studied for potential therapeutic efficacy in controlling such pathologic processes. Synthetic MMP inhibitors, most notably the hydroxymates, have been engineered for this purpose and are presently in clinical trial. These inhibitors may have broad versus specific MMP inhibitory activity. As increased non-matrix degrading capabilities of MMP are recognized, however, i.e., cytokine activation, processing of proteins to molecules of distinct biologic function, it becomes less clear whether the nonselective inhibition of MMP activity for all pathologic processes involving MMP is appropriate. This review focuses upon the contribution of MMP to the process of tumor invasion and angiogenesis, and discusses the design and use of MMP inhibitors as therapeutic agents in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Raza
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine at Barnes-Jewish Hospital, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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Taraboletti G, Sonzogni L, Vergani V, Hosseini G, Ceruti R, Ghilardi C, Bastone A, Toschi E, Borsotti P, Scanziani E, Giavazzi R, Pepper MS, Stetler-Stevenson WG, Bani MR. Posttranscriptional stimulation of endothelial cell matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 1 by endothelioma cells. Exp Cell Res 2000; 258:384-94. [PMID: 10896789 DOI: 10.1006/excr.2000.4936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play a critical role in the development of hemangioma-like vascular tumors in mice injected with murine eEnd.1 endothelioma cells. The current study was designed to (a) characterize the presence of MMPs in the vascular tumor, (b) define whether these MMPs originate from the transformed cells or from the recruited stromal cells and (c) study the stimulatory effect of eEnd.1 cells on the production of MMPs by endothelial cells. Several gelatinases were present in the eEnd.1 tumor extract, including latent and activated MMP-2 (72-kDa gelatinase A, EC 3.4.24. 24) and MMP-9 (92-kDa gelatinase B, EC 3.4.24.35). Immunohistochemical analysis of the tumor revealed focal reactivity for MMP-2. No gelatinase was produced by cultured eEnd.1 cells, or by six of nine related endothelioma cell lines, suggesting that stroma cells, particularly endothelial cells recruited by the tumor cells, rather than eEnd.1 cells themselves, are the source of the gelatinases observed in the tumors in vivo. The conditioned medium of eEnd.1 cells stimulated the release of MMP-2 and MMP-1 (interstitial collagenase, EC 3.4.24.7) by endothelial cells, but not of the inhibitor TIMP-2. The increased production of MMP-2 and MMP-1, observed at the protein level (zymogram and Western blot analysis), occurred through a posttranscriptional mechanism, since no increase in mRNA was observed and the stimulation was not prevented by inhibitors of protein synthesis. The inhibitory effects of monensin and brefeldin A, inhibitors of protein secretion, and the decrease in cell-associated MMP-2 in stimulated endothelial cells indicated that regulation occurred mostly at the level of protease secretion. MMPs are known to be regulated at different levels; this study indicates that, in endothelial cells, the stimulation of MMPs can also occur at the level of secretion, a mechanism that provides a rapid mobilization of these crucial enzymes in the early phases of angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Taraboletti
- Department of Oncology, Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Bergamo, 24125, Italy.
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