Calcium messenger system in plants

Amelioration of NaCl stress on germination, growth, and nitrogen fixation of Vicia faba at isosmotic Na-Ca combinations and Rhizobium

MAIN CONCLUSION

The Na+/Ca2+ ratio of 1/5 ameliorated the inhibitory action of NaCl and improved the germination and growth of Vicia faba. Addition of Rhizobium also enhanced nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Casting light upon the impact of salinity stress on growth and nitrogen fixation of Vicia faba supplemented with Rhizobium has been traced in this work. How Ca2+ antagonizes Na+ toxicity and osmotic stress of NaCl was also targeted in isosmotic combinations of NaCl and CaCl2 having various Na+:Ca2+ ratios. Growth of Vicia faba (cultivar Giza 3) was studied at two stages: germination and seedling. At both experiments, seeds or seedlings were exposed to successively increasing salinity levels (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mM NaCl) as well as isosmotic combinations of NaCl and CaCl2 (Na+:Ca2+ of 1:1, 1:5, 1:10, 1:15, 1:18, and 1: 20), equivalent to 150 mM NaCl. Inocula of the local nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Rhizobium leguminosarum (OP715892) were supplemented at both stages. NaCl salinity exerted a negative impact on growth and metabolism of Vicia faba; inhibition was proportional with increasing salinity level up to the highest level of 200 mM. Seed germination, shoot and root lengths, fresh and dry weights, chlorophyll content, and nodules (number, weight, leghemoglobin, respiration, and nitrogenase activity) were inhibited by salinity. Ca2+ substitution for Na+, particularly at a Na/Ca ratio of 1:5, was stimulatory to almost all parameters at both stages. Statistical correlations between salinity levels and Na/Ca combinations proved one of the four levels (strong- or weak positive, strong- or weak negative) with most of the investigated parameters, depending on the parameter.

Crosstalk between Ca2+ and Other Regulators Assists Plants in Responding to Abiotic Stress

Plants have evolved many strategies for adaptation to extreme environments. Ca²⁺, acting as an important secondary messenger in plant cells, is a signaling molecule involved in plants' response and adaptation to external stress. In plant cells, almost all kinds of abiotic stresses are able to raise cytosolic Ca²⁺ levels, and the spatiotemporal distribution of this molecule in distant cells suggests that Ca²⁺ may be a universal signal regulating different kinds of abiotic stress. Ca²⁺ is used to sense and transduce various stress signals through its downstream calcium-binding proteins, thereby inducing a series of biochemical reactions to adapt to or resist various stresses. This review summarizes the roles and molecular mechanisms of cytosolic Ca²⁺ in response to abiotic stresses such as drought, high salinity, ultraviolet light, heavy metals, waterlogging, extreme temperature and wounding. Furthermore, we focused on the crosstalk between Ca²⁺ and other signaling molecules in plants suffering from extreme environmental stress.

Crosstalk between Calcium and ROS Signaling during Flg22-Triggered Immune Response in Arabidopsis Leaves

Calcium and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are two of the earliest second messengers in response to environmental stresses in plants. The rise and sequestration of these messengers in the cytosol and apoplast are formed by various channels, transporters, and enzymes that are required for proper defense responses. It remains unclear how calcium and ROS signals regulate each other during pattern-triggered immunity (PTI). In the present study, we examined the effects of perturbing one signal on the other in Arabidopsis leaves upon the addition of flg22, a well-studied microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP). To this end, a variety of pharmacological agents were used to suppress either calcium or ROS signaling. Our data suggest that cytosolic calcium elevation is required to initiate and regulate apoplastic ROS production generated by respiratory burst oxidase homologs (RBOHs). In contrast, ROS has no effect on the initiation of the calcium signal, but is required for forming a sufficient amplitude of the calcium signal. This finding using pharmacological agents is corroborated by the result of using a genetic double mutant, rbohd rbohf. Our study provides an insight into the mutual interplay of calcium and ROS signals during the MAMP-induced PTI response in plants.

VDACs: An Outlook on Biochemical Regulation and Function in Animal and Plant Systems

The voltage-dependent anion channels (VDACs) are the most abundant proteins present on the outer mitochondrial membrane. They serve a myriad of functions ranging from energy and metabolite exchange to highly debatable roles in apoptosis. Their role in molecular transport puts them on the center stage as communicators between cytoplasmic and mitochondrial signaling events. Beyond their general role as interchangeable pores, members of this family may exhibit specific functions. Even after nearly five decades of their discovery, their role in plant systems is still a new and rapidly emerging field. The information on biochemical regulation of VDACs is limited. Various interacting proteins and post-translational modifications (PTMs) modulate VDAC functions, amongst these, phosphorylation is quite noticeable. In this review, we have tried to give a glimpse of the recent advancements in the biochemical/interactional regulation of plant VDACs. We also cover a critical analysis on the importance of PTMs in the functional regulation of VDACs. Besides, the review also encompasses numerous studies which can identify VDACs as a connecting link between Ca2+ and reactive oxygen species signaling in special reference to the plant systems.

Effect of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and biochar on Cu accumulation and subcellular partitioning in Amaranthus retroflexus L

Phytoremediation combined with amendments and stabilization technologies are two crucial methods to deal with soil contaminated with heavy metals. Copper (Cu) contamination in soil near Cu mines poses a serious threat to ecosystems and human health. This study investigated the effect of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and biochar (BC) on the accumulation and subcellular distribution of Cu in Amaranthus retroflexus L. to demonstrate the remediation mechanism of EDTA and BC at the cellular level. The role of calcium (Ca) in response to Cu stress in A. retroflexus was also elucidated. We designed a pot experiment with a randomized block of four Cu levels (0, 100, 200, 400 mg kg^-1) and three treatments (control, amendment with EDTA, and amendment with BC). The subcellular components were divided into three parts (cell walls, organelles, and soluble fraction) by differential centrifugation. The results showed that EDTA amendment significantly increased (p < 0.05) the concentrations of Cu in root cell walls and all subcellular components of stems and leaves (cell walls, organelles, and the soluble fraction). EDTA amendment significantly increased (p < 0.05) the proportion of exchangeable fraction and carbonate fraction in the soil. While BC amendment significantly decreased (p < 0.05) the concentrations of Cu in root cell walls and the root soluble fraction, it had no significant effects on Cu concentrations in the subcellular components of stems and leaves. The results revealed that EDTA mainly promoted the transfer of Cu to aboveground parts and accumulation in subcellular components of stems and leaves, while BC mainly limited Cu accumulation in root cell walls and the root soluble fraction. Ca concentrations in cell walls of roots, stems, and leaves increased as the Cu stress increased in all treatment groups, indicating that Ca plays an important role in relieving Cu toxicity in Amaranthus retroflexus L.

A novel blue-light phototropic response is revealed in roots of Arabidopsis thaliana in microgravity

Blue-light positive phototropism in roots is masked by gravity and revealed in conditions of microgravity. In addition, the magnitude of red-light positive phototropic curvature is correlated to the magnitude of gravity. Due to their sessile nature, plants utilize environmental cues to grow and respond to their surroundings. Two of these cues, light and gravity, play a substantial role in plant orientation and directed growth movements (tropisms). However, very little is currently known about the interaction between light- (phototropic) and gravity (gravitropic)-mediated growth responses. Utilizing the European Modular Cultivation System on board the International Space Station, we investigated the interaction between phototropic and gravitropic responses in three Arabidopsis thaliana genotypes, Landsberg wild type, as well as mutants of phytochrome A and phytochrome B. Onboard centrifuges were used to create a fractional gravity gradient ranging from reduced gravity up to 1g. A novel positive blue-light phototropic response of roots was observed during conditions of microgravity, and this response was attenuated at 0.1g. In addition, a red-light pretreatment of plants enhanced the magnitude of positive phototropic curvature of roots in response to blue illumination. In addition, a positive phototropic response of roots was observed when exposed to red light, and a decrease in response was gradual and correlated with the increase in gravity. The positive red-light phototropic curvature of hypocotyls when exposed to red light was also confirmed. Both red-light and blue-light phototropic responses were also shown to be affected by directional light intensity. To our knowledge, this is the first characterization of a positive blue-light phototropic response in Arabidopsis roots, as well as the first description of the relationship between these phototropic responses in fractional or reduced gravities.

Abscisic Acid as an Internal Integrator of Multiple Physiological Processes Modulates Leaf Senescence Onset in Arabidopsis thaliana

Many studies have shown that exogenous abscisic acid (ABA) promotes leaf abscission and senescence. However, owing to a lack of genetic evidence, ABA function in plant senescence has not been clearly defined. Here, two-leaf early-senescence mutants (eas) that were screened by chlorophyll fluorescence imaging and named eas1-1 and eas1-2 showed high photosynthetic capacity in the early stage of plant growth compared with the wild type. Gene mapping showed that eas1-1 and eas1-2 are two novel ABA2 allelic mutants. Under unstressed conditions, the eas1 mutations caused plant dwarf, early germination, larger stomatal apertures, and early leaf senescence compared with those of the wild type. Flow cytometry assays showed that the cell apoptosis rate in eas1 mutant leaves was higher than that of the wild type after day 30. A significant increase in the transcript levels of several senescence-associated genes, especially SAG12, was observed in eas1 mutant plants in the early stage of plant growth. More importantly, ABA-activated calcium channel activity in plasma membrane and induced the increase of cytoplasmic calcium concentration in guard cells are suppressed due to the mutation of EAS1. In contrast, the eas1 mutants lost chlorophyll and ion leakage significant faster than in the wild type under treatment with calcium channel blocker. Hence, our results indicate that endogenous ABA level is an important factor controlling the onset of leaf senescence through Ca(2+) signaling.

A calmodulin like EF hand protein positively regulates oxalate decarboxylase expression by interacting with E-box elements of the promoter

Oxalate decarboxylase (OXDC) enzyme has immense biotechnological applications due to its ability to decompose anti-nutrient oxalic acid. Flammulina velutipes, an edible wood rotting fungus responds to oxalic acid by induction of OXDC to maintain steady levels of pH and oxalate anions outside the fungal hyphae. Here, we report that upon oxalic acid induction, a calmodulin (CaM) like protein-FvCaMLP, interacts with the OXDC promoter to regulate its expression. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed that FvCamlp specifically binds to two non-canonical E-box elements (AACGTG) in the OXDC promoter. Moreover, substitutions of amino acids in the EF hand motifs resulted in loss of DNA binding ability of FvCamlp. F. velutipes mycelia treated with synthetic siRNAs designed against FvCaMLP showed significant reduction in FvCaMLP as well as OXDC transcript pointing towards positive nature of the regulation. FvCaMLP is different from other known EF hand proteins. It shows sequence similarity to both CaMs and myosin regulatory light chain (Cdc4), but has properties typical of a calmodulin, like binding of ⁴⁵Ca²⁺, heat stability and Ca²⁺ dependent electrophoretic shift. Hence, FvCaMLP can be considered a new addition to the category of unconventional Ca²⁺ binding transcriptional regulators.

Identification and expression profiling analysis of calmodulin-binding transcription activator genes in maize (Zea mays L.) under abiotic and biotic stresses

The calmodulin-binding transcription activators (CAMTA) play critical roles in plant growth and responses to environmental stimuli. However, how CAMTAs function in responses to abiotic and biotic stresses in maize (Zea mays L.) is largely unknown. In this study, we first identified all the CAMTA homologous genes in the whole genome of maize. The results showed that nine ZmCAMTA genes showed highly diversified gene structures and tissue-specific expression patterns. Many ZmCAMTA genes displayed high expression levels in the roots. We then surveyed the distribution of stress-related cis-regulatory elements in the -1.5 kb promoter regions of ZmCAMTA genes. Notably, a large number of stress-related elements present in the promoter regions of some ZmCAMTA genes, indicating a genetic basis of stress expression regulation of these genes. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to test the expression of ZmCAMTA genes under several abiotic stresses (drought, salt, and cold), various stress-related hormones [abscisic acid, auxin, salicylic acid (SA), and jasmonic acid] and biotic stress [rice black-streaked dwarf virus (RBSDV) infection]. Furthermore, the expression pattern of ZmCAMTA genes under RBSDV infection was analyzed to investigate their potential roles in responses of different maize cultivated varieties to RBSDV. The expression of most ZmCAMTA genes responded to both abiotic and biotic stresses. The data will help us to understand the roles of CAMTA-mediated Ca(2+) signaling in maize tolerance to environmental stresses.

Effect of calcium on strawberry fruit flavonoid pathway gene expression and anthocyanin accumulation

Two diploid woodland strawberry (Fragaria vesca) inbred lines, Ruegen F7-4 (red fruit-bearing) and YW5AF7 (yellow fruit-bearing) were used to study the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in fruit. Ruegen F7-4 fruit had similar total phenolics and anthocyanin contents to commercial octoploid (F. × ananassa) cultivar Seascape, while YW5AF7 exhibited relatively low total phenolics content and no anthocyanin accumulation. Foliar spray of CaCl2 boosted fruit total phenolics content, especially anthocyanins, by more than 20% in both Seascape and RF7-4. Expression levels of almost all the flavonoid pathway genes were comparable in Ruegen F7-4 and YW5AF7 green-stage fruit. However, at the turning and ripe stages, key anthocyanin structural genes, including flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H1), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR2), anthocyanidin synthase (ANS1), and UDP-glucosyltransferase (UGT1), were highly expressed in Ruegen F7-4 compared with YW5AF7 fruit. Calcium treatment further stimulated the expression of those genes in Ruegen F7-4 fruit. Anthocyanins isolated from petioles of YW5AF7 and Ruegen F-7 had the same HPLC-DAD profile, which differed from that of Ruegen F-7 fruit anthocyanins. All the anthocyanin structural genes except FvUGT1 were detected in petioles of YW5AF7 and Ruegen F-7. Taken together, these results indicate that the "yellow" gene in YW5AF7 is a fruit specific regulatory gene(s) for anthocyanin biosynthesis. Calcium can enhance accumulation of anthocyanins and total phenolics in fruit possibly via upregulation of anthocyanin structural genes. Our results also suggest that the anthocyanin biosynthesis machinery in petioles is different from that in fruit.

Recent advances in calcium/calmodulin-mediated signaling with an emphasis on plant-microbe interactions

Calcium/calmodulin-mediated signaling contributes in diverse roles in plant growth, development, and response to environmental stimuli .

Phosphorylation of S344 in the calmodulin-binding domain negatively affects CCaMK function during bacterial and fungal symbioses

Calcium and Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CCaMK) plays a critical role in the signaling pathway that establishes root nodule symbiosis and arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. Calcium-dependent autophosphorylation is central to the regulation of CCaMK, and this has been shown to promote calmodulin binding. Here, we report a regulatory mechanism of Medicago truncatula CCaMK (MtCCaMK) through autophosphorylation of S344 in the calmodulin-binding/autoinhibitory domain. The phospho-ablative mutation S344A did not have significant effect on its kinase activities, and supports root nodule symbiosis and arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis, indicating that phosphorylation at this position is not required for establishment of symbioses. The phospho-mimic mutation S344D show drastically reduced calmodulin-stimulated substrate phosphorylation, and this coincides with a compromised interaction with calmodulin and its interacting partner, IPD3. Functional complementation tests revealed that the S344D mutation blocked root nodule symbiosis and reduced the mycorrhizal association. Furthermore, S344D was shown to suppress the spontaneous nodulation associated with a gain-of-function mutant of MtCCaMK (T271A), revealing that phosphorylation at S344 of MtCCaMK is adequate for shutting down its activity, and is epistatic over previously identified T271 autophosphorylation. These results reveal a mechanism that enables CCaMK to 'turn off' its function through autophosphorylation.

Genome-wide expression profiles of seasonal bud dormancy at four critical stages in Japanese apricot

Dormancy is one of the most important adaptive mechanisms developed by perennial plants. To reveal the comprehensive mechanism of seasonal bud dormancy at four critical stages in Japanese apricot (Prunus persica), we applied Illumina sequencing to study differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at the transcriptional level. As a result, 19,759, 16,375, 19,749 and 20,800 tag-mapped genes were sequenced from libraries of paradormancy (R1), endodormancy (R2), ecodormancy (R3) and dormancy release (R4) stages based on the P. persica genome. Moreover, 6,199, 5,539, and 5,317 genes were differentially expressed in R1 versus R2, R2 versus R3, and R3 versus R4, respectively. Gene Ontology analysis of dormancy-related genes showed that these were mainly related to the cytoplasm, cytoplasmic part metabolism, intracellular metabolism and membrane-bound organelle metabolism. Pathway-enrichment annotation revealed that highly ranked genes were involved in ribosome pathways and protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum. The results demonstrated that hormone response genes such as auxin, abscisic acid, ethylene and jasmonic acid, as well as zinc finger family protein genes are possibly involved in seasonal bud dormancy in Japanese apricot. The expression patterns of DEGs were verified using real-time quantitative RT-PCR. These results contribute to further understanding of the mechanism of bud dormancy in Japanese apricot.

Coupling calcium/calmodulin-mediated signaling and herbivore-induced plant response through calmodulin-binding transcription factor AtSR1/CAMTA3

Calcium/calmodulin (Ca(2+)/CaM) has long been considered a crucial component in wound signaling pathway. However, very few Ca(2+)/CaM-binding proteins have been identified which regulate plant responses to herbivore attack/wounding stress. We have reported earlier that a family of Ca(2+)/CaM-binding transcription factors designated as AtSRs (also known as AtCAMTAs) can respond differentially to wounding stress. Further studies revealed that AtSR1/CAMTA3 is a negative regulator of plant defense, and Ca(2+)/CaM-binding to AtSR1 is indispensable for the suppression of salicylic acid (SA) accumulation and disease resistance. Here we report that Ca(2+)/CaM-binding is also critical for AtSR1-mediated herbivore-induced wound response. Interestingly, atsr1 mutant plants are more susceptible to herbivore attack than wild-type plants. Complementation of atsr1 mutant plants by overexpressing wild-type AtSR1 protein can effectively restore plant resistance to herbivore attack. However, when mutants of AtSR1 with impaired CaM-binding ability were overexpressed in atsr1 mutant plants, plant resistance to herbivore attack was not restored, suggesting a key role for Ca(2+)/CaM-binding in wound signaling. Furthermore, it was observed that elevated SA levels in atsr1 mutant plants have a negative impact on both basal and induced biosynthesis of jasmonates (JA). These results revealed that Ca(2+)/CaM-mediated signaling regulates plant response to herbivore attack/wounding by modulating the SA-JA crosstalk through AtSR1.

Characterization of StABF1, a stress-responsive bZIP transcription factor from Solanum tuberosum L. that is phosphorylated by StCDPK2 in vitro

ABF/AREB bZIP transcription factors mediate plant abiotic stress responses by regulating the expression of stress-related genes. These proteins bind to the abscisic acid (ABA)-responsive element (ABRE), which is the major cis-acting regulatory sequence in ABA-dependent gene expression. In an effort to understand the molecular mechanisms of abiotic stress resistance in cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), we have cloned and characterized an ABF/AREB-like transcription factor from potato, named StABF1. The predicted protein shares 45-57% identity with A. thaliana ABFs proteins and 96% identity with the S. lycopersicum SlAREB1 and presents all of the distinctive features of ABF/AREB transcription factors. Furthermore, StABF1 is able to bind to the ABRE in vitro. StABF1 gene is induced in response to ABA, drought, salt stress and cold, suggesting that it might be a key regulator of ABA-dependent stress signaling pathways in cultivated potato. StABF1 is phosphorylated in response to ABA and salt stress in a calcium-dependent manner, and we have identified a potato CDPK isoform (StCDPK2) that phosphorylates StABF1 in vitro. Interestingly, StABF1 expression is increased during tuber development and by tuber-inducing conditions (high sucrose/nitrogen ratio) in leaves. We also found that StABF1 calcium-dependent phosphorylation is stimulated by tuber-inducing conditions and inhibited by gibberellic acid, which inhibits tuberization.

Characterization of a calcium/calmodulin-regulated SR/CAMTA gene family during tomato fruit development and ripening

BACKGROUND

Fruit ripening is a complicated development process affected by a variety of external and internal cues. It is well established that calcium treatment delays fruit ripening and senescence. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear.

RESULTS

Previous studies have shown that calcium/calmodulin-regulated SR/CAMTAs are important for modulation of disease resistance, cold sensitivity and wounding response in vegetative tissues. To study the possible roles of this gene family in fruit development and ripening, we cloned seven SR/CAMTAs, designated as SlSRs, from tomato, a model fruit-bearing crop. All seven genes encode polypeptides with a conserved DNA-binding domain and a calmodulin-binding site. Calmodulin specifically binds to the putative targeting site in a calcium-dependent manner. All SlSRs were highly yet differentially expressed during fruit development and ripening. Most notably, the expression of SlSR2 was scarcely detected at the mature green and breaker stages, two critical stages of fruit development and ripening; and SlSR3L and SlSR4 were expressed exclusively in fruit tissues. During the developmental span from 10 to 50 days post anthesis, the expression profiles of all seven SlSRs were dramatically altered in ripening mutant rin compared with wildtype fruit. By contrast, only minor alterations were noted for ripening mutant nor and Nr fruit. In addition, ethylene treatment of mature green wildtype fruit transiently stimulated expression of all SlSRs within one to two hours.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that SlSR expression is influenced by both the Rin-mediated developmental network and ethylene signaling. The results suggest that calcium signaling is involved in the regulation of fruit development and ripening through calcium/calmodulin/SlSR interactions.

Crystallization and preliminary crystallographic analysis of a C2 protein from Arabidopsis thaliana

An uncharacterized protein from Arabidopsis thaliana consisting of a single C2 domain (At3g17980) was cloned into the pETM11 vector and expressed in Escherichia coli, allowing purification to homogeneity in a single chromatographic step. Good-quality diffracting crystals were obtained using vapour-diffusion techniques. The crystals diffracted to 2.2 Å resolution and belonged to space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 35.3, b = 88.9, c = 110.6 Å. A promising molecular-replacement solution has been found using the structure of the C2 domain of Munc13-C2b (PDB entry 3kwt) as the search model.

Coping with stresses: roles of calcium- and calcium/calmodulin-regulated gene expression

Abiotic and biotic stresses are major limiting factors of crop yields and cause billions of dollars of losses annually around the world. It is hoped that understanding at the molecular level how plants respond to adverse conditions and adapt to a changing environment will help in developing plants that can better cope with stresses. Acquisition of stress tolerance requires orchestration of a multitude of biochemical and physiological changes, and most of these depend on changes in gene expression. Research during the last two decades has established that different stresses cause signal-specific changes in cellular Ca(2+) level, which functions as a messenger in modulating diverse physiological processes that are important for stress adaptation. In recent years, many Ca(2+) and Ca(2+)/calmodulin (CaM) binding transcription factors (TFs) have been identified in plants. Functional analyses of some of these TFs indicate that they play key roles in stress signaling pathways. Here, we review recent progress in this area with emphasis on the roles of Ca(2+)- and Ca(2+)/CaM-regulated transcription in stress responses. We will discuss emerging paradigms in the field, highlight the areas that need further investigation, and present some promising novel high-throughput tools to address Ca(2+)-regulated transcriptional networks.

Calcium/calmodulin-regulated receptor-like kinase CRLK1 interacts with MEKK1 in plants

Recently we reported that CRLK1, a novel calcium/calmodulin-regulated receptor-like kinase plays an important role in regulating plant cold tolerance. Calcium/calmodulin binds to CRLK1 and upregulates its activity. Gene knockout and complementation studies revealed that CRLK1 is a positive regulator of plant response to chilling and freezing temperatures. Here we show that MEKK1, a member of MAP kinase kinase kinase family, interacts with CRLK1 both in vitro and in planta. The cold triggered MAP kinase activation in wild-type plants was abolished in crlk1 knockout mutants. Similarly, the cold induced expression levels of genes involved in MAP kinase signaling are also altered in crlk1 mutants. These results suggest that calcium/calmodulin-regulated CRLK1 modulates cold acclimation through MAP kinase cascade in plants.

A calcium/calmodulin-regulated member of the receptor-like kinase family confers cold tolerance in plants

Cold is a limiting environmental factor that adversely affects plant growth and productivity. Calcium/calmodulin-mediated signaling is believed to play a pivotal role in plant response to cold stress, but its exact role is not clearly understood. Here, we report that CRLK1, a novel calcium/calmodulin-regulated receptor-like kinase, is crucial for cold tolerance in plants. CRLK1 has two calmodulin-binding sites with different affinities as follows: one located at residues 369-390 with a K(d) of 25 nm, and the other located at residues 28-112 with a K(d) of 160 nm. Calcium/calmodulin stimulated the kinase activity, but the addition of chlorpromazine, a calmodulin antagonist, blocked its stimulation. CRLK1 is mainly localized in the plasma membrane, and its expression is stimulated by cold and hydrogen peroxide treatments. Under normal growth conditions, there is no noticeable phenotypic difference between wild-type and crlk1 knock-out mutant plants. However, as compared with wild-type plants, the crlk1 knock-out mutants exhibited an increased sensitivity to chilling and freezing temperatures. Northern analysis showed that the induction of cold-responsive genes, including CBF1, RD29A, COR15a, and KIN1 in crlk1 mutants, is delayed as compared with wild-type plants. These results indicate that CRLK1 is a positive regulator of cold tolerance in plants. Furthermore, our results suggest that CRLK1 plays a role in bridging calcium/calmodulin signaling and cold signaling.

Viewpoint: Concept of redesigning proteins by manipulating calcium/calmodulin-binding domains to engineer plants with altered traits

The importance of calcium and calcium-binding proteins such as calmodulin in plant growth and development as well as plant response to environmental stimuli has been recognised for some time. However, it is only recently that the underlying mechanisms have begun to be unravelled. A variety of intracellular calcium signatures have been observed in response to various stimuli. However, how these changes induce downstream actions and how one can manipulate these events to alter plant response is an area of major interest. Here we discuss the recent advances on three intriguing calcium/calmodulin-regulated proteins: a calcium/calmodulin-regulated metabolic enzyme (DWF1); a chimeric calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CCaMK); and a family of calcium/calmodulin-regulated transcription factors (AtSRs or CAMTAs). These proteins play critical roles in plant growth, plant : microbe interactions and plant response to multiple environmental signals. The identification and manipulation of calcium-binding and calmodulin-binding sites in these proteins have provided direct evidence for the role of calcium-binding and calmodulin-binding to the proteins, as well as providing new ways to rebuild the proteins and engineer plants to obtain desired traits.

Ca2+/calmodulin is critical for brassinosteroid biosynthesis and plant growth

Brassinosteroids are plant-specific steroid hormones that have an important role in coupling environmental factors, especially light, with plant growth and development. How the endogenous brassinosteroids change in response to environmental stimuli is largely unknown. Ca2+/calmodulin has an essential role in sensing and transducing environmental stimuli. Arabidopsis DWARF1 (DWF1) is responsible for an early step in brassinosteroid biosynthesis that converts 24-methylenecholesterol to campesterol. Here we show that DWF1 is a Ca2+/calmodulin-binding protein and this binding is critical for its function. Molecular genetic analysis using site-directed and deletion mutants revealed that loss of calmodulin binding completely abolished the function of DWF1 in planta, whereas partial loss of calmodulin binding resulted in a partial dwarf phenotype in complementation studies. These results provide direct proof that Ca2+/calmodulin-mediated signalling has a critical role in controlling the function of DWF1. Furthermore, we observed that DWF1 orthologues from other plants have a similar Ca2+/calmodulin-binding domain, implying that Ca2+/calmodulin regulation of DWF1 and its homologues is common in plants. These results raise the possibility of producing size-engineered crops by altering the Ca2+/calmodulin-binding property of their DWF1 orthologues.

Calcium/calmodulin up-regulates a cytoplasmic receptor-like kinase in plants

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinases play an important role in protein phosphorylation in eukaryotes. However, not much is known about calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein phosphorylation and its role in signal transduction in plants. By using a protein-protein interaction-based approach, we have isolated a novel plant-specific calmodulin-binding receptor-like cytoplasmic kinase (CRCK1) from Arabidopsis thaliana, as well as its ortholog from Medicago sativa (alfalfa). CRCK1 does not show high homology to calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases in animals. In contrast, it shows high homology in the kinase domain to serine/threonine receptor-like kinases in plants. However, it contains neither a transmembrane domain nor an extracellular domain. Calmodulin binds to CRCK1 in a calcium-dependent manner with an affinity of approximately 20.5 nm. The calmodulin-binding site in CRCK1 is located in amino acids 160-183, which overlap subdomain II of the kinase domain. CRCK1 undergoes autophosphorylation in the presence of Mg2+ at the threonine residue(s). The Km and Vmax values of CRCK1 for ATP are 1 microm and 33.6 pmol/mg/min, respectively. Calcium/calmodulin stimulates the kinase activity of CRCK1, which increases the Vmax of CRCK1 approximately 9-fold. The expression of CRCK1 is increased in response to stresses such as cold and salt and stress molecules such as abscisic acid and hydrogen peroxide. These results indicate the presence of a calcium/calmodulin-regulated receptor-like cytoplasmic kinase in plants. Furthermore, these results also suggest that calcium/calmodulin-regulated protein phosphorylation involving CRCK1 plays a role in stress signal transduction in plants.

Auxin induces an increase of Ca2+ concentration in the cytosol of wheat leaf protoplasts

Auxin addition to protoplasts isolated from leaves of 6-day-old wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Kadett) induced a rapid increase in the cytosolic calcium concentration [Ca2+]cyt. The shifts in [Ca2+]cyt were detected by use of fluorescence microscopy in single protoplasts loaded with the calcium binding tetra[acetoxymethyl]ester of the fluorescent dye, Fura 2. Addition of the synthetic auxin naphthyl acetic acid, 1-NAA, induced an increase in [Ca2+]cyt within 5-10s, while the physiologically non-active analogue, 2-NAA, did not. The amplitude of calcium increase depended on the concentration of 1-NAA. Since the process was affected by different concentrations of Ca2+ in the external medium, and since the calcium channel blockers (nifedipine and verapamil) postponed and inhibited the reaction, it is suggested that auxin primarily activates Ca2+-permeable channels in the plasma membrane. In the presence of low external calcium concentration (0.1 mM), 5 mM LiCl almost totally blocked the increase in [Ca2+]cyt, indicating a possible involvement of tonoplast Ca2+-channels in the auxin-induced [Ca2+]cyt shift. Thus, calcium signalling induced by auxin involves both external and internal Ca2+ pools.

Characterization of a novel calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase from tobacco

A cDNA encoding a calcium (Ca2+)/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) from tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), NtCaMK1, was isolated by protein-protein interaction-based screening of a cDNA expression library using 35S-labeled CaM as a probe. The genomic sequence is about 24.6 kb, with 21 exons, and the full-length cDNA is 4.8 kb, with an open reading frame for NtCaMK1 consisting of 1,415 amino acid residues. NtCaMK1 has all 11 subdomains of a kinase catalytic domain, lacks EF hands for Ca2+-binding, and is structurally similar to other CaMKs in mammal systems. Biochemical analyses have identified NtCaMK1 as a Ca2+/CaMK since NtCaMK1 phosphorylated itself and histone IIIs as substrate only in the presence of Ca2+/CaM with a Km of 44.5 microm and a Vmax of 416.2 nm min(-1) mg(-1). Kinetic analysis showed that the kinase not previously autophosphorylated had a Km for the synthetic peptide syntide-2 of 22.1 microm and a Vmax of 644.1 nm min(-1) mg(-1) when assayed in the presence of Ca2+/CaM. Once the autophosphorylation of NtCaMK1 was initiated, the phosphorylated form displayed Ca2+/CaM-independent behavior, as many other CaMKs do. Analysis of the CaM-binding domain (CaMBD) in NtCaMK1 with truncated and site-directed mutated forms defined a stretch of 20 amino acid residues at positions 913 to 932 as the CaMBD with high CaM affinity (Kd = 5 nm). This CaMBD was classified as a 1-8-14 motif. The activation of NtCaMK1 was differentially regulated by three tobacco CaM isoforms (NtCaM1, NtCaM3, and NtCaM13). While NtCaM1 and NtCaM13 activated NtCaMK1 effectively, NtCaM3 did not activate the kinase.

Role of dynamics of intracellular calcium in aluminium-toxicity syndrome

This review is concentrating on the role of aluminium (Al)-calcium (Ca) interactions in Al toxicity syndrome in plants. Disruption of cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ homeostasis has been suggested as a primary trigger of Al toxicity. Aluminium causes an increase in cytosolic Ca²⁺ activity, potentially disrupting numerous biochemical and physiological processes, including those involved in the root growth. The source of Ca²⁺ for the increase in cytosolic Ca²⁺ activity under Al exposure is partly extracellular (likely to be due to the Al-resistant portion of the flux through depolarization-activated Ca²⁺ channels and fluxes through Ca²⁺ -permeable nonselective cation channels in the plasma membrane) as well as intracellular (increased cytosolic Ca²⁺ activity enhances the activity of Ca²⁺ release channels in the tonoplast and the endoplasmic reticulum membrane). The effect on increased cytosolic Ca²⁺ activity of possible Al-related inhibition of the plasma membrane and endo-membrane Ca²⁺ -ATPases and Ca²⁺ exchangers (CaX) that sequester Ca²⁺ out of the cytosol is insufficiently documented at present. The relationship between Al toxicity, cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ homeostasis and cytoplasmic pH needs to be elucidated. Technical improvements that would allow measurements of cytosolic Ca²⁺ activity within the short time after exposure to Al (seconds or shorter) are eagerly awaited. Contents I. Introduction 296 II. Symptoms of aluminium toxicity 296 III. Calcium - aluminium interactions 297 IV. The role of electrical properties of the plasma membrane in calcium-aluminium interactions 306 V. Oxidative stress 307 VI. Callose 308 VII. Cytoskeleton 308 VIII. Conclusions 309 Acknowledgements 309 References 309.

A calmodulin-binding/CGCG box DNA-binding protein family involved in multiple signaling pathways in plants

We reported earlier that the tobacco early ethylene-responsive gene NtER1 encodes a calmodulin-binding protein (Yang, T., and Poovaiah, B. W. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 38467-38473). Here we demonstrate that there is one NtER1 homolog as well as five related genes in Arabidopsis. These six genes are rapidly and differentially induced by environmental signals such as temperature extremes, UVB, salt, and wounding; hormones such as ethylene and abscisic acid; and signal molecules such as methyl jasmonate, H(2)O(2), and salicylic acid. Hence, they were designated as AtSR1-6 (Arabidopsis thaliana signal-responsive genes). Ca(2+)/calmodulin binds to all AtSRs, and their calmodulin-binding regions are located on a conserved basic amphiphilic alpha-helical motif in the C terminus. AtSR1 targets the nucleus and specifically recognizes a novel 6-bp CGCG box (A/C/G)CGCG(G/T/C). The multiple CGCG cis-elements are found in promoters of genes such as those involved in ethylene signaling, abscisic acid signaling, and light signal perception. The DNA-binding domain in AtSR1 is located on the N-terminal 146 bp where all AtSR1-related proteins share high similarity but have no similarity to other known DNA-binding proteins. The calmodulin-binding nuclear proteins isolated from wounded leaves exhibit specific CGCG box DNA binding activities. These results suggest that the AtSR gene family encodes a family of calmodulin-binding/DNA-binding proteins involved in multiple signal transduction pathways in plants.

Expression of the grape dihydroflavonol reductase gene and analysis of its promoter region

Dihydroflavonol reductase (DFR) is a key enzyme involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis and proanthocyanidin synthesis in grape. DFR catalyses the reduction of dihydroflavonols to leucoanthocyanidins in the anthocyanin pathway. The DFR products, the leucoanthocyanidins, are substrates for the next step in the anthocyanin pathway and are also the substrates for the proanthocyanidin pathway. In the present study the promoter of the grape dfr gene was cloned. Analysis of the dfr promoter sequence revealed the existence of several putative DNA binding motifs. The dfr promoter was fused to the uidA gene and the control of this fusion and the endogenous dfr gene expression, was studied in transformed plants and in red cell suspension originated from fruits. The dfr promoter-uidA gene fusion was expressed in leaves, roots and stems. Deletions of the dfr promoter influenced the specificity of the expression of the GUS gene fusion in plantlet roots and the level of expression in plants and in the red cell suspension originated from fruits. The deletion analysis of the dfr promoter suggests that a specific sequence located between -725 to -233 might be involved in expression of the dfr gene in fruits. Light, calcium and sucrose induced the dfr gene expression. In the transformed suspension cultures, expression of both the endogenous dfr gene and the dfr promoter-uidA gene fusions was induced by white light. The induction by both light and calcium suggests the possible involvement of a UV receptors signal transduction pathway in the induction of the dfr gene. The induction of the dfr gene and the dfr promoter-uidA gene fusions by light and sucrose indicates a close interaction between sucrose and light signalling pathways.

Molecular motors and their functions in plants

Molecular motors that hydrolyze ATP and use the derived energy to generate force are involved in a variety of diverse cellular functions. Genetic, biochemical, and cellular localization data have implicated motors in a variety of functions such as vesicle and organelle transport, cytoskeleton dynamics, morphogenesis, polarized growth, cell movements, spindle formation, chromosome movement, nuclear fusion, and signal transduction. In non-plant systems three families of molecular motors (kinesins, dyneins, and myosins) have been well characterized. These motors use microtubules (in the case of kinesines and dyneins) or actin filaments (in the case of myosins) as tracks to transport cargo materials intracellularly. During the last decade tremendous progress has been made in understanding the structure and function of various motors in animals. These studies are yielding interesting insights into the functions of molecular motors and the origin of different families of motors. Furthermore, the paradigm that motors bind cargo and move along cytoskeletal tracks does not explain the functions of some of the motors. Relatively little is known about the molecular motors and their roles in plants. In recent years, by using biochemical, cell biological, molecular, and genetic approaches a few molecular motors have been isolated and characterized from plants. These studies indicate that some of the motors in plants have novel features and regulatory mechanisms. The role of molecular motors in plant cell division, cell expansion, cytoplasmic streaming, cell-to-cell communication, membrane trafficking, and morphogenesis is beginning to be understood. Analyses of the Arabidopsis genome sequence database (51% of genome) with conserved motor domains of kinesin and myosin families indicates the presence of a large number (about 40) of molecular motors and the functions of many of these motors remain to be discovered. It is likely that many more motors with novel regulatory mechanisms that perform plant-specific functions are yet to be discovered. Although the identification of motors in plants, especially in Arabidopsis, is progressing at a rapid pace because of the ongoing plant genome sequencing projects, only a few plant motors have been characterized in any detail. Elucidation of function and regulation of this multitude of motors in a given species is going to be a challenging and exciting area of research in plant cell biology. Structural features of some plant motors suggest calcium, through calmodulin, is likely to play a key role in regulating the function of both microtubule- and actin-based motors in plants.

Calcium: silver bullet in signaling

Accumulating evidence suggests that Ca(2+) serves as a messenger in many normal growth and developmental process and in plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Numerous signals have been shown to induce transient elevation of [Ca(2+)](cyt) in plants. Genetic, biochemical, molecular and cell biological approaches in recent years have resulted in significant progress in identifying several Ca(2+)-sensing proteins in plants and in understanding the function of some of these Ca(2+)-regulated proteins at the cellular and whole plant level. As more and more Ca(2+)-sensing proteins are identified it is becoming apparent that plants have several unique Ca(2+)-sensing proteins and that the downstream components of Ca(2+) signaling in plants have novel features and regulatory mechanisms. Although the mechanisms by which Ca(2+) regulates diverse biochemical and molecular processes and eventually physiological processes in response to diverse signals are beginning to be understood, recent studies have raised many interesting questions. Despite the fact that Ca(2+) sensing proteins are being identified at a rapid pace, progress on the function(s) of many of them is limited. Studies on plant 'signalome' - the identification of all signaling components in all messengers mediated transduction pathways, analysis of their function and regulation, and cross talk among these components - should help in understanding the inner workings of plant cell responses to diverse signals. New functional genomics approaches such as reverse genetics, microarray analyses coupled with in vivo protein-protein interaction studies and proteomics should not only permit functional analysis of various components in Ca(2+) signaling but also enable identification of a complex network of interactions.

The role of microtubules in guard cell function

Guard cells are able to sense a multitude of environmental signals and appropriately adjust the stomatal pore to regulate gas exchange in and out of the leaf. The role of the microtubule cytoskeleton during these stomatal movements has been debated. To help resolve this debate, in vivo stomatal aperture assays with different microtubule inhibitors were performed. We observed that guard cells expressing the microtubule-binding green fluorescent fusion protein (green fluorescent protein::microtubule binding domain) fail to open for all major environmental triggers of stomatal opening. Furthermore, guard cells treated with the anti-microtubule drugs, propyzamide, oryzalin, and trifluralin also failed to open under the same environmental conditions. The inhibitory conditions caused by green fluorescent protein::microtubule binding domain and these anti-microtubule drugs could be reversed using the proton pump activator, fusicoccin. Therefore, we conclude that microtubules are involved in an upstream event prior to the ionic fluxes leading to stomatal opening. In a mechanistic manner, evidence is presented to implicate a microtubule-associated protein in this putative microtubule-based signal transduction event.

An early ethylene up-regulated gene encoding a calmodulin-binding protein involved in plant senescence and death

35S-Labeled calmodulin (CaM) was used to screen a tobacco anther cDNA library. A positive clone (NtER1) with high homology to an early ethylene-up-regulated gene (ER66) in tomato, and an Arabidopsis homolog was isolated and characterized. Based on the helical wheel projection, a 25-mer peptide corresponding to the predicted CaM-binding region of NtER1 (amino acids 796-820) was synthesized. The gel-mobility shift assay showed that the peptide formed a stable complex with CaM only in the presence of Ca(2+). CaM binds to NtER1 with high affinity (K(d) approximately 12 nm) in a calcium-dependent manner. Tobacco flowers at different stages of development were treated with ethylene or with 1-methylcyclopropene for 2 h before treating with ethylene. Northern analysis showed that the NtER1 was rapidly induced after 15 min of exposure to ethylene. However, the 2-h 1-methylcyclopropene treatment totally blocked NtER1 expression in flowers at all stages of development, suggesting that NtER1 is an early ethylene-up-regulated gene. The senescing leaves and petals had significantly increased NtER1 induction as compared with young leaves and petals, implying that NtER1 is developmentally regulated and acts as a trigger for senescence and death. This is the first documented evidence for the involvement of Ca(2+)/CaM-mediated signaling in ethylene action.

Arabidopsis chloroplast chaperonin 10 is a calmodulin-binding protein

Calcium regulates diverse cellular activities in plants through the action of calmodulin (CaM). By using (35)S-labeled CaM to screen an Arabidopsis seedling cDNA expression library, a cDNA designated as AtCh-CPN10 (Arabidopsis thaliana chloroplast chaperonin 10) was cloned. Chloroplast CPN10, a nuclear-encoded protein, is a functional homolog of E. coli GroES. It is believed that CPN60 and CPN10 are involved in the assembly of Rubisco, a key enzyme involved in the photosynthetic pathway. Northern analysis revealed that AtCh-CPN10 is highly expressed in green tissues. The recombinant AtCh-CPN10 binds to CaM in a calcium-dependent manner. Deletion mutants revealed that there is only one CaM-binding site in the last 31 amino acids of the AtCh-CPN10 at the C-terminal end. The CaM-binding region in AtCh-CPN10 has higher homology to other chloroplast CPN10s in comparison to GroES and mitochondrial CPN10s, suggesting that CaM may only bind to chloroplast CPN10s. Furthermore, the results also suggest that the calcium/CaM messenger system is involved in regulating Rubisco assembly in the chloroplast, thereby influencing photosynthesis.

Overproduction in Escherichia coli of the pectin methylesterase A from Erwinia chrysanthemi 3937: one-step purification, biochemical characterization, and production of polyclonal antibodies

Pectin methylesterase A (EC 3.1.1.11), one of the pathogenicity factors of Erwinia chrysanthemi strain 3937, was purified to homogeneity using one-step chromatography on cross-linked pectate. The purified protein showed maximum activity at pH 8-9, 50 degrees C, 50-100 mM monovalent cations or 5-10 mM divalent cations, and on a 50% esterified pectin. A particular effect of Ca2+ and Zn2+ on PMEA activity, due to the formation of a pectin gel, was observed. A Km value of 0.03% and 0.051% was determined at pH 6 and 7.6, respectively, using the same substrate. Polyclonal antibodies raised against the PMEA from E. chrysanthemi strain 3937 were produced. It recognized PMEs from Erwinia species, but did not cross-react with PME of fungal or plant origin, and will therefore be a useful tool to immunolocalize the protein during plant-pathogen interactions.

Molecular and biochemical evidence for the involvement of calcium/calmodulin in auxin action

The use of (35)S-labeled calmodulin (CaM) to screen a corn root cDNA expression library has led to the isolation of a CaM-binding protein, encoded by a cDNA with sequence similarity to small auxin up RNAs (SAURs), a class of early auxin-responsive genes. The cDNA designated as ZmSAUR1 (Zea mays SAURs) was expressed in Escherichia coli, and the recombinant protein was purified by CaM affinity chromatography. The CaM binding assay revealed that the recombinant protein binds to CaM in a calcium-dependent manner. Deletion analysis revealed that the CaM binding site was located at the NH(2)-terminal domain. A synthetic peptide of amino acids 20-45, corresponding to the potential CaM binding region, was used for calcium-dependent mobility shift assays. The synthetic peptide formed a stable complex with CaM only in the presence of calcium. The CaM affinity assay indicated that ZmSAUR1 binds to CaM with high affinity (K(d) approximately 15 nM) in a calcium-dependent manner. Comparison of the NH(2)-terminal portions of all of the characterized SAURs revealed that they all contain a stretch of the basic alpha-amphiphilic helix similar to the CaM binding region of ZmSAUR1. CaM binds to the two synthetic peptides from the NH(2)-terminal regions of Arabidopsis SAUR-AC1 and soybean 10A5, suggesting that this is a general phenomenon for all SAURs. Northern analysis was carried out using the total RNA isolated from auxin-treated corn coleoptile segments. ZmSAUR1 gene expression began within 10 min, increased rapidly between 10 and 60 min, and peaked around 60 min after 10 microM alpha-naphthaleneacetic acid treatment. These results indicate that ZmSAUR1 is an early auxin-responsive gene. The CaM antagonist N-(6-aminohexyl)5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulfonamide hydrochloride inhibited the auxin-induced cell elongation but not the auxin-induced expression of ZmSAUR1. This suggests that calcium/CaM do not regulate ZmSAUR1 at the transcriptional level. CaM binding to ZmSAUR1 in a calcium-dependent manner suggests that calcium/CaM regulate ZmSAUR1 at the post-translational level. Our data provide the first direct evidence for the involvement of calcium/CaM-mediated signaling in auxin-mediated signal transduction.

Protein kinase activities in ripening mango, Mangifera indica L., fruit tissue. III. Purification and characterisation of a calcium-regulated protein kinase

A calcium-dependent protein kinase (PK-III), not requiring calmodulin for activity, was purified from extracts of ripening mango fruit tissue. Purification was achieved by ammonium sulfate fractionation and sequential anion exchange-, hydrophobic interaction-, dye ligand affinity- and gel filtration chromatography; which allowed a recovery of 1-5% of the total available kinase activity. The final specific activity in the presence of 1 mM Ca2+ was consistently 9 nmol min-1mg-1. The purified enzyme was a monomer with a Mr of 49000, but was resolved by denaturing electrophoresis into two related protein bands of 49 and 45 kDa. Enzyme activity was activated >30-fold by micromolar amounts of free calcium and was dependent upon millimolar Mg2+ or Mn2+ concentrations. Calmodulin (1 microM) had no effect on PK-III activity but the calmodulin antagonists, calmidazolium and chlorpromazine, inhibited PK-III in a dose-dependent manner over a range of 0 to 100 microM. The results suggest a regulatory domain that is similar to calmodulin. PK-III phosphorylated histone III-S and to a lesser extent casein, but did not phosphorylate histone II-S, phosvitin or protamine sulfate. The enzyme phosphorylated substrate proteins on either serine or threonine but not tyrosine. Some endogenous substrates and the ability to autophosphorylate were revealed by autoradiographic studies. PK-III displayed a broad pH optimum (pH 6.6-9.5), and the optimum reaction temperature with histone III-S as substrate was 35 degreesC. The kinetic reaction mechanism of PK-III was studied by using casein as substrate. The KmATP and Kmcasein of PK-III were determined as 10 microM and 1.0 mg ml-1, respectively.

ZmcPKC70, a protein kinase C-type enzyme from maize. Biochemical characterization, regulation by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and its possible involvement in nitrate reductase gene expression

The crucial enzyme in diacylglycerol-mediated signaling is protein kinase C (PKC). In this paper we provide evidence for the existence and role of PKC in maize. A protein of an apparent molecular mass of 70 kDa was purified. The protein showed kinase activity that was stimulated by phosphatidylserine and oleyl acetyl glycerol (OAG) in the presence of Ca2+. Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) replaced the requirement of OAG. [3H]PMA binding to the 70-kDa protein was competed by unlabeled PMA and OAG but not by 4alpha-PMA, an inactive analog. The kinase phosphorylates histone H1 at serine residue(s), and this activity was inhibited by H-7 and staurosporine. These properties suggest that the 70-kDa protein is a conventional serine/threonine protein kinase C (cPKC). Polyclonal antibodies raised against the polypeptide precipitate the enzyme activity and immunostained the protein on Western blots. The antibodies also cross-reacted with a protein of expected size from sorghum, rice, and tobacco. A rapid increase in the protein level was observed in maize following PMA treatments. In order to assign a possible role of PKC in gene regulation, the nitrate reductase transcript level was investigated. The transcript level increased by PMA, not by 4alpha-PMA treatments, and the increase was inhibited by H-7 but not by okadaic acid. The data show the existence and possible function of PKC in higher plants.

Protein kinase activities in ripening mango, Mangifera indica L., fruit tissue. I: Purification and characterization of a calcium-stimulated casein kinase-I

A Ca(2+)-stimulated protein kinase (PK-I), active with dephosphorylated casein as exogenous substrate, was purified from ripening mango fruit. The purification procedure involved 30-70% ammonium sulphate fractionation and sequential anion exchange-, affinity-, hydrophobic interaction- and gel filtration chromatography. PK-I was purified ca. 40-fold with an overall yield of < 1%. The final specific activity in the presence of 0.1 mM Ca2+ was 55 nmol min-1 mg-1. Analysis of the most highly purified preparations revealed a monomeric enzyme with an M(r) of 30.9 kDa and pI of 5.1. PK-I efficiently phosphorylated casein and phosvitin, but did not phosphorylate histone II-S, histone III-S, protamine sulphate or bovine serum albumin. PK-I activity was stimulated by micromolar concentrations of Ca2+ and was dependent on millimolar Mg2+ concentrations, which could not be substituted with Mn2+. PK-I activity was stimulated by, but was not dependent on Ca2+. Calmodulin and calmodulin inhibitors did not affect PK-I activity, but heparin and cAMP acted as inhibitors. The pH and temperature optima of the enzyme under standard reaction conditions were 6.5 and 35 degrees C, respectively. The kinetic reaction mechanism of PK-I was studied by using casein as substrate. Initial velocity and product inhibition studies with ADP as product inhibitor best fit an ordered bi-bi kinetic mechanism with the Mg(2+)-ATP complex binding first to the enzyme followed by binding of the protein substrate. The K(m)ATP and K(m)casein of PK-I were 9 microM and 0.26 mg ml-1, respectively. The KiADP of PK-I was 9 microM.

Partial purification and characterization of a Ca(2+)-dependent proteinase from Arabidopsis roots

Ca2+, an important intracellular messenger in plants, is implicated in controlling diverse cellular functions by regulating the activity of several enzymes. Here we report the presence of a Ca(2+)-dependent proteinase (CDP) activity in roots of Arabidopsis using in-gel assays (zymograms). The CDP activity showed absolute Ca2+ requirement for its activation; other divalent ions such as Mg2+, Sr2+, and Zn2+ did not substitute for Ca2+ in stimulating protease activity. The CDP activity was inhibited by the proteinase inhibitors leupeptin, E-64, and N-ethylmaleimide, whereas pepstatin A and phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride were without effect. These data indicate that the enzyme is likely to be a cysteine proteinase. The CDP activity was partially purified from root cultures using ammonium sulfate precipitation, DE-52, Mono-Q, and Superdex 200 column chromatography. This purification scheme resulted in about 40-fold purification of the CDP activity. Based on the elution of Arabidopsis CDP (ACDP) activity on gel filtration column the molecular mass of CDP was estimated to be about 75 kDa. Isoelectric focusing showed that the enzyme had a pI between 5.2 and 5.4. SDS-polyacrylamide gel analysis showed that activity was associated with a 45-kDa polypeptide, suggesting that the native ACDP is a homodimer. Five different antibodies raised to animal CDPs did not cross-react with the partially purified protein. These data suggest that the plant CDP differs from the known CDPs characterized from animals and is likely to be a new CDP that is unique to plants.

In vitro motility of AtKCBP, a calmodulin-binding kinesin protein of Arabidopsis

AtKCBP is a calcium-dependent calmodulin-binding protein from Arabidopsis that contains a conserved kinesin microtubule motor domain. Calmodulin has been shown previously to bind to heavy chains of the unconventional myosins, where it is required for in vitro motility of brush border myosin I, but AtKCBP is the first kinesin-related heavy chain reported to be capable of binding specifically to calmodulin. Other kinesin proteins have been identified in Arabidopsis, but none of these binds to calmodulin, and none has been demonstrated to be a microtubule motor. We have tested bacterially expressed AtKCBP for the ability to bind microtubules to a glass surface and induce gliding of microtubules across the glass surface. We find that AtKCBP is a microtubule motor protein that moves on microtubules toward the minus ends, with the opposite polarity as kinesin. In the presence of calcium and calmodulin, AtKCBP no longer binds microtubules to the coverslip surface. This contrasts strikingly with the requirement of calmodulin for in vitro motility of brush border myosin I. Calmodulin could regulate AtKCBP binding to microtubules in the cell by inhibiting the binding of the motor to microtubules. The ability to bind to calmodulin provides an evolutionary link between the kinesin and myosin motor proteins, but our results indicate that the mechanisms of interaction and regulation of kinesin and myosin heavy chains by calmodulin are likely to differ significantly.

Calcium-activated, voltage-dependent, non-selective cation currents in endosperm plasma membrane from higher plants

Single-channel and whole-cell patch-clamp techniques were used to characterize the electrophysiological behaviour of plasma membranes from freshly isolated, non-enzyme-treated endosperm protoplasts. A non-selective monovalent cation channel with a single-channel conductance of 22 pS in solutions with physiological potassium concentrations was observed in inside-out patches. The channel passes outward current at depolarized potentials and is highly selective for cations over anions, but discriminates poorly between lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium ions. Specific potassium channel blockers were ineffective. The channel kinetics were apparently complex, with burst-like openings and rapid closures within a single burst. Single-channel openings were more frequent both for depolarizing pulses and maintained positive potentials. Channel activity was also increased by elevated cytoplasmic concentrations of either calcium or barium. Subsequent exposure of patches to low calcium, EGTA-buffered solutions resulted in large decreases in activity. Under whole-cell current clamp, small negative resting potentials were observed. A slowly developing outward current evoked by depolarizing pulses was seen in whole-cell recordings.

Dual regulation of a chimeric plant serine/threonine kinase by calcium and calcium/calmodulin

A chimeric Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CCaMK) gene characterized by a catalytic domain, a calmodulin-binding domain, and a neural visinin-like Ca2+-binding domain was recently cloned from plants (Patil, S., Takezawa, D., and Poovaiah, B. W. (1995) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 92, 4797-4801). The Escherichia coli-expressed CCaMK phosphorylates various protein and peptide substrates in a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent manner. The calmodulin-binding region of CCaMK has similarity to the calmodulin-binding region of the alpha-subunit of multifunctional Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII). CCaMK exhibits basal autophosphorylation at the threonine residue(s) (0.098 mol of 32P/mol) that is stimulated 3.4-fold by Ca2+ (0.339 mol of 32P/mol), while calmodulin inhibits Ca2+-stimulated autophosphorylation to the basal level. A deletion mutant lacking the visinin-like domain did not show Ca2+-stimulated autophosphorylation activity but retained Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase activity at a reduced level. Ca2+-dependent mobility shift assays using E. coli-expressed protein from residues 358 520 revealed that Ca2+ binds to the visinin-like domain. Studies with site-directed mutants of the visinin-like domain indicated that EF-hands II and III are crucial for Ca2+-induced conformational changes in the visinin-like domain. Autophosphorylation of CCaMK increases Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase activity by about 5-fold, whereas it did not affect its Ca2+-independent activity. This report provides evidence for the existence of a protein kinase in plants that is modulated by Ca2+ and Ca2+/calmodulin. The presence of a visinin-like Ca2+-binding domain in CCaMK adds an additional Ca2+-sensing mechanism not previously known to exist in the Ca2+/calmodulin-mediated signaling cascade in plants.

Calcium-dependent protein kinase genes in corn roots

Two cDNAs encoding Ca(2+)-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs), CRPK1 and CRPK2 (corn root protein kinase 1 and 2), were isolated from the root tip library of corn (Zea mays L., cv. Merit) and their nucleotide sequences were determined. Deduced amino acid sequences of both the clones have features characteristic of plant CDPKs, including all 11 conserved serine/threonine kinase subdomains, a junction domain and a calmodulin-like domain with four Ca(2+)-binding sites. Northern analysis revealed that CRPK1 mRNA is preferentially expressed in roots, especially in the root tip; whereas, the expression of CRPK2 mRNA was very low in all the tissues tested. In situ hybridization experiments revealed that CRPK1 mRNA is highly expressed in the root apex, as compared to other parts of the root. Partially purified CDPK from the root tip phosphorylates syntide-2, a common peptide substrate for plant CDPKs, and the phosphorylation was stimulated 7-fold by the addition of Ca2+. Our results show that two CDPK isoforms are expressed in corn roots and they may be involved in the Ca(2+)-dependent signal transduction process.