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Wang W, Liu F, Li H, Li M, Hu Y, Li F, Xiao J, Dong Y. Emergence and genomic characteristics of multi-drug-resistant Salmonella in pet turtles and children with diarrhoea. Microb Genom 2024; 10:001164. [PMID: 38170193 PMCID: PMC10868623 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.001164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Pet turtles are a well-recognized source of human salmonellosis, posing a threat to human health, particularly children who commonly keep pet turtles. To date, the genomic characteristics of Salmonella among pet turtles and children has not been well described. We investigated the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and genomic characteristics of Salmonella from pet turtles in Beijing, China. In total, 9.6 % (46/480) of pet turtles were positive for Salmonella with S. Thompson being the dominant serovar (19/46) in 2019. Moreover, 80.4 % of Salmonella were multi-drug resistant (MDR) and 60.7 % were resistant to ampicillin, streptomycin, sulfonamides and tetracycline (ASSuT). We further compared the genomes of S. Thompson isolates from pet turtles (n=19) with those from children with diarrhoea (n=28) in the same region and year, most of which were sequence type (ST)26, with one novel ST7937 identified from a child-associated isolate. S. Thompson isolates from children with diarrhoea exhibited less resistance than isolates from pet turtles. Most MDR isolates possessed multiple AMR genes, including the AmpC β-lactamase-encoding genes bla DHA-15 and bla DHA-1 which co-occurred with the IncA/C and IncHI plasmid replicon types. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that the bla DHA-15 gene has been detected from Salmonella. Several pet turtle-associated S. Thompson isolates comprised phylogenetically close clusters with those from children with diarrhoea (<20 SNP differences). Bayesian analysis demonstrated that the Chinese ST26 S. Thompson strains had a recent evolutionary history and evolved into two major clades, with one clade acquiring various resistant plasmids. Our findings revealed the emergence of MDR Salmonella among pet turtles in China and provided evidence for the interspecies transmission of S. Thompson.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, PR China
- Division IV of Food Safety Standards, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, PR China
| | - Feng Liu
- Pharmaceutical Department, Qingdao Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital (Qingdao Hiser Hospital), Qingdao Hiser Hospital Affiliated of Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, PR China
| | - Hui Li
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, PR China
| | - Menghan Li
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, PR China
| | - Yujie Hu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, PR China
| | - Fengqin Li
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, PR China
| | - Jing Xiao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, PR China
- Division IV of Food Safety Standards, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, PR China
| | - Yinping Dong
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, PR China
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Nemechek K, Sean Stapleton G, Waltenburg MA, Low M, Gollarza L, Adams J, Peralta V, Lopez K, Morrison A, Schnitzler H, Kline KE, McGinnis S, Nichols M. Multistate outbreak of turtle-associated salmonellosis highlights ongoing challenges with the illegal sale and distribution of small turtles. Zoonoses Public Health 2023; 70:684-691. [PMID: 37772367 PMCID: PMC10878351 DOI: 10.1111/zph.13080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
The sale and distribution of small turtles (shell length <4 inches) as pets has been banned in the United States since 1975 because of the risk of Salmonella transmission, especially to children. Despite this 48-year-old ban, salmonellosis outbreaks continue to be linked to contact with small turtles. During investigations of turtle-associated outbreaks, information regarding the turtle farm of origin is difficult to obtain because turtles are commonly sold by transient vendors. During 2020-2021, public health officials investigated a multistate illness outbreak caused by Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium linked to pet small turtles. Cases were defined as a laboratory-confirmed Salmonella Typhimurium infection highly related (within 0-6 allele differences) to the outbreak strain based on whole-genome sequencing analysis by core-genome multilocus sequence typing with illness onset occurring during 27 August 2020-14 May 2021. Forty-three patients were identified from 12 states; of these, 35% (15/43) were children <5 years old. Among patients with available information, 37% (14/38) were hospitalized, and one death was reported. Seventy-four percent (25/34) of patients reported turtle exposure in the week before illness onset, and 84% (16/19) specified exposure to small turtles. The outbreak strain was isolated from samples collected from a Pennsylvania patient's small turtle tank. Two patients reported purchasing their small turtles from pet stores. Salmonella Braenderup was isolated from samples collected from small turtles and their habitat at one of these stores; however, at that time, this strain was not associated with any human illnesses. This investigation was notable because of the documented sale of small turtles from several pet stores combined with the identification of a single small turtle supplier to these pet stores. The high proportion of children involved in this outbreak highlights the continued need to educate the pet industry as well as parents and caregivers about the risk of turtle-associated salmonellosis especially in children. Understanding and addressing the persisting challenges related to the illegal sale and distribution of small turtles could reduce the burden of turtle-associated salmonellosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaylea Nemechek
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
| | - G. Sean Stapleton
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
| | - Michelle A. Waltenburg
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Mabel Low
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Lauren Gollarza
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Jennifer Adams
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Association of Public Health Laboratories, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Vi Peralta
- California Department of Public Health, Richmond, California, USA
| | - Karen Lopez
- Delaware Department of Agriculture, Dover, Delaware, USA
| | - Atisha Morrison
- Texas Department of State Health Services, Austin, Texas, USA
| | | | - Kelly E. Kline
- Pennsylvania Department of Health, Bureau of Epidemiology, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Shannon McGinnis
- Pennsylvania Department of Health, Bureau of Epidemiology, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Megin Nichols
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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3
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Pees M, Brockmann M, Steiner N, Marschang RE. Salmonella in reptiles: a review of occurrence, interactions, shedding and risk factors for human infections. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1251036. [PMID: 37822870 PMCID: PMC10562597 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1251036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella are considered a part of the normal reptile gut microbiota, but have also been associated with disease in reptiles. Reptile-associated salmonellosis (RAS) can pose a serious health threat to humans, especially children, and an estimated 6% of human sporadic salmonellosis cases have been attributed to direct or indirect contact with reptiles, although the exact number is not known. Two literature searches were conducted for this review. The first evaluated reports of the prevalence of Salmonella in the intestinal tracts of healthy reptiles. Salmonella were most commonly detected in snakes (56.0% overall), followed by lizards (36.9%) and tortoises (34.2%), with lower detection rates reported for turtles (18.6%) and crocodilians (9%). Reptiles in captivity were significantly more likely to shed Salmonella than those sampled in the wild. The majority of Salmonella strains described in reptiles belonged to subspecies I (70.3%), followed by subspecies IIIb (29.7%) and subspecies II (19.6%). The second literature search focused on reports of RAS, revealing that the highest number of cases was associated with contact with turtles (35.3%), followed by lizards (27.1%) and snakes (20.0%). Reptiles associated with RAS therefore did not directly reflect prevalence of Salmonella reported in healthy representatives of a given reptile group. Clinical symptoms associated with RAS predominantly involved the gastrointestinal tract, but also included fever, central nervous symptoms, problems with circulation, respiratory symptoms and others. Disease caused by Salmonella in reptiles appears to be dependent on additional factors, including stress, inadequate husbandry and hygiene, and other infectious agents. While it has been suggested that reptile serovars may cause more severe disease than human-derived strains, and some data is available on invasiveness of individual strains in cell culture, limited information is available on potential mechanisms influencing invasiveness and immune evasion in reptiles and in RAS. Strategies to mitigate the spread of Salmonella through reptiles and to reduce RAS focus mostly on education and hygiene, and have often been met with some success, but additional efforts are needed. Many aspects regarding Salmonella in reptiles remain poorly understood, including the mechanisms by which Salmonella persist in reptile hosts without causing disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Pees
- Department of Small Mammal, Reptile and Avian Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | | | - Natalie Steiner
- Department of Small Mammal, Reptile and Avian Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
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4
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Montague LE, Marcotrigiano JM, Keane NE, Marquardt HE, Sevin JA, Karraker NE. Online sale of small turtles circumvents public health regulations in the United States. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278443. [PMID: 36542556 PMCID: PMC9770399 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In the United States (U.S.), pet turtles have been associated with outbreaks of salmonellosis, a serious and sometimes-fatal intestinal illness caused by Salmonella bacteria, with nearly 300,000 people being infected in some years. Children are particularly susceptible because of their propensity to put items, including small turtles, in their mouths. In 1975, a U.S. federal regulation prohibited the sale of turtles <4 inches (101.6 mm) in size, except for the purposes of export, scientific, or educational purposes. This regulation was established to reduce the incidence of salmonellosis, particularly in small children. Previous research has not evaluated the availability of turtles <4 inches in size on websites selling wildlife. We monitored 16 websites in 2021 and quantified listings of small turtles. We determined whether information on Salmonella, the 1975 federal regulation, or related state regulations were provided on the websites and determined legality of sales of small turtles by state regulations. We found that all 16 websites openly advertised and sold turtles <4 inches in size, but only half of these websites provided information about Salmonella and/or the federal regulation. These websites required buyers to confirm that they were not purchasing a turtle as a pet, thereby putting the onus on the consumer to adhere to the regulation. We documented 515 listings of turtles <4 inches in size, including 47 species and one hybrid. Our study has demonstrated that internet sales of small turtles currently represent part of the thriving online pet trade in the U.S. Enforcement of the federal regulation faces jurisdictional challenges in most states. Therefore, we recommend continued public education campaigns by public health agencies in the U.S. to help reduce the risk that pet turtle ownership presents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren E. Montague
- Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Juliana M. Marcotrigiano
- Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Niamh E. Keane
- Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Hannah E. Marquardt
- Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Jennifer A. Sevin
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Nancy E. Karraker
- Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Waltenburg MA, Perez A, Salah Z, Karp BE, Whichard J, Tolar B, Gollarza L, Koski L, Blackstock A, Basler C, Nichols M. Multistate reptile- and amphibian-associated salmonellosis outbreaks in humans, United States, 2009-2018. Zoonoses Public Health 2022; 69:925-937. [PMID: 36345968 PMCID: PMC9804608 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Non-typhoidal Salmonella cause an estimated 1.4 million human illnesses, 26,000 hospitalizations and 400 deaths annually in the United States. Approximately 11% of these infections are attributed to animal contact. Reptiles and amphibians are known sources of salmonellosis; young children (aged <5 years) are disproportionately affected by reptile- and amphibian-associated salmonellosis (RAAS) outbreaks. We describe multistate RAAS outbreaks to characterize illnesses and inform prevention efforts. RAAS outbreaks were defined as ≥2 culture-confirmed human Salmonella infections with similar pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns and epidemiologic, laboratory or traceback evidence linking them to a common reptile/amphibian exposure. Data sources included the Animal Contact Outbreak Surveillance System; CDC Outbreak Response and Prevention Branch's outbreak management database; PulseNet, the national molecular subtyping network for foodborne disease surveillance in the United States; and the National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System. Twenty-six RAAS outbreaks were reported during 2009-2018, resulting in 1465 illnesses and 306 hospitalizations. The outbreaks were associated with turtles (19), lizards (5), snakes (1) and frogs (1). Sixteen (61.5%) outbreaks were linked to small turtles (<4 inches), resulting in 914 illnesses. Forty-nine percent of outbreak-associated patients were aged <5 years. Of 362 patients/caregivers interviewed, 111 (30.7%) were aware that reptiles/amphibians can carry Salmonella. Among 267 patient isolates with antimicrobial susceptibility information, 20 (7.5%) were non-susceptible to ≥1 antibiotic used to treat human salmonellosis. RAAS outbreaks result in considerable morbidity, particularly among young children. Illnesses linked to small turtles are preventable through education, targeted outreach to caregivers and paediatricians, and when appropriate, enforcement. Historically, individual states and jurisdictions have enforced existing or promulgated new authorities to address outbreaks. Preventing future RAAS outbreaks requires addressing challenges related to the illegal sale/distribution of small turtles; and for legal reptile sales, providing information on RAAS risk to consumers at point of sale to support informed pet ownership decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A. Waltenburg
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
| | - Ariana Perez
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA,General Dynamics Information TechnologyAtlantaGeorgiaUSA,Division of Viral DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
| | - Zainab Salah
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
| | - Beth E. Karp
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
| | - Jean Whichard
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
| | - Beth Tolar
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
| | - Lauren Gollarza
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
| | - Lia Koski
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA,CAITTA, Inc.HerndonVirginiaUSA,Maricopa County Department of Public HealthPhoenixArizonaUSA
| | - Anna Blackstock
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA,Division of Scientific Education and Professional DevelopmentCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
| | - Colin Basler
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA,One Health OfficeCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
| | - Megin Nichols
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
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6
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Colon VA, Lugsomya K, Lam HK, Wahl LC, Parkes RSV, Cormack CA, Horlbog JA, Stevens M, Stephan R, Magouras I. Serotype Diversity and Antimicrobial Resistance Profile of Salmonella enterica Isolates From Freshwater Turtles Sold for Human Consumption in Wet Markets in Hong Kong. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:912693. [PMID: 35937281 PMCID: PMC9353134 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.912693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chelonians are recognized as a source of human salmonellosis through direct contact or consumption of their meat. Freshwater turtles sold for food are widely available in wet markets in Asia. In this pilot study, 50 turtles belonging to three species were randomly sampled from wet markets throughout Hong Kong. The turtles were humanely euthanised and their feces or the colon were sampled for Salmonella culture. The Salmonella isolates obtained were serotyped and examined for phenotypic antimicrobial resistance and the presence of antimicrobial resistance genes. The study reports a high prevalence (42%, 95% CI: 29.4–55.8) and considerable serotype diversity of Salmonella among turtles sold in wet markets. The most common among the 11 serotypes isolated were S. Oranienburg and S. Thompson, which have been reported in turtles previously. The serotype S. Manhattan is reported in chelonians for the first time. Resistance to streptomycin and chloramphenicol was common, despite the latter being banned from aquaculture in mainland China since 2002. Resistance against fluoroquinolones and third-generation cephalosporins which represent first-line treatment options for salmonellosis was also observed. The multidrug-resistance gene cfr is identified for the first time in Salmonella. This is a worrying finding as it indicates an expansion of the cfr reservoir and potential horizontal spread to other bacteria. The results of this study emphasize the need for close surveillance of Salmonella from turtles sold as food and better regulation of turtle farming to safeguard public health and improve animal welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violaine Albane Colon
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Kittitat Lugsomya
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Hoi Kiu Lam
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Lloyd Christian Wahl
- Centre for Applied One Health Research and Policy Advice, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Rebecca Sarah Victoria Parkes
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Centre for Animal Health and Welfare, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Catherine Anne Cormack
- Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jule Anna Horlbog
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Vetsuisse Faculty, National Reference Center for Enteropathogenic Bacteria and Listeria (NENT), Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Marc Stevens
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Roger Stephan
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Ioannis Magouras
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Centre for Applied One Health Research and Policy Advice, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
- *Correspondence: Ioannis Magouras
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Varela K, Brown JA, Lipton B, Dunn J, Stanek D, Behravesh CB, Chapman H, Conger TH, Vanover T, Edling T, Holzbauer S, Lennox AM, Lindquist S, Loerzel S, Mehlenbacher S, Mitchell M, Murphy M, Olsen CW, Yager CM. A Review of Zoonotic Disease Threats to Pet Owners: A Compendium of Measures to Prevent Zoonotic Diseases Associated with Non-Traditional Pets: Rodents and Other Small Mammals, Reptiles, Amphibians, Backyard Poultry, and Other Selected Animals. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2022; 22:303-360. [PMID: 35724316 PMCID: PMC9248330 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2022.0022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kate Varela
- One Health Office, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Jennifer A. Brown
- National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians
- Indiana Department of Health
| | - Beth Lipton
- National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians
- Seattle & King County Public Health
| | - John Dunn
- National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians
- Tennessee Department of Health
| | - Danielle Stanek
- National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians
- Florida Department of Health
| | | | - Helena Chapman
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine
- American Association for the Advancement of Science at NASA Applied Sciences
| | - Terry H. Conger
- U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal (USDA) and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Veterinary Services
| | | | | | - Stacy Holzbauer
- Minnesota Department of Health
- CDC Preparedness and Response Career Epidemiology Field Officer Program
| | | | | | | | | | - Mark Mitchell
- Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Clinical Sciences
| | - Michael Murphy
- Food and Drug Administration Center for Veterinary Medicine
| | - Christopher W. Olsen
- AVMA Council on Public Health
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Veterinary Medicine
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8
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Whitehill FM, Stapleton GS, Koski L, Sievert D, Nichols M. Risk factors for hospitalization among adults aged ≥65 years with non-typhoidal Salmonella infection linked to backyard poultry contact. Zoonoses Public Health 2022; 69:215-223. [PMID: 35060679 PMCID: PMC10866372 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We describe the epidemiology of live poultry-associated salmonellosis (LPAS) and investigate potential risk factors associated with hospitalization among adults aged ≥65 years in the United States during 2008-2017. LPAS is a public health concern in the United States, especially among people with increased risk for hospitalization, such as older adults. SAMPLE We analysed data from people aged ≥65 years with non-typhoidal salmonellosis who reported live poultry contact within seven days prior to illness onset. PROCEDURE We used logistic regression to estimate the odds of hospitalization associated with several risk factors including types of live poultry contact exposures. RESULTS LPAS among older adults in this analysis resulted in high hospitalization rates. Salmonella Hadar infection was associated with increased hospitalization. Among older adults with LPAS, 109 individuals of 127 (86%) reported contact with live poultry at their or someone else's residence, and 85 of 105 with available information (81%) reported owning poultry. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Additional infection prevention information and education targeted at poultry-owning older adults are needed to prevent illness and hospitalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florence M. Whitehill
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - G. Sean Stapleton
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Lia Koski
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
- CAITTA Inc., Herndon, VA, USA
| | - Dawn Sievert
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Megin Nichols
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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9
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Infection prevention requirements for the medical care of immunosuppressed patients: recommendations of the Commission for Hospital Hygiene and Infection Prevention (KRINKO) at the Robert Koch Institute. GMS HYGIENE AND INFECTION CONTROL 2022; 17:Doc07. [PMID: 35707229 PMCID: PMC9174886 DOI: 10.3205/dgkh000410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In Germany, guidelines for hygiene in hospitals are given in form of recommendations by the Commission for Hospital Hygiene and Infection Prevention (Kommission für Krankenhaushygiene und Infektionsprävention, "KRINKO"). The KRINKO and its voluntary work are legitimized by the mandate according to § 23 of the Infection Protection Act (Infektionsschutzgesetz, "IfSG"). The original German version of this document was published in February 2021 and has now been made available to the international professional public in English. The guideline provides recommendations on infection prevention and control for immunocompromised individuals in health care facilities. This recommendation addresses not only measures related to direct medical care of immunocompromised patients, but also management aspects such as surveillance, screening, antibiotic stewardship, and technical/structural aspects such as patient rooms, air quality, and special measures during renovations.
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10
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Bellinati L, Pesaro S, Marcer F, Danesi P, Natale A, Ceglie L. Detection of a Novel Chlamydia Species in Invasive Turtles. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12060784. [PMID: 35327181 PMCID: PMC8944456 DOI: 10.3390/ani12060784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The pond slider (Trachemys scripta) is a turtle species native to Central America. Pond sliders have been commercialized as pets since the 1950s, but often ended up being released or escaping into an environment to which they are allochthonous. Trachemys scripta is presently classified as an invasive alien species in Europe and other countries. The introduction of pond sliders in foreign ecosystems has had a deep environmental and ecological impact. Moreover, freed or escaped captive turtles could be carriers of pathogens, such as Chlamydiaceae. In this study, we report the identification of a Chlamydia spp. in two pond sliders found dead after the hibernation period. Further molecular characterization revealed that this Chlamydia is identical to a strain reported in Poland in 2017, found in both captive and free-living freshwater turtles, and has a close phylogenetic relationship to Chlamydia pneumoniae, a species infectious to humans, and to chlamydial strains found in other reptiles. This first finding evidences the presence of this novel Chlamydia in Italian turtles, but further studies will be necessary to evaluate the prevalence in the local turtles’ population and the strain pathogenicity. Abstract Trachemys scripta is a turtle species native to Central America. Since the 1950s, pond sliders have been imported worldwide as companion animals, but have often ended up in foreign ecosystems with great ecological consequences. Moreover, both autochthonous and invasive species of turtles can be carriers of pathogens, including Chlamydiaceae. In the present study, pulmonary tissues collected from four Trachemys scripta were tested with a 23S-targeting real-time PCR (rPCR) specific for the Chlamydiaceae family. The turtles were hosted in a rescue center for wild exotic animals located in northeastern Italy, and were found dead after the hibernation period. Two out of four individuals resulted positive in rPCR for the presence of Chlamydiaceae. Further characterization of this positivity was performed by phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA and outer membrane protein A genes. The phylogenetic tree showed that these chlamydial strains are identical to a novel Chlamydia reported in 2017 in Polish freshwater turtles, and closely related to Chlamydia pneumoniae and to other chlamydial strains found in reptiles. This first finding evidences the presence of this Chlamydia strain in Italian turtles, but further studies will be necessary to confirm the presence and the strain pathogenicity and to evaluate its prevalence in the local turtles’ population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Bellinati
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (P.D.); (A.N.); (L.C.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Stefano Pesaro
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agro-Alimentari, Ambientali e Animali Sezione di Patologia Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Udine, Via Sondrio, 33100 Udine, Italy;
| | - Federica Marcer
- Dipartimento di Medicina Animale, Produzioni e Salute, Università degli Studi di Padova, 35020 Legnaro, Italy;
| | - Patrizia Danesi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (P.D.); (A.N.); (L.C.)
| | - Alda Natale
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (P.D.); (A.N.); (L.C.)
| | - Letizia Ceglie
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (P.D.); (A.N.); (L.C.)
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11
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Dewart CM, Waltenburg MA, Dietrich S, Machesky K, Singh A, Brandt E, de Fijter S. Cluster of human Salmonella Guinea infections: Reported reptile exposures and associated opportunities for infection prevention - Ohio, 2019-2020. Prev Vet Med 2021; 198:105530. [PMID: 34798304 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A cluster of five human Salmonella Guinea cases was identified among Ohio residents through core genome multilocus sequence typing of clinical isolates. An investigation was conducted to characterize illnesses and identify common exposures. Four patients were aged ≤5 years and three of four patients with information available regarding exposure to animals reported prior exposure to bearded dragons. Practices that potentially increased the risk for Salmonella transmission from reptiles to humans included allowing pet reptiles to roam freely in the home, cleaning reptile habitats indoors, and kissing reptiles. These findings prompted a multistate investigation that resulted in the identification of additional closely related Salmonella Guinea isolates from patients across multiple states. The investigation of cases in Ohio and information shared by other states indicated the potential association between human Salmonella Guinea infections and reptiles, particularly bearded dragons. To prevent Salmonella transmission from reptiles, continued educational efforts should address pet owners and focus on specific reptile ownership practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney M Dewart
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA, USA; Ohio Department of Health, Columbus, OH, USA.
| | - Michelle A Waltenburg
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA, USA; Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Stephen Dietrich
- Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, Lansing, MI, USA
| | | | - Amber Singh
- Ohio Department of Health, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Eric Brandt
- Ohio Department of Health, Columbus, OH, USA
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12
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Hernandez SM, Maurer JJ, Yabsley MJ, Peters VE, Presotto A, Murray MH, Curry S, Sanchez S, Gerner-Smidt P, Hise K, Huang J, Johnson K, Kwan T, Lipp EK. Free-Living Aquatic Turtles as Sentinels of Salmonella spp. for Water Bodies. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:674973. [PMID: 34368271 PMCID: PMC8339271 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.674973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Reptile-associated human salmonellosis cases have increased recently in the United States. It is not uncommon to find healthy chelonians shedding Salmonella enterica. The rate and frequency of bacterial shedding are not fully understood, and most studies have focused on captive vs. free-living chelonians and often in relation to an outbreak. Their ecology and significance as sentinels are important to understanding Salmonella transmission. In 2012-2013, Salmonella prevalence was determined for free-living aquatic turtles in man-made ponds in Clarke and Oconee Counties, in northern Georgia (USA) and the correlation between species, basking ecology, demographics (age/sex), season, or landcover with prevalence was assessed. The genetic relatedness between turtle and archived, human isolates, as well as, other archived animal and water isolates reported from this study area was examined. Salmonella was isolated from 45 of 194 turtles (23.2%, range 14-100%) across six species. Prevalence was higher in juveniles (36%) than adults (20%), higher in females (33%) than males (18%), and higher in bottom-dwelling species (31%; common and loggerhead musk turtles, common snapping turtles) than basking species (15%; sliders, painted turtles). Salmonella prevalence decreased as forest cover, canopy cover, and distance from roads increased. Prevalence was also higher in low-density, residential areas that have 20-49% impervious surface. A total of 9 different serovars of two subspecies were isolated including 3 S. enterica subsp. arizonae and 44 S. enterica subsp. enterica (two turtles had two serotypes isolated from each). Among the S. enterica serovars, Montevideo (n = 13) and Rubislaw (n = 11) were predominant. Salmonella serovars Muenchen, Newport, Mississippi, Inverness, Brazil, and Paratyphi B. var L(+) tartrate positive (Java) were also isolated. Importantly, 85% of the turtle isolates matched pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns of human isolates, including those reported from Georgia. Collectively, these results suggest that turtles accumulate Salmonella present in water bodies, and they may be effective sentinels of environmental contamination. Ultimately, the Salmonella prevalence rates in wild aquatic turtles, especially those strains shared with humans, highlight a significant public health concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia M Hernandez
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States.,Department of Population Health, Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - John J Maurer
- Department of Population Health, Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Michael J Yabsley
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States.,Department of Population Health, Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Valerie E Peters
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY, United States
| | - Andrea Presotto
- Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Maureen H Murray
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States.,Department of Population Health, Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States.,Davee Center for Epidemiology and Endocrinology and the Urban Wildlife Institute, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Shannon Curry
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States.,Department of Population Health, Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Susan Sanchez
- Athens Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Peter Gerner-Smidt
- Enteric Diseases Laboratory Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Kelley Hise
- Enteric Diseases Laboratory Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Joyce Huang
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States.,Department of Population Health, Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Kasey Johnson
- Department of Population Health, Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Tiffany Kwan
- Department of Population Health, Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Erin K Lipp
- Department of Environmental Health Science, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
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Salmonella Infection in Turtles: A Risk for Staff Involved in Wildlife Management? Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11061529. [PMID: 34073932 PMCID: PMC8225080 DOI: 10.3390/ani11061529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of non-typhoidal Salmonella in the turtles housed in a regional wildlife rescue centre of Apulia, in southern Italy, to assess the presence of Salmonella serovars that may represent a risk for operators involved in wildlife management. Sixty-nine tortoises, of which 36 were males and 33 were females, belonging to different species (Testudo hermanni hermanni, T. h. boettgeri, T. graeca, and T. marginata) were tested. All the turtles were adults (34 between 6 and 10 years of age and 35 more than 10 years of age). Salmonella was statistically detected more frequently in T. hermanni hermanni. No differences of the infection prevalence related to animal gender or age were found. Two different species, S. enterica and S. bongori, three S. enterica subspecies (enterica, diarizonae, salamae), and five different serovars (Hermannswerder, Abony, Ferruch, Richmond, Vancouver) within the group S. enterica subspecies enterica were identified. Two Salmonella types with different combinations were simultaneously found in specimens of T. h. hermanni. Most of the detected Salmonella types may represent a potential risk for operators in wildlife rescue centres. Abstract Monitoring of infections that may be transmitted to humans by animals in wildlife rescue centres is very important in order to protect the staff engaged in rehabilitation practices. Salmonella may be a natural inhabitant of the intestinal tract of turtles, rarely causing disease. This may represent a potential risk for humans, increasing the sanitary risk for operators in wildlife rescue centres. In this paper, the occurrence of non-typhoidal Salmonella among terrestrial turtles housed in a wildlife rescue centre in Southern Italy was investigated, in order to assess the serovars more frequently carried by turtles and identify those that may represent a risk for operators involved in wildlife management. Sixty-nine adult turtles (Testudo hermanni hermanni, T. h. boettgeri, T. graeca, and T. marginata) were tested. Detection and serotyping of Salmonella strains were performed according to ISO 6579-1 and ISO/TR 6579-3:2013, respectively. The distribution of Salmonella spp. was significantly higher in T. hermanni hermanni than in other species, independent of the age and gender of the animals. Two different Salmonella species, S. enterica and S. bongori, three S. enterica subspecies (enterica, diarizonae, salamae), and five different serovars (Hermannswerder, Abony, Ferruch, Richmond, Vancouver) within the group S. enterica subspecies enterica were identified. Different combinations of Salmonella types were simultaneously found in specimens of T. h. hermanni. Most of detected Salmonella types may represent a potential risk for public health. Adopting correct animal husbandry procedures and informing on potential sanitary risks may be useful for minimising the risk of transmission of Salmonella to workers involved in wildlife management.
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Determination of Efficacy of Single and Double 4.7 mg Deslorelin Acetate Implant on the Reproductive Activity of Female Pond Sliders ( Trachemys scripta). Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11030660. [PMID: 33801422 PMCID: PMC7998188 DOI: 10.3390/ani11030660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of long-acting gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists to suppress fertility has been poorly investigated in reptiles, and the few available studies show inconsistent results. The efficacy of single and double intramuscular 4.7 mg deslorelin acetate implants in captive pond sliders (Trachemys scripta) was investigated, with 20 animals divided into three groups: a single-implant group (6 animals), a double-implant group (6 animals), and a control group (no implant). During one reproductive season (March to October), plasmatic concentration of sexual hormones (estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone) and ovarian morphometric activity via computed tomography were monitored about every 30 days. A significative decrease in the number of phase II ovarian follicles was detected in the double-implant group compared with the control group, but no significant difference was noted in the number of phase III and phase IV follicles, egg production, and plasmatic concentration of sexual hormones. Results show that neither a single nor a double deslorelin acetate implant can successfully inhibit reproduction in female pond sliders during the ongoing season, but the lower number of phase II follicles in the double-implant group can possibly be associated with reduced fertility in the following seasons.
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15
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Anforderungen an die Infektionsprävention bei der medizinischen Versorgung von immunsupprimierten Patienten. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2021; 64:232-264. [PMID: 33394069 PMCID: PMC7780910 DOI: 10.1007/s00103-020-03265-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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16
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Nadi ZR, Salehi TZ, Tamai IA, Foroushani AR, Sillanpaa M, Dallal MMS. Evaluation of antibiotic resistance and prevalence of common Salmonella enterica serovars isolated from foodborne outbreaks. Microchem J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2020.104660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Abstract
Human infections caused by Salmonella Newport generally lead to gastrointestinal diseases. These infections are normally self-limiting; however, in certain cases, broad-spectrum antimicrobials are prescribed for the treatment. The Chinese National Foodborne Disease Surveillance Network has reported a gradual increase in the incidence of multidrug-resistant S. Newport infections in humans. After careful evaluation of the dynamic relationship among the clinical findings, the age group, and the genomic sequence data, it was found that young patients represented the major group with persistent diarrhea, whereas adults were either asymptomatic or diarrheic. Furthermore, all these strains contained multiple acquired antimicrobial resistance determinants, which limited the use of antimicrobials for human patients of all age groups. This analysis of the laboratory-confirmed cases, coupled with genetic analysis of the corresponding pathogen, revealed that antimicrobial treatment of persistent infections by S. Newport in infants and toddlers, and in asymptomatic or diarrheic adults, may not be successful. If the antimicrobials must be prescribed at all, they must be used with caution because of the presence of multiple acquired antimicrobial resistance determinants in such strains. Salmonella enterica serovar Newport (S. Newport) infections are gradually on the rise in China from the last decade. For humans’ infections, S. Newport has been ranked among the top five serovars responsible for persistent infections, globally. A total of 290 S. Newport strains with their relevant clinical metadata were analyzed, and the strains were subjected to whole-genome sequence analysis. Among these, 62.4% (n = 181) were from diarrheic patients and 28.9% (n = 84) were from asymptomatic individuals (including adults and youngsters) while 8.6% (n = 25) were from cases of persistent diarrhea in infants (28%, n = 7) and toddlers (72%, n = 18). The association between the sequence types (STs) and the variations in the clinical presentation was statistically significant (P = 0.0432), with ST46 causing diarrhea or representing asymptomatic patients and ST31 or ST68 causing persistent diarrhea. Genomic analysis revealed that the highest proportion of the isolates (98.5%, n = 279), primarily from patients with or without diarrhea rather than from asymptomatic individuals, carried antimicrobial resistance determinants corresponding to the aminoglycosides and beta-lactams, highlighting the need for cautionary usage of antimicrobials in such patients. These findings also suggest that cases of nontyphoidal Salmonella infection with symptoms of acute diarrhea or persistent diarrhea caused by S. Newport should be handled with caution, due to the high chance of development of an antimicrobial resistance phenotype that might lead to therapeutic failures. Together, S. Newport ST31 and ST46, which have the highest frequency of carriage of multidrug resistance, are potentially responsible for antimicrobial-resistant diarrhea/persistent diarrhea in infants and children, while adult humans are more likely to be (asymptomatic) carriers of the S. Newport strains. IMPORTANCE Human infections caused by Salmonella Newport generally lead to gastrointestinal diseases. These infections are normally self-limiting; however, in certain cases, broad-spectrum antimicrobials are prescribed for the treatment. The Chinese National Foodborne Disease Surveillance Network has reported a gradual increase in the incidence of multidrug-resistant S. Newport infections in humans. After careful evaluation of the dynamic relationship among the clinical findings, the age group, and the genomic sequence data, it was found that young patients represented the major group with persistent diarrhea, whereas adults were either asymptomatic or diarrheic. Furthermore, all these strains contained multiple acquired antimicrobial resistance determinants, which limited the use of antimicrobials for human patients of all age groups. This analysis of the laboratory-confirmed cases, coupled with genetic analysis of the corresponding pathogen, revealed that antimicrobial treatment of persistent infections by S. Newport in infants and toddlers, and in asymptomatic or diarrheic adults, may not be successful. If the antimicrobials must be prescribed at all, they must be used with caution because of the presence of multiple acquired antimicrobial resistance determinants in such strains.
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Sodagari HR, Habib I, Shahabi MP, Dybing NA, Wang P, Bruce M. A Review of the Public Health Challenges of Salmonella and Turtles. Vet Sci 2020; 7:vetsci7020056. [PMID: 32349343 PMCID: PMC7356221 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci7020056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-typhoidal Salmonella serovars are recognized as zoonotic pathogens. Although human salmonellosis is frequently associated with ingestion of contaminated foods of animal origin, contact with animals may also be a significant source of Salmonella infection, especially contact with turtles, which have shown to be an important reservoir of Salmonella, specifically through their intestinal tracts. Turtles are among the most common reptiles kept as house pets that may pose a public health risk associated with Salmonella exposure, especially among infants and young children. This review discusses the literature reporting the link between turtles and Salmonella as well as turtle-associated human salmonellosis in the last ten years. In most outbreaks, a high proportion of patients are children under five years of age, which indicates that children are at the greatest risk of turtle-associated salmonellosis. Therefore, turtles should not be preferred as recommended pets for children under five years of age. Reducing turtle stress to minimise Salmonella shedding as well as providing client education handouts at the points of sale of these animals may reduce the risk of transmitting such significant pathogen to humans. Further studies are required to investigate the role of both direct contact with turtles as well as indirect contact through cross-contamination in the transmission of turtles-associated Salmonella to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamid Reza Sodagari
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia; (H.R.S.); (N.A.D.); (P.W.); (M.B.)
| | - Ihab Habib
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia; (H.R.S.); (N.A.D.); (P.W.); (M.B.)
- Veterinary Medicine Department, College of Food and Agriculture, United Arab Emirates University (UAEU), Al Ain P.O. Box 1555, UAE
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +971-501336803
| | | | - Narelle A. Dybing
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia; (H.R.S.); (N.A.D.); (P.W.); (M.B.)
| | - Penghao Wang
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia; (H.R.S.); (N.A.D.); (P.W.); (M.B.)
| | - Mieghan Bruce
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia; (H.R.S.); (N.A.D.); (P.W.); (M.B.)
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Kiebler CA, Bottichio L, Simmons L, Basler C, Klos R, Gurfield N, Roberts E, Kimura A, Lewis LS, Bird K, Stiles F, Schlater LK, Lantz K, Edling T, Barton Behravesh C. Outbreak of human infections with uncommon Salmonella serotypes linked to pet bearded dragons, 2012-2014. Zoonoses Public Health 2020; 67:425-434. [PMID: 32304287 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Reptiles are one of the fastest growing sectors in the United States pet industry. Reptile-associated salmonellosis (RAS) continues to be an important public health problem, especially among children. We investigated an outbreak of human Salmonella infections resulting from serotypes Cotham and Kisarawe, predominately occurring among children. An outbreak of illnesses was identified in persons with exposure to pet bearded dragon lizards. Human and animal health officials, in cooperation with the pet industry, conducted epidemiologic, traceback and laboratory investigations. Onsite sampling was conducted at two US breeding facilities, one foreign breeding facility, and a large pet retail chain. A total of 166 patients in 36 states were identified with illness onset dates from 02/2012-06/2014. The median patient age was 3 years (range, <1-79 years), 57% were aged ≤5 years, and 37% were aged ≤1 year. Forty-four patients (37%) were hospitalized, predominantly children. Sampling at breeding facilities and a national pet store chain resulted in isolation of outbreak serotypes at each facility; isolation proportions ranged from 2%-24% of samples collected at each facility.Epidemiologic, microbiologic and traceback evidence linked an outbreak of uncommon Salmonella serotypes to contact with pet bearded dragons. The high proportion of infants involved in this outbreak highlights the need to educate owners about the risk of RAS in children and the potential for household contamination by pet reptiles or their habitats. Strategies should be developed to improve breeding practices, biosecurity and monitoring protocols to reduce Salmonella in the pet reptile trade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig A Kiebler
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Latoya Simmons
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Colin Basler
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Rachel Klos
- Wisconsin Division of Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Nikos Gurfield
- San Diego County Department of Environmental Health, San Diego, CA, USA
| | | | - Akiko Kimura
- California State Department of Public Health, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Linda K Schlater
- United States Department of Agriculture National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Kristina Lantz
- United States Department of Agriculture National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Ames, IA, USA
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Mukherjee N, Nolan VG, Dunn JR, Banerjee P. Exposures Associated with Non-Typhoidal Salmonella Infections Caused by Newport, Javiana, and Mississippi Serotypes in Tennessee, 2013-2015: A Case-Case Analysis. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9020078. [PMID: 31991616 PMCID: PMC7168582 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9020078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 01/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) infection (salmonellosis) is one of the most prevalent gastrointestinal diseases throughout the world. Human infections caused by Salmonella Newport, Javiana, and Mississippi serotypes have been observed to occur at higher rates on an annual basis in western Tennessee. The reason for the increased rate of NTS infection by these three serotypes in this region is not known. We conducted a case-case analysis to identify potential risk factors associated with the three Salmonella serotypes using FoodNet data, obtained from the Tennessee Department of Health, consisting of 1578 culture-confirmed salmonellosis cases in Tennessee from 2013 through 2015. Among all the exposure variables tested (254 in total), we found contact with pet treats or chews in the seven days prior to illness was the factor that was significantly associated with these serotypes compared to other serotypes (odds ratio adjusted = 3.0 (95% confidence intervals 1.6, 5.5), P < 0.0005). This study highlights the need for further investigation of potential exposures (other than pet treats or chews), including several possible environmental sources of NTS infection in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabanita Mukherjee
- Division of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA; (N.M.); (V.G.N.)
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance (CEIRS), St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Vikki G. Nolan
- Division of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA; (N.M.); (V.G.N.)
| | - John R. Dunn
- Communicable and Environmental Diseases and Emergency Preparedness, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, TN 37243, USA;
| | - Pratik Banerjee
- Division of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA; (N.M.); (V.G.N.)
- Correspondence:
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Sources of human infection by Salmonella enterica serotype Javiana: A systematic review. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0222108. [PMID: 31479476 PMCID: PMC6719869 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) infection is one of the major causes of diarrheal disease throughout the world. In recent years, an increase in human S. Javiana infection has been reported from the southern part of the United States. However, the sources and routes of transmission of this Salmonella serotype are not well understood. The objective of this study was to perform a systematic review of the literature to identify risk factors for human S. Javiana infection. Using PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic search in Web of Science, PubMed, and the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). Searches returned 63 potential articles, of which 12 articles met all eligibility criteria and were included in this review. A review of the literature indicated that both food and non-food (such as animal contact) exposures are responsible for the transmission of S. Javiana infection to humans. Consumption of fresh produce (tomatoes and watermelons), herbs (paprika-spice), dairy products (cheese), drinking contaminated well water and animal contact were associated with human S. Javiana infections. Based on the findings of this study, control of human S. Javiana infection should include three factors, (a) consumption of drinking water after treatment, (b) safe animal contact, and (c) safe food processing and handling procedures. The risk factors of S. Javiana infections identified in the current study provide helpful insight into the major vehicles of transmission of S. Javiana. Eventually, this will help to improve the risk management of this Salmonella serotype to reduce the overall burden of NTS infection in humans.
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Work TM, Dagenais J, Stacy BA, Ladner JT, Lorch JM, Balazs GH, Barquero-Calvo E, Berlowski-Zier BM, Breeden R, Corrales-Gómez N, Gonzalez-Barrientos R, Harris HS, Hernández-Mora G, Herrera-Ulloa Á, Hesami S, Jones TT, Morales JA, Norton TM, Rameyer RA, Taylor DR, Waltzek TB. A novel host-adapted strain of Salmonella Typhimurium causes renal disease in olive ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) in the Pacific. Sci Rep 2019; 9:9313. [PMID: 31249336 PMCID: PMC6597722 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-45752-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella spp. are frequently shed by wildlife including turtles, but S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium or lesions associated with Salmonella are rare in turtles. Between 1996 and 2016, we necropsied 127 apparently healthy pelagic olive ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) that died from drowning bycatch in fisheries and 44 live or freshly dead stranded turtles from the west coast of North and Central America and Hawaii. Seven percent (9/127) of pelagic and 47% (21/44) of stranded turtles had renal granulomas associated with S. Typhimurium. Stranded animals were 12 times more likely than pelagic animals to have Salmonella-induced nephritis suggesting that Salmonella may have been a contributing cause of stranding. S. Typhimurium was the only Salmonella serovar detected in L. olivacea, and phylogenetic analysis from whole genome sequencing showed that the isolates from L. olivacea formed a single clade distinct from other S. Typhimurium. Molecular clock analysis revealed that this novel clade may have originated as recently as a few decades ago. The phylogenetic lineage leading to this group is enriched for non-synonymous changes within the genomic area of Salmonella pathogenicity island 1 suggesting that these genes are important for host adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry M Work
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Honolulu Field Station, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96850, United States of America.
| | - Julie Dagenais
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Honolulu Field Station, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96850, United States of America
| | - Brian A Stacy
- NOAA Fisheries, Office of Protected Resources, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32603, United States of America
| | - Jason T Ladner
- The Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, 86011, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey M Lorch
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, 53711, United States of America
| | - George H Balazs
- Golden Honu Services of Oceania, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96825, United States of America
| | - Elías Barquero-Calvo
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria (EMV), Universidad Nacional Costa Rica, Heredia, 3000, Costa Rica
| | - Brenda M Berlowski-Zier
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, 53711, United States of America
| | - Renee Breeden
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Honolulu Field Station, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96850, United States of America
| | | | - Rocio Gonzalez-Barrientos
- Pathology Area National Service of Animal Health (SENASA), Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Heredia, 3000, Costa Rica
| | - Heather S Harris
- NOAA Fisheries West Coast Region, Morro Bay, California, United States of America
| | - Gabriela Hernández-Mora
- Pathology Area National Service of Animal Health (SENASA), Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Heredia, 3000, Costa Rica
| | - Ángel Herrera-Ulloa
- Bacteriology Area, National Service of Animal Health (SENASA), Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Heredia, 3000, Costa Rica
| | - Shoreh Hesami
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32603, United States of America
| | - T Todd Jones
- NOAA Fisheries, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96818, United States of America
| | - Juan Alberto Morales
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria (EMV), Universidad Nacional Costa Rica, Heredia, 3000, Costa Rica
| | - Terry M Norton
- Georgia Sea Turtle Center/Jekyll Island Authority, Jekyll Island, Georgia, 31527, United States of America
| | - Robert A Rameyer
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Honolulu Field Station, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96850, United States of America
| | - Daniel R Taylor
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, 53711, United States of America
| | - Thomas B Waltzek
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32603, United States of America
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Goławska O, Zając M, Wasyl D, Demkowska-Kutrzepa M, Borzym E, Różański P, Rzeżutka A. MICROFLORA AND PARASITOFAUNA OF ALIEN AND INVASIVE TURTLE SPECIES. ADVANCEMENTS OF MICROBIOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.21307/pm-2017.56.2.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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24
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Goławska O, Zając M, Maluta A, Pristas P, Hamarová Ľ, Wasyl D. Complex bacterial flora of imported pet tortoises deceased during quarantine: Another zoonotic threat? Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2019; 65:154-159. [PMID: 31300107 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2019.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Turtoises are a great puzzle when it comes to their bacterial flora, the composition and structure of which are still unknown in details. Its component which has been best described so far is Salmonella spp., presumably due to the threat of reptile-associated salmonellosis in humans. This investigation tried to assess and characterize intestinal bacterial flora of imported tortoises found dead during quarantine. Most of the animals carried various serovars of Salmonella showing no antimicrobial resistance. Presence of multiresistant Escherichia coli was possibly a result of industrial breeding and high usage of antimicrobials. Thirteen bacterial species or genera like Citrobacter spp., Morganella spp., Pseudomonas spp. were identified. Their commensal character is assumed, although pathogenic potential might be verified. The results indicate global tortoise trade as a source of common and exotic bacteria or antimicrobial resistance mechanisms in new geographical areas. These dangers indicate the need for a systematic survey of exotic pets and establishment of legal requirements for reptile health conditions on breeding, trade premises and in households with such pets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Goławska
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland
| | - Magdalena Zając
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland
| | | | - Peter Pristas
- Institute of Biology and Ecology, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Ľudmila Hamarová
- Institute of Animal Physiology, Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Science, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Dariusz Wasyl
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland; Department of Omic Analyses, National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland.
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25
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Marus JR, Magee MJ, Manikonda K, Nichols MC. Outbreaks of Salmonella enterica infections linked to animal contact: Demographic and outbreak characteristics and comparison to foodborne outbreaks-United States, 2009-2014. Zoonoses Public Health 2019; 66:370-376. [PMID: 30821071 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In the United States, multistate Salmonella outbreaks are most commonly linked to a food source; however, contact with live animals can also result in outbreaks of human illness. To characterize Salmonella outbreaks linked to animal contact and examine differences compared to foodborne outbreaks, we analysed data reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention through the National Outbreak Reporting System (NORS) from 2009 to 2014 with a primary mode of transmission listed as "animal contact" or "food." Four hundred and eighty-four outbreaks with animal contact or foodborne transmission were reported through NORS; of these outbreaks, 99 (20.5%) resulted from Salmonella transmission through animal contact and 385 (79.5%) resulted from foodborne transmission, which resulted in 3,604 (19.8%) and 13,568 (80.2%) illnesses, respectively. A higher proportion of illnesses among children aged <1 year and children aged 1-4 years were linked to animal contact outbreaks compared to foodborne outbreaks (15.2% vs. 1.4%, p < 0.01 and 24.5% vs. 5.6%, p < 0.01, respectively). Illnesses resulting in hospitalizations (OR: 1.81, 95% CI: 1.62, 2.02) were more likely to be associated with animal contact compared to food. Animal contact outbreaks reported to NORS were more likely to be multistate compared to foodborne outbreaks (OR: 5.43, 95% CI: 3.37, 8.76) and had a longer median duration (99.0 days vs. 9.0 days, p < 0.01). Characterizing the differences between outbreaks of illness linked to animal contact and outbreaks linked to food provides useful information to investigators to improve public health response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Rae Marus
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Matthew James Magee
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Karunya Manikonda
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Megin C Nichols
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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26
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Ximenes E, Ku S, Hoagland L, Ladisch MR. Accelerated Sample Preparation for Fast Salmonella Detection in Poultry Products. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1918:3-20. [PMID: 30580395 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9000-9_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Salmonella is the most burdensome foodborne pathogen in the USA and a major causal agent of foodborne outbreaks. Detection of a pathogen such as Salmonella can be achieved within a few hours using commercially available rapid methods, but the sample preparation is time consuming and may require multiple days. We have developed and successfully tested an accelerated sample preparation method based on microfiltration, in some cases preceded by a short enrichment step, for the rapid detection of selected pathogens. The time-frame of the overall process, from sample preparation (i.e., food rinse or homogenate preparation, microbial enrichment, and filtration steps) to detection is 8 h or less. While microfiltration has been practiced for 70 years, the complex interactions between food substances and filter membrane surfaces have shown that food pretreatment methods need to be developed on a case by case basis for the recovery of bacteria from food homogenates and/or rinses. We have also demonstrated that addition of protease to treat homogenates of different poultry products prior to microfiltration avoids the rapid decrease in flux that otherwise occurs during microfiltration. This protease treatment minimizes filter clogging, so that the microbial concentration, recovery and detection of 1 to 10 CFU/g of Salmonella in poultry products is possible in less than 8 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Ximenes
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
- Laboratory of Renewable Resources Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Seockmo Ku
- Fermentation Science Program, School of Agribusiness and Agriscience, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN, USA
| | - Lori Hoagland
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Michael R Ladisch
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
- Laboratory of Renewable Resources Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
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27
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Daly RF, House J, Stanek D, Stobierski MG. Compendium of Measures to Prevent Disease Associated with Animals in Public Settings, 2017. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2018; 251:1268-1292. [PMID: 29154705 DOI: 10.2460/javma.251.11.1268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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28
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Gambino-Shirley K, Stevenson L, Concepción-Acevedo J, Trees E, Wagner D, Whitlock L, Roberts J, Garrett N, Van Duyne S, McAllister G, Schick B, Schlater L, Peralta V, Reporter R, Li L, Waechter H, Gomez T, Fernández Ordenes J, Ulloa S, Ragimbeau C, Mossong J, Nichols M. Flea market finds and global exports: Four multistate outbreaks of human Salmonella infections linked to small turtles, United States-2015. Zoonoses Public Health 2018; 65:560-568. [PMID: 29577654 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Zoonotic transmission of Salmonella infections causes an estimated 11% of salmonellosis annually in the United States. This report describes the epidemiologic, traceback and laboratory investigations conducted in the United States as part of four multistate outbreaks of Salmonella infections linked to small turtles. Salmonella isolates indistinguishable from the outbreak strains were isolated from a total of 143 ill people in the United States, pet turtles, and pond water samples collected from turtle farm A, as well as ill people from Chile and Luxembourg. Almost half (45%) of infections occurred in children aged <5 years, underscoring the importance of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommendation to keep pet turtles and other reptiles out of homes and childcare settings with young children. Although only 43% of the ill people who reported turtle exposure provided purchase information, most small turtles were purchased from flea markets or street vendors, which made it difficult to locate the vendor, trace the turtles to a farm of origin, provide education and enforce the United States federal ban on the sale and distribution of small turtles. These outbreaks highlight the importance of improving public awareness and education about the risk of Salmonella from small turtles not only in the United States but also worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Gambino-Shirley
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - L Stevenson
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - J Concepción-Acevedo
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - E Trees
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - D Wagner
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - L Whitlock
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - J Roberts
- Louisiana Department of Agriculture & Forestry, Office of Animal Health & Food Safety, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - N Garrett
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - S Van Duyne
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - G McAllister
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - B Schick
- Service Center 4, USDA, APHIS, Veterinary Services, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - L Schlater
- Diagnostic Bacteriology Laboratory, National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Ames, IA, USA
| | - V Peralta
- California Department of Public Health, Richmond, CA, USA
| | - R Reporter
- Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - L Li
- New York City Department of Health & Mental Hygiene, Long Island City, NY, USA
| | - H Waechter
- New York City Department of Health & Mental Hygiene, Long Island City, NY, USA
| | - T Gomez
- USDA, APHIS, Veterinary Services Liaison to CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - S Ulloa
- Instituto de Salud Pública de Chile, Santiago-Chile, Chile
| | - C Ragimbeau
- Laboratoire National de Santé, Dudelange, Luxembourg
| | - J Mossong
- Laboratoire National de Santé, Dudelange, Luxembourg
| | - M Nichols
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Abstract
Enhanced efforts are needed to minimize the risk of human salmonellosis acquired
from small pet turtles. During 2006–2014, a total of 15 multistate outbreaks of turtle-associated
salmonellosis in humans were reported in the United States. Exposure to small
pet turtles has long been recognized as a source of human salmonellosis. The
risk to public health has persisted and may be increasing. Turtles are a popular
reptilian pet among children, and numerous risky behaviors for the zoonotic
transmission of Salmonella bacteria to children have been
reported in recent outbreaks. Despite a long-standing federal ban against the
sale and distribution of turtles <4 in (<10.16 cm) long, these small
reptiles can be readily acquired through multiple venues and continue to be the
main source of turtle-associated salmonellosis in children. Enhanced efforts are
needed to minimize the disease risk associated with small turtle exposure.
Prevention will require novel partnerships and a comprehensive One Health
approach involving human, animal, and environmental health.
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Free-living and captive turtles and tortoises as carriers of new Chlamydia spp. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0185407. [PMID: 28950002 PMCID: PMC5614609 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0185407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A variety of Chlamydia species belonging to the Chlamydiaceae family have been reported in reptilian hosts but scarce data about their occurrence in turtles and tortoises are available. In this study, research was conducted to acquire information on invasive alien species (IAS) of turtles and indigenous turtles and tortoises, living both free and in captivity, as possible reservoirs of Chlamydiaceae. Analysis of specimens (pharyngeal and cloacal swabs and tissues) from 204 turtles and tortoises revealed an overall Chlamydiaceae prevalence of 18.3% and 28.6% among free-living and captive animals respectively, with variable levels of shedding. Further testing conducted with a species-specific real-time PCR and microarray test was unsuccessful. Subsequently sequencing was applied to genotype the Chlamydiaceae-positive samples. Almost the full lengths of the 16S rRNA and ompA genes as well as the 16S-23S intergenic spacer (IGS) and 23S rRNA domain I were obtained for 14, 20 and 8 specimens respectively. Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA amplicons revealed two distinct branches. Group 1 (10 specimens), specific to freshwater turtles and reported here for the first time, was most closely related to Chlamydia (C.) pneumoniae strains and the newly described Candidatus C. sanzinia. Group 2 (four specimens), detected in Testudo spp. samples, showed highest homology to C. pecorum strains but formed a separate sub-branch. Finally, molecular analysis conducted on positive samples together with their geographical distribution in places distant from each other strongly suggest that Group 1 specimens correspond to a new species in the Chlamydiaceae family. In-depth studies of Chlamydia spp. from turtles and tortoises are needed to further characterise these atypical strains and address arising questions about their pathogenicity and zoonotic potential.
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Ives AK, Antaki E, Stewart K, Francis S, Jay-Russell MT, Sithole F, Kearney MT, Griffin MJ, Soto E. Detection of Salmonella enterica Serovar Montevideo and Newport in Free-ranging Sea Turtles and Beach Sand in the Caribbean and Persistence in Sand and Seawater Microcosms. Zoonoses Public Health 2016; 64:450-459. [PMID: 28009107 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Salmonellae are Gram-negative zoonotic bacteria that are frequently part of the normal reptilian gastrointestinal flora. The main objective of this project was to estimate the prevalence of non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica in the nesting and foraging populations of sea turtles on St. Kitts and in sand from known nesting beaches. Results suggest a higher prevalence of Salmonella in nesting leatherback sea turtles compared with foraging green and hawksbill sea turtles. Salmonella was cultured from 2/9 and identified by molecular diagnostic methods in 3/9 leatherback sea turtle samples. Salmonella DNA was detected in one hawksbill turtle, but viable isolates were not recovered from any hawksbill sea turtles. No Salmonella was detected in green sea turtles. In samples collected from nesting beaches, Salmonella was only recovered from a single dry sand sample. All recovered isolates were positive for the wzx gene, consistent with the O:7 serogroup. Further serotyping characterized serovars Montevideo and Newport present in cloacal and sand samples. Repetitive-element palindromic PCR (rep-PCR) fingerprint analysis and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis of the 2014 isolates from turtles and sand as well as archived Salmonella isolates recovered from leatherback sea turtles in 2012 and 2013, identified two distinct genotypes and four different pulsotypes, respectively. The genotyping and serotyping were directly correlated. To determine the persistence of representative strains of each serotype/genotype in these environments, laboratory-controlled microcosm studies were performed in water and sand (dry and wet) incubated at 25 or 35°C. Isolates persisted for at least 32 days in most microcosms, although there were significant decreases in culturable bacteria in several microcosms, with the greatest reduction in dry sand incubated at 35°C. This information provides a better understanding of the epizootiology of Salmonella in free-ranging marine reptiles and the potential public health risks associated with human interactions with these animals in the Caribbean.
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Affiliation(s)
- A-K Ives
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts
| | - E Antaki
- Western Center for Food Safety, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - K Stewart
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts
- St. Kitts Sea Turtle Monitoring Network, Basseterre, St Kitts
| | - S Francis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts
| | - M T Jay-Russell
- Western Center for Food Safety, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - F Sithole
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts
| | - M T Kearney
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - M J Griffin
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Stoneville, MS, USA
| | - E Soto
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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Anderson TC, Marsden-Haug N, Morris JF, Culpepper W, Bessette N, Adams JK, Bidol S, Meyer S, Schmitz J, Erdman MM, Gomez TM, Barton Behravesh C. Multistate Outbreak of Human Salmonella Typhimurium Infections Linked to Pet Hedgehogs - United States, 2011-2013. Zoonoses Public Health 2016; 64:290-298. [PMID: 27734610 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Zoonotic Salmonella infections cause approximately 130 000 illnesses annually in the United States. Of 72.9 million US households owning at least one pet, five million own small mammals; 3000 hedgehogs were documented by USDA in USDA-licensed breeding facilities and pet stores in 2012. State health department collaborators and PulseNet, the national bacterial subtyping network, identified human infections of a Salmonella Typhimurium outbreak strain, which were investigated by CDC, USDA-APHIS and state public and animal health officials. A case was defined as an illness in a person infected with the outbreak strain identified between 1 December 2011 and 3 June 2013. Investigators collected information on patient exposures, cultured animal and environmental specimens for Salmonella, and conducted traceback investigations of USDA-licensed hedgehog facilities. There were 26 cases in 12 states. Illness onset dates ranged from 26 December 2011 to 8 April 2013. The median patient age was 15 years (range = <1-91 years); 58% were female. Among 23 persons with available information, 8 (35%) were hospitalized and one outbreak strain-associated death was reported. Of 25 patients with available information, 20 (80%) reported pet hedgehog contact in the week before illness onset. The outbreak strain was isolated from animal and environmental samples collected from three ill persons' homes in three states. Hedgehogs were purchased in geographically distant states from USDA-licensed breeders (10/17, 59%); a USDA-licensed pet store (1/17, 6%); unlicensed or unknown status breeders (3/17, 18%); and private individuals (3/17, 18%). Traceback investigations of USDA-licensed facilities did not reveal a single source of infection. Public and animal health collaboration linked pet hedgehog contact to human infections of Salmonella Typhimurium, highlighting the importance of a One Health investigative approach to zoonotic salmonellosis outbreaks. More efforts are needed to increase awareness among multiple stakeholders on the risk of illness associated with pet hedgehogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- T C Anderson
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - N Marsden-Haug
- Communicable Disease Epidemiology, Washington State Department of Health, Shoreline, WA, USA
| | - J F Morris
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - W Culpepper
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - N Bessette
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - J K Adams
- Association of Public Health Laboratories, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - S Bidol
- Bureau of Epidemiology and Population Health, Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (Michigan Department of Community Health prior to May 2015), Lansing, MI, USA
| | - S Meyer
- Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Prevention, and Control Division, Minnesota Department of Health, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - J Schmitz
- Animal Care, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Riverdale, MD, USA
| | - M M Erdman
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, USA
| | - T M Gomez
- Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - C Barton Behravesh
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Vercelli C, De Vito V, Salvadori M, Barbero R, Re G, Gennero MS, Giorgi M. Blood concentrations of marbofloxacin and its in vivo effect in yellow-bellied slider turtles (Trachemys scripta scripta) after a single intracoelomic injection at 3 dose rates. J Exot Pet Med 2016. [DOI: 10.1053/j.jepm.2016.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Anderson TC, Nguyen TA, Adams JK, Garrett NM, Bopp CA, Baker JB, McNeil C, Torres P, Ettestad PJ, Erdman MM, Brinson DL, Gomez TM, Barton Behravesh C. Multistate outbreak of human Salmonella Typhimurium infections linked to live poultry from agricultural feed stores and mail-order hatcheries, United States 2013. One Health 2016; 2:144-149. [PMID: 28616489 PMCID: PMC5441317 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Live poultry-associated salmonellosis is an emerging public health issue in the United States. Public and animal health officials collaborated to investigate one of the largest (356 cases, 39 states) of these outbreaks reported to date. A case was defined as illness in a person infected with the outbreak strain of Salmonella Typhimurium with illness onset between 1 March and 22 October 2013. The median patient age was seven years (range: < 1–87 years); 58% of ill persons were children ≤ 10 years, 51% were female, 25% were hospitalized; 189 (76%) of 250 patients reported live poultry exposure in the week before illness; and 149 (95%) of 157 reported purchasing live poultry from agricultural feed stores. Traceback investigations identified 18 live poultry sources, including 16 mail-order hatcheries. Environmental sampling was conducted at two mail-order hatcheries. One (2.5%) of 40 duplicate samples collected at one hatchery yielded the outbreak strain. Live poultry are an important source of human salmonellosis, particularly among children, highlighting the need for educational campaigns and comprehensive interventions at the mail-order hatchery and agricultural feed store levels. Prevention and control efforts depend on a One Health approach, involving cooperation between public and animal health officials, industry, health professionals, and consumers. Live poultry-associated salmonellosis is an emerging public health issue. We summarize one of the largest of these outbreaks reported to date (356 cases). Prevention and control efforts depend on a One Health approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara C Anderson
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Thai-An Nguyen
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jennifer K Adams
- Association of Public Health Laboratories, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Nancy M Garrett
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Cheryl A Bopp
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Joe B Baker
- New Mexico Livestock Board, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Carrie McNeil
- New Mexico Department of Health, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Paul Torres
- New Mexico Department of Health, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | | | - Matthew M Erdman
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Denise L Brinson
- National Poultry Improvement Plan, Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Conyers, GA, USA
| | - Thomas M Gomez
- Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Zhang J, Kuang D, Wang F, Meng J, Jin H, Yang X, Liao M, Klena JD, Wu S, Zhang Y, Xu X. Turtles as a Possible Reservoir of Nontyphoidal Salmonella in Shanghai, China. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2016; 13:428-33. [PMID: 27267492 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2015.2107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Terrapins and turtles are known to transmit Salmonella to humans. However, little was known about the occurrence of this pathogen in soft-shelled terrapin that is a popular delicacy in Chinese and other East Asian cuisines. We isolated and characterized 82 (24.4%) isolates of Salmonella from 336 fecal samples of soft-shelled terrapins (51 of 172; 29.7%) and pet turtles (31 of 164; 18.9%) in Shanghai. Salmonella Thompson was the most common serotype (17.1%) among others. Many isolates (84.1%) were resistant to multiple antimicrobials (≥3). Molecular analysis of Salmonella Thompson and Salmonella Typhimurium using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis unveiled a close genetic relationship between several human and terrapin isolates. Our results highlight the risk associated with the handling and consumption of turtles and their role in the spread of Salmonella in the human salmonellosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianmin Zhang
- 1 Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China
| | - Dai Kuang
- 2 School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai, China
| | - Fei Wang
- 3 Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland
| | - Jianghong Meng
- 2 School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai, China .,3 Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland
| | - Huiming Jin
- 4 Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention , Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaowei Yang
- 2 School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai, China
| | - Ming Liao
- 1 Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China
| | - John D Klena
- 5 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Shuyu Wu
- 5 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Yongbiao Zhang
- 6 Department of Emergency, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou , China
| | - Xuebin Xu
- 4 Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention , Shanghai, China
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Marin C, Vega S, Marco-Jiménez F. Tiny Turtles Purchased at Pet Stores are a Potential High Risk for Salmonella Human Infection in the Valencian Region, Eastern Spain. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2016; 16:455-60. [PMID: 27228194 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2016.1950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Turtles may be considered unsafe pets, particularly in households with children. This study aimed to assess Salmonella carriage by turtles in pet stores and in private ownership to inform the public of the potential health risk, enabling informed choices around pet selection. During the period between September and October 2013, 24 pet stores and 96 private owners were sampled in the Valencian Region (Eastern Spain). Salmonella identification procedure was based on ISO 6579: 2002 recommendations (Annex D). Salmonella strains were serotyped in accordance with Kauffman-White-Le-Minor technique. The rate of isolation of Salmonella was very high from pet store samples (75.0% ± 8.8%) and moderate for private owners (29.0% ± 4.6%). Serotyping revealed 18 different serotypes among two Salmonella enterica subspecies: S. enterica subsp. enterica and S. enterica subsp. diarizonae. Most frequently isolated serotypes were Salmonella Typhimurium (39.5%, 17/43) and Salmonella Pomona (9.3%, 4/43). Serotypes identified have previously been reported in turtles, and child Salmonella infections associate with pet turtle exposure. The present study clearly demonstrates that turtles in pet stores, as well as in private owners, could be a direct or indirect source of a high risk of human Salmonella infections. In addition, pet stores should advise their customers of the potential risks associated with reptile ownership.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Marin
- 1 Departamento de Producción Animal, Sanidad Animal, Salud Pública Veterinaria y Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad CEU-Cardenal Herrera , Alfara del Patriarca, Valencia, Spain
| | - Santiago Vega
- 1 Departamento de Producción Animal, Sanidad Animal, Salud Pública Veterinaria y Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad CEU-Cardenal Herrera , Alfara del Patriarca, Valencia, Spain
| | - Francisco Marco-Jiménez
- 2 Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Animal, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia , Valencia, Spain
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Rawski M, Kierończyk B, Długosz J, Świątkiewicz S, Józefiak D. Dietary Probiotics Affect Gastrointestinal Microbiota, Histological Structure and Shell Mineralization in Turtles. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0147859. [PMID: 26828367 PMCID: PMC4735124 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0147859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Probiotics are widely used in nutrition, and their mode of action is intensively studied in mammals and birds; however, it is almost unknown in reptiles. In the present study, Trachemys scripta scripta and Sternotherus odoratus were used to assess the effects of dietary probiotics on chelonian gastrointestinal tract microecology. In the first, 20-week experiment, 40 young T. s. scripta were randomly distributed to four experimental groups: 1st, (CON)--with no additives; 2nd, (SSPA) with Bacillus subtilis PB6; 3rd, (MSP)--with multiple strain probiotic; and 4th, (SSPB) with Bacillus subtilis C-3102. The first study has shown that SSPA and MSP decreased the numbers of total bacteria, Enterobacteriace, Staphylococcus sp. and Streptococcus sp. excreted to water and increased the villous height and mucosa thickness in duodenum. SSPB improved the duodenal microstructure; however, it also increased numbers of kanamycin and vancomycin resistant bacteria, Staphylococcus sp. and Streptococcus sp., in water. In the second, 52-week experiment, 30 S. odoratus were randomly assigned to three dietary treatments. CON, SSPA and MSP groups. The MSP preparation increased the body weight gain, crude ash, Ca and P share in the turtles' shells. Both probiotics affected duodenal histomorphology. SSPA decreased the villous height, while MSP increased the villous height and mucosa thickness, and decreased the crypt depth. SSPA decreased the concentrations of bacteria excreted to water. In the case of intestinal microbiota, bacteria suppressing effects were observed in the case of both probiotics. MSP increased the number of Bifidobacterium sp. and Lactobacillus sp./Enteroccoccus sp., and decreased the number of Clostridium perfringens and Campylobacter sp. in the small intestine. In the large intestine it lowered, amongst others, Bacteroides-Pervotella cluster, Clostridium leptum subgroup and Clostridium perfringens numbers. The above-mentioned results suggest that probiotics are useful in turtle nutrition due to their positive effects on growth performance, shell mineralization, duodenal histomorphology and microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz Rawski
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Management, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
| | - Bartosz Kierończyk
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Management, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
| | - Jakub Długosz
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Management, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
| | - Sylwester Świątkiewicz
- National Research Institute of Animal Production, Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Balice, Poland
| | - Damian Józefiak
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Management, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
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Cartwright EJ, Nguyen T, Melluso C, Ayers T, Lane C, Hodges A, Li X, Quammen J, Yendell SJ, Adams J, Mitchell J, Rickert R, Klos R, Williams IT, Barton Behravesh C, Wright J. A Multistate Investigation of Antibiotic-Resistant Salmonella enterica Serotype I 4,[5],12:i:- Infections as Part of an International Outbreak Associated with Frozen Feeder Rodents. Zoonoses Public Health 2016; 63:62-71. [PMID: 25996458 PMCID: PMC4699865 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
While most human Salmonella infections result from exposure to contaminated foods, an estimated 11% of all Salmonella infections are attributed to animal exposures, including both direct animal handling and indirect exposures such as cleaning cages and handling contaminated pet food. This report describes the epidemiologic, environmental and laboratory investigations conducted in the United States as part of the response to an international outbreak of tetracycline-resistant Salmonella enterica serotype I 4,[5],12:i:- infections with over 500 illnesses occurring from 2008 to 2010. This investigation found that illness due to the outbreak strain was significantly associated with exposure to pet reptiles and frozen feeder rodents used as food for pet reptiles. Salmonella isolates indistinguishable from the outbreak strain were isolated from a frozen feeder mice-fed reptile owned by a case patient, as well as from frozen feeder mice and environmental samples collected from a rodent producing facility (Company A). An international voluntary recall of all Company A produced frozen feeder animals sold between May 2009 and July 2010 occurred. Only 13% of cases in our investigation were aware of the association between Salmonella infection and mice or rats. Consumers, the pet industry, healthcare providers and veterinarians need to be aware of the potential health risk posed by feeder rodents, whether live or frozen. Frozen feeder rodent producers, suppliers and distributors should follow the animal food labelling requirements as described in 21 CFR §501.5, and all packages of frozen feeder rodents should include safe handling instructions. Persons should wash their hands thoroughly with soap and water after handling live or frozen feeder rodents, as well as reptiles or anything in the area where the animals live. Continued opportunities exist for public health officials, the pet industry, veterinarians and consumers to work together to prevent salmonellosis associated with pet food, pets and other animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Cartwright
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Scientific Education and Professional Development Program Office, OSELS, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - T Nguyen
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - C Melluso
- Center for Veterinary Medicine, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - T Ayers
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - C Lane
- Public Health England, Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, London, UK
| | - A Hodges
- Center for Veterinary Medicine, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - X Li
- Center for Veterinary Medicine, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - J Quammen
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - S J Yendell
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Epidemiology Elective Program, Scientific Education and Professional Development Program Office, OSELS, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - J Adams
- Association of Public Health Laboratories, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - J Mitchell
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - R Rickert
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - R Klos
- Wisconsin Division of Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - I T Williams
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - C Barton Behravesh
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - J Wright
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Mali I, Wang HH, Grant WE, Feldman M, Forstner MRJ. Modeling Commercial Freshwater Turtle Production on US Farms for Pet and Meat Markets. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139053. [PMID: 26407157 PMCID: PMC4583382 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Freshwater turtles are being exploited for meat, eggs, traditional medicine, and pet trade. As a response, turtle farming became a booming aquaculture industry in the past two decades, specifically in the southeastern states of the United States of America (US) and across Southeast Asia. However, US turtle farms are currently producing turtles only for the pet trade while commercial trappers remain focused on catching the largest individuals from the wild. In our analyses we have created a biological and economic model that describes farming operations on a representative turtle farm in Louisiana. We first modeled current production of hatchling and yearling red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans) (i.e., traditional farming) for foreign and domestic pet markets, respectively. We tested the possibility of harvesting adult turtles from the breeding stock for sale to meat markets to enable alternative markets for the farmers, while decreasing the continued pressures on wild populations (i.e., non-traditional farming). Our economic model required current profit requirements of ~$13/turtle or ~$20.31/kg of meat from non-traditional farming in order to acquire the same profit as traditional farming, a value which currently exceeds market values of red-eared sliders. However, increasing competition with Asian turtle farms and decreasing hatchling prices may force the shift in the US toward producing turtles for meat markets. In addition, our model can be modified and applied to more desirable species on the meat market once more knowledge is acquired about species life histories and space requirements under farmed conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Mali
- Department of Biology, Texas State University, San Marcos, Texas, United States of America
| | - Hsiao-Hsuan Wang
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - William E Grant
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | | | - Michael R J Forstner
- Department of Biology, Texas State University, San Marcos, Texas, United States of America
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Brilhante RSN, Rodrigues PHDA, de Alencar LP, Riello GB, Ribeiro JF, de Oliveira JS, Castelo-Branco DDSCM, Bandeira TDJPG, Monteiro AJ, Rocha MFG, Cordeiro RDA, Moreira JLB, Sidrim JJC. Evidence of Fluconazole-Resistant Candida Species in Tortoises and Sea Turtles. Mycopathologia 2015; 180:421-6. [PMID: 26363919 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-015-9923-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2015] [Accepted: 07/04/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the antifungal susceptibility of Candida spp. recovered from tortoises (Chelonoidis spp.) and sea turtles (Chelonia mydas, Caretta caretta, Lepidochelys olivacea, Eretmochelys imbricata). For this purpose, material from the oral cavity and cloaca of 77 animals (60 tortoises and 17 sea turtles) was collected. The collected specimens were seeded on 2% Sabouraud dextrose agar with chloramphenicol, and the identification was carried out by morphological and biochemical methods. Sixty-six isolates were recovered from tortoises, out of which 27 were C. tropicalis, 27 C. famata, 7 C. albicans, 4 C. guilliermondii and 1 C. intermedia, whereas 12 strains were obtained from sea turtles, which were identified as Candida parapsilosis (n = 4), Candida guilliermondii (n = 4), Candida tropicalis (n = 2), Candida albicans (n = 1) and Candida intermedia (n = 1). The minimum inhibitory concentrations for amphotericin B, itraconazole and fluconazole ranged from 0.03125 to 0.5, 0.03125 to >16 and 0.125 to >64, respectively. Overall, 19 azole-resistant strains (14 C. tropicalis and 5 C. albicans) were found. Thus, this study shows that Testudines carry azole-resistant Candida spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raimunda Sâmia Nogueira Brilhante
- Graduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, College of Medicine, Ceará Federal University, Rua Coronel Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo, Fortaleza, Ceará, CEP 60430-275, Brazil.
| | - Pedro Henrique de Aragão Rodrigues
- Graduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, College of Medicine, Ceará Federal University, Rua Coronel Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo, Fortaleza, Ceará, CEP 60430-275, Brazil
| | - Lucas Pereira de Alencar
- Graduate Program in Veterinary Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ceará State University, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Giovanna Barbosa Riello
- Graduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, College of Medicine, Ceará Federal University, Rua Coronel Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo, Fortaleza, Ceará, CEP 60430-275, Brazil
| | | | - Jonathas Sales de Oliveira
- Graduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, College of Medicine, Ceará Federal University, Rua Coronel Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo, Fortaleza, Ceará, CEP 60430-275, Brazil
| | - Débora de Souza Collares Maia Castelo-Branco
- Graduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, College of Medicine, Ceará Federal University, Rua Coronel Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo, Fortaleza, Ceará, CEP 60430-275, Brazil
| | | | - André Jalles Monteiro
- Graduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, College of Medicine, Ceará Federal University, Rua Coronel Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo, Fortaleza, Ceará, CEP 60430-275, Brazil
| | - Marcos Fábio Gadelha Rocha
- Graduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, College of Medicine, Ceará Federal University, Rua Coronel Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo, Fortaleza, Ceará, CEP 60430-275, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Veterinary Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ceará State University, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Rossana de Aguiar Cordeiro
- Graduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, College of Medicine, Ceará Federal University, Rua Coronel Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo, Fortaleza, Ceará, CEP 60430-275, Brazil
| | - José Luciano Bezerra Moreira
- Graduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, College of Medicine, Ceará Federal University, Rua Coronel Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo, Fortaleza, Ceará, CEP 60430-275, Brazil
| | - José Júlio Costa Sidrim
- Graduate Program in Medical Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Specialized Medical Mycology Center, College of Medicine, Ceará Federal University, Rua Coronel Nunes de Melo, 1315 - Rodolfo Teófilo, Fortaleza, Ceará, CEP 60430-275, Brazil
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Di Salvo A, Giorgi M, Catanzaro A, Deli G, della Rocca G. Pharmacokinetic profiles of meloxicam in turtles (Trachemys scripta scripta
) after single oral, intracoelomic and intramuscular administrations. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2015; 39:102-5. [DOI: 10.1111/jvp.12254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 07/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Di Salvo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine; University of Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - M. Giorgi
- Department of Veterinary Sciences; University of Pisa; San Piero a Grado Pisa Italy
| | - A. Catanzaro
- Department of Veterinary Medicine; University of Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - G. Deli
- Veterinary practitioner; Roma Italy
| | - G. della Rocca
- Department of Veterinary Medicine; University of Perugia; Perugia Italy
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42
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Grześkowiak Ł, Endo A, Beasley S, Salminen S. Microbiota and probiotics in canine and feline welfare. Anaerobe 2015; 34:14-23. [PMID: 25863311 PMCID: PMC7111060 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2015.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2015] [Revised: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Dogs and cats have been cohabiting with us for thousands of years. They are the major human companions. Today, dogs and cats live in urban areas. Cats and most dogs are on high carbohydrate diets and face similar life-style challenges as the human beings. The health and well-being of companion animals, just as their owners, depends on the gut microbes. Providing a proper care and nutritionally balanced diet to companion animals is recognised as a part of our responsibility to maintain the health and well being of our pet. However, as microbiota differences may facilitate exposure to pathogens and harmful environmental influences, it is prudent to search for novel tools to protect dogs and cats and at the same time the human owners from pathogens. Specific probiotic strains and/or their defined combinations may be useful in the canine and feline nutrition, therapy, and care. Probiotic supplementations have been successful in the prevention and treatment of acute gastroenteritis, treatment of IBD, and prevention of allergy in companion animals. New challenges for probiotic applications include maintenance of obesity and overweight, urogenital tract infections, Helicobacter gastritis and parasitic infections. The probiotics of human origin appear to be among the new promising tools for the maintenance of pets' health. However, the host-derived microorganisms might be the most appropriate probiotic source. Therefore, more controlled trials are needed to characterise new and safe probiotic preparations with an impact on general health and well being as well as health maintenance in dogs and cats.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Akihito Endo
- Department of Food and Cosmetic Science, Faculty of Bioindustry, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Hokkaido, Japan
| | | | - Seppo Salminen
- Functional Foods Forum, Univeristy of Turku, Turku, Finland
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43
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García-Díaz P, Ross JV, Ayres C, Cassey P. Understanding the biological invasion risk posed by the global wildlife trade: propagule pressure drives the introduction and establishment of Nearctic turtles. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2015; 21:1078-1091. [PMID: 25363272 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2014] [Revised: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Biological invasions are a key component of human-induced global change. The continuing increase in global wildlife trade has raised concerns about the parallel increase in the number of new invasive species. However, the factors that link the wildlife trade to the biological invasion process are still poorly understood. Moreover, there are analytical challenges in researching the role of global wildlife trade in biological invasions, particularly issues related to the under-reporting of introduced and established populations in areas with reduced sampling effort. In this work, we use high-quality data on the international trade in Nearctic turtles (1999-2009) coupled with a statistical modelling framework, which explicitly accounts for detection, to investigate the factors that influence the introduction (release, or escape into the wild) of globally traded Nearctic turtles and the establishment success (self-sustaining exotic populations) of slider turtles (Trachemys scripta), the most frequently traded turtle species. We found that the introduction of a species was influenced by the total number of turtles exported to a jurisdiction and the age at maturity of the species, while the establishment success of slider turtles was best associated with the propagule number (number of release events), and the number of native turtles in the jurisdiction of introduction. These results indicate both a direct and indirect association between the wildlife trade and the introduction of turtles and establishment success of slider turtles, respectively. Our results highlight the existence of gaps in the number of globally recorded introduction events and established populations of slider turtles, although the expected bias is low. We emphasize the importance of researching independently the factors that affect the different stages of the invasion pathway. Critically, we observe that the number of traded individuals might not always be an adequate proxy for propagule pressure and establishment success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo García-Díaz
- School of Earth & Environmental Sciences and the Environment Institute, The University of Adelaide, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
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Nontyphoidal Salmonella Infections in Cancer Patients. INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN CLINICAL PRACTICE 2014. [DOI: 10.1097/ipc.0000000000000133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Whitten T, Bender JB, Smith K, Leano F, Scheftel J. Reptile-associated salmonellosis in Minnesota, 1996-2011. Zoonoses Public Health 2014; 62:199-208. [PMID: 24909385 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Reptile-associated salmonellosis (RAS) occurs when Salmonella is transmitted from a reptile to a human. This study describes the epidemiology of RAS in Minnesota during 1996-2011. All Minnesotans with confirmed Salmonella infections are reported to the Minnesota Department of Health (MDH). Case patients are interviewed about illness characteristics and risk factors, including foods eaten, drinking and recreational water exposures, contact with ill people, and animal contact. Willing RAS case patients can submit stool from the reptile for culture. Serotype and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) subtype of Salmonella isolates from reptiles and case patients are compared. Of 8389 sporadic (not associated with an outbreak) non-typhoidal salmonellosis case patients in Minnesotans during 1996-2011, 290 (3.5%) reported reptile exposure. The median age of case patients with reptile exposure was 11 years, 31% were under the age of 5 years and 67% were under the age of 20 years; 50% were female. The median illness duration was 8 days; 23% required hospitalization. The most commonly reported reptile exposures were lizard (47%), snake (20%), turtle (19%) and a combination of reptile types (14%). Eighty-four per cent of isolates from case patients who reported reptile exposure were Salmonella enterica subspecies I. The three most common serotypes were Typhimurium (15%), Enteritidis (7%) and subspecies IV serotypes (7%). Of 60 reptiles testing positive for Salmonella, 36 (60%) yielded the same Salmonella serotype as the human isolate. Twenty-six of 27 reptile isolates that were subtyped by PFGE were indistinguishable from the human isolate. Of these, 88% were subspecies I; the most common serotypes were Enteritidis (12%), Typhimurium (8%), and Bareilly (8%). RAS accounts for approximately 3.5% of salmonellosis cases in Minnesota, primarily affecting children. The majority of isolates from case patients and reptiles belonged to Salmonella subspecies I, suggesting that reptiles are a source of human infection with serotypes not traditionally considered to be reptile-associated.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Whitten
- Acute Disease Investigation and Control (ADIC), Minnesota Department of Health, St. Paul, MN, USA
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Abstract
The popularity of having exotic animals as pets is increasing, particularly among children. It is also estimated that approximately 75% of emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic. The implications of these two trends are areas of concern for the public health community. We conducted a review of household pet zoonoses studies. This included a jurisdictional scan of public health agencies in Canada for policies and protocols on household pet zoonoses. Key stakeholder consultations with pet-related zoonoses experts and authors in Canada enhanced the information reviewed. Trends in pet ownership, risks of disease transmission, burden of illness, and current public health practices were examined. As a result, policy and intervention gaps and future opportunities for research and collaboration were identified. Specifically, pets remain as a primary source of numerous reportable and nonreportable diseases and outbreaks for example, salmonellosis, tularaemia, cutaneous larvae migrans, and Human Lymphocytic Chorimeningitis Virus infections. Pet treats and some pet foods were cited as potential sources of zoonotic diseases. Children under 5 years of age and immuno-compromised individuals were noted as potential high-risk groups; and daycares, schools, summer camps, private homes, and acute care and veterinary hospitals were noted as high-risk settings for zoonotic disease transmission. The primary risk factors identified include improper handling of pets and improper hand hygiene. The continued growth of the pet industry will necessitate interventions by public health, veterinary, and regulatory communities to mitigate the impact of pet zoonoses on the public. These interventions should include enhancement of the current surveillance systems, regulations to address existing gaps in the pet food industry, the development of policies and protocols at the provincial and federal levels of government, education of the public regarding the risks associated with the handling of pets, and greater collaboration among the human and animal health sectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Whitfield
- University of Guelph, School of Veterinary Medicine, Guelph, Ontario; Master of Public Health Program, University of Guelph. (All authors contributed equally to the paper. This document was largely derived from an evidence review produced by the National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health.)
| | - Angela Smith
- University of Guelph, School of Veterinary Medicine, Guelph, Ontario; Master of Public Health Program, University of Guelph. (All authors contributed equally to the paper. This document was largely derived from an evidence review produced by the National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health.)
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Bartholomew ML, Heffernan RT, Wright JG, Klos RF, Monson T, Khan S, Trees E, Sabol A, Willems RA, Flynn R, Deasy MP, Jones B, Davis JP. Multistate outbreak of Salmonella enterica serotype enteritidis infection associated with pet guinea pigs. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2014; 14:414-21. [PMID: 24866204 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2013.1506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella causes about one million illnesses annually in the United States. Although most infections result from foodborne exposures, animal contact is an important mode of transmission. We investigated a case of Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis (SE) sternal osteomyelitis in a previously healthy child who cared for two recently deceased guinea pigs (GPs). A case was defined as SE pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) XbaI pattern JEGX01.0021, BlnI pattern JEGA26.0002 (outbreak strain) infection occurring during 2010 in a patient who reported GP exposure. To locate outbreak strain isolates, PulseNet and the US Department of Agriculture National Veterinary Service Laboratories (NVSL) databases were queried. Outbreak strain isolates underwent multilocus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA). Traceback and environmental investigations were conducted at homes, stores, and breeder or broker facilities. We detected 10 cases among residents of eight states and four NVSL GP outbreak strain isolates. One patient was hospitalized; none died. The median patient age was 9.5 (range, 1-61) years. Among 10 patients, two purchased GPs at independent stores, and three purchased GPs at different national retail chain (chain A) store locations; three were chain A employees and two reported GP exposures of unknown characterization. MLVA revealed four related patterns. Tracebacks identified four distributors and 92 sources supplying GPs to chain A, including one breeder potentially supplying GPs to all case-associated chain A stores. All environmental samples were Salmonella culture-negative. A definitive SE-contaminated environmental source was not identified. Because GPs can harbor Salmonella, consumers and pet industry personnel should be educated regarding risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L Bartholomew
- 1 Epidemic Intelligence Service; Scientific Education and Professional Development Program Office; Office of Surveillance, Epidemiology, and Laboratory Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta, Georgia
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Compendium of measures to prevent disease associated with animals in public settings, 2013. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2014; 243:1270-88. [PMID: 24134577 DOI: 10.2460/javma.243.9.1270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Behravesh CB, Brinson D, Hopkins BA, Gomez TM. Backyard poultry flocks and salmonellosis: a recurring, yet preventable public health challenge. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58:1432-8. [PMID: 24501387 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciu067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Poultry are well recognized as possible carriers of Salmonella species. As part of the local foods movement, backyard poultry flocks have increased in popularity in recent years. Between 1996 and 2012, 45 outbreaks of human Salmonella infections linked to live poultry from mail-order hatcheries were documented. This review examines the history of live poultry-associated salmonellosis in humans in the United States, the current status of the issue, and what can be done to help prevent these illnesses. An integrated One Health approach involving the mail-order hatchery industry, feed stores, healthcare providers, veterinarians, and backyard flock owners is needed to help prevent live poultry-associated salmonellosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey Barton Behravesh
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta
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Kaslow RA, Stanberry LR, Le Duc JW. Diagnosis, Discovery and Dissection of Viral Diseases. VIRAL INFECTIONS OF HUMANS 2014. [PMCID: PMC7122662 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-7448-8_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Richard A. Kaslow
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Alabama, Birmingham School of Public Health, Birmingham, Alabama USA
| | - Lawrence R. Stanberry
- Departmant of Pediatrics, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York USA
| | - James W. Le Duc
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas USA
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