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Volokhov DV, Furtak V, Allen C, Pulle G, Zajac MD, Levin Y, Kochba E, Moore SM. Robust humoral immune response against rabies virus in rabbits and guinea pigs immunized with plasmid DNA vectors encoding rabies virus glycoproteins - An approach to the production of polyclonal antibody reagents. Mol Cell Probes 2022; 64:101833. [PMID: 35691598 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcp.2022.101833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
DNA-based immunization has been previously shown to be an efficient approach to induce robust immunity against infectious diseases in animals and humans. The advantages of DNA vaccines are simplicity of their construction and production, low cost, high stability, and ability to elicit a full spectrum of immune responses to target antigens. The goals of this study were (i) to assess the antibody immune response to rabies virus glycoproteins (rGPs) in rabbits and guinea pigs after intramuscular immunization with pTargeT and pVAC2-mcs mammalian expression vectors encoding either the wild-type (WT) or codon-optimized (cOPT) rGP genes; and (ii) to prepare in-house rabbit anti-rGP polyclonal antibody reagents suitable for in Single Radial Immunodiffusion (SRID) and Indirect Fluorescent Antibody (IFA) assays. The maximum antibody responses against rabies virus in rabbits and guinea pigs were observed after immunization series with 500 μg/dose of pVAC2-mcs vector encoding either the WT or cOPT rGP genes adjuvanted with Emulsigen-D. No significant difference in the anti-rabies virus neutralizing antibody titers was observed in rabbits immunized with the WT and cOPT rGPs. The in-house rabbit anti-rGP polyclonal antibody reagents reacted comparable to the current reference reagents in SRID and IFA assays. The results of the study demonstrated that the DNA immunization of animals with the WT or cOPT rGPs is a promising approach to either induction of high anti-rabies virus neutralizing antibody titers in vivo or for production of polyclonal antibody reagents against rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitriy V Volokhov
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave., Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA.
| | - Vyacheslav Furtak
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave., Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Cynthia Allen
- Vaccine Quality Division, Center for Biologics Evaluation (CBE), Biologic and Radiopharmaceutical Drugs Directorate (BRDD), Health Canada, 100 Eglantine Driveway, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Gayle Pulle
- Vaccine Quality Division, Center for Biologics Evaluation (CBE), Biologic and Radiopharmaceutical Drugs Directorate (BRDD), Health Canada, 100 Eglantine Driveway, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Michelle D Zajac
- Kansas State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, 1800 Denison Ave., Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Yotam Levin
- NanoPass Technologies Ltd., 3 Golda Meir St., Nes Ziona, 7403648, Israel
| | - Efrat Kochba
- NanoPass Technologies Ltd., 3 Golda Meir St., Nes Ziona, 7403648, Israel
| | - Susan M Moore
- The University of Missouri Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory (VMDL), One Health Laboratory, 1509 Rollins St., Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
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2
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Zhu S, Guo C. Rabies Control and Treatment: From Prophylaxis to Strategies with Curative Potential. Viruses 2016; 8:v8110279. [PMID: 27801824 PMCID: PMC5127009 DOI: 10.3390/v8110279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2016] [Revised: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is an acute, fatal, neurological disease that affects almost all kinds of mammals. Vaccination (using an inactivated rabies vaccine), combined with administration of rabies immune globulin, is the only approved, effective method for post-exposure prophylaxis against rabies in humans. In the search for novel rabies control and treatment strategies, live-attenuated viruses have recently emerged as a practical and promising approach for immunizing and controlling rabies. Unlike the conventional, inactivated rabies vaccine, live-attenuated viruses are genetically modified viruses that are able to replicate in an inoculated recipient without causing adverse effects, while still eliciting robust and effective immune responses against rabies virus infection. A number of viruses with an intrinsic capacity that could be used as putative candidates for live-attenuated rabies vaccine have been intensively evaluated for therapeutic purposes. Additional novel strategies, such as a monoclonal antibody-based approach, nucleic acid-based vaccines, or small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) interfering with virus replication, could further add to the arena of strategies to combat rabies. In this review, we highlight current advances in rabies therapy and discuss the role that they might have in the future of rabies treatment. Given the pronounced and complex impact of rabies on a patient, a combination of these novel modalities has the potential to achieve maximal anti-rabies efficacy, or may even have promising curative effects in the future. However, several hurdles regarding clinical safety considerations and public awareness should be overcome before these approaches can ultimately become clinically relevant therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shimao Zhu
- Shenzhen Weiguang Biological Products Co., Ltd., Shenzhen 518107, China.
| | - Caiping Guo
- Shenzhen Weiguang Biological Products Co., Ltd., Shenzhen 518107, China.
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3
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Zahoor MA, Khurshid M, Qureshi R, Naz A, Shahid M. Cell culture-based viral vaccines: current status and future prospects. Future Virol 2016. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2016-0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Cell culture-based viral vaccines are used globally to immunize humans against infections. The cell culture is continuous process of developing substrates for the safe production of viral vaccines. However, increased global demand and strict safety rules for novel vaccines to control and eradicate viral diseases have forced researchers and manufacturers toward cell culture-based vaccines. The choice of cell substrate is a critical step that cannot be generalized for every vaccine formulation, therefore, manufacturers intend to optimize the required processes for particular applications. The recently established cell lines, innovative bioreactor concepts and cultivation schemes are necessary to increase the potential of vaccine production. In this review, we have focused on current cell culture-based viral vaccines and their future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohsin Khurshid
- Department of Microbiology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
- College of Allied Health Professionals, Directorate of Medical Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Rabia Qureshi
- Department of Microbiology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Aneeqa Naz
- Department of Microbiology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Shahid
- Department of Bioinformatics & Biotechnology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
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Aparicio-Burgos JE, Zepeda-Escobar JA, de Oca-Jimenez RM, Estrada-Franco JG, Barbabosa-Pliego A, Ochoa-García L, Alejandre-Aguilar R, Rivas N, Peñuelas-Rivas G, Val-Arreola M, Gupta S, Salazar-García F, Garg NJ, Vázquez-Chagoyán JC. Immune protection against Trypanosoma cruzi induced by TcVac4 in a canine model. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003625. [PMID: 25853654 PMCID: PMC4390229 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is endemic in southern parts of the American continent. Herein, we have tested the protective efficacy of a DNA-prime/T. rangeli-boost (TcVac4) vaccine in a dog (Canis familiaris) model. Dogs were immunized with two-doses of DNA vaccine (pcDNA3.1 encoding TcG1, TcG2, and TcG4 antigens plus IL-12- and GM-CSF-encoding plasmids) followed by two doses of glutaraldehyde-inactivated T. rangeli epimastigotes (TrIE); and challenged with highly pathogenic T. cruzi (SylvioX10/4) isolate. Dogs given TrIE or empty pcDNA3.1 were used as controls. We monitored post-vaccination and post-challenge infection antibody response by an ELISA, parasitemia by blood analysis and xenodiagnosis, and heart function by electrocardiography. Post-mortem anatomic and pathologic evaluation of the heart was conducted. TcVac4 induced a strong IgG response (IgG2>IgG1) that was significantly expanded post-infection, and moved to a nearly balanced IgG2/IgG1 response in chronic phase. In comparison, dogs given TrIE or empty plasmid DNA only developed high IgG titers with IgG2 predominance in response to T. cruzi infection. Blood parasitemia, tissue parasite foci, parasite transmission to triatomines, electrocardiographic abnormalities were significantly lower in TcVac4-vaccinated dogs than was observed in dogs given TrIE or empty plasmid DNA only. Macroscopic and microscopic alterations, the hallmarks of chronic Chagas disease, were significantly decreased in the myocardium of TcVac4-vaccinated dogs. We conclude that TcVac4 induced immunity was beneficial in providing resistance to T. cruzi infection, evidenced by control of chronic pathology of the heart and preservation of cardiac function in dogs. Additionally, TcVac4 vaccination decreased the transmission of parasites from vaccinated/infected animals to triatomines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - José A. Zepeda-Escobar
- Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados en Salud Animal, Universidad Autónoma de Estado de México, Toluca, México
| | - Roberto Montes de Oca-Jimenez
- Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados en Salud Animal, Universidad Autónoma de Estado de México, Toluca, México
| | - José G. Estrada-Franco
- Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados en Salud Animal, Universidad Autónoma de Estado de México, Toluca, México
| | - Alberto Barbabosa-Pliego
- Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados en Salud Animal, Universidad Autónoma de Estado de México, Toluca, México
| | - Laucel Ochoa-García
- Laboratorio Estatal de Salud Pública del Instituto Salud del Estado de México, Toluca, México
| | - Ricardo Alejandre-Aguilar
- Laboratorio de Entomología, Departamento de Parasitología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México City, México
| | - Nancy Rivas
- Laboratorio de Entomología, Departamento de Parasitología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México City, México
| | - Giovanna Peñuelas-Rivas
- Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados en Salud Animal, Universidad Autónoma de Estado de México, Toluca, México
| | - Margarita Val-Arreola
- Hospital General de Zona No. 2, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Irapuato, México
| | - Shivali Gupta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Felix Salazar-García
- Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados en Salud Animal, Universidad Autónoma de Estado de México, Toluca, México
| | - Nisha J. Garg
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, and Faculty of the Institute for Human Infection and Immunity, and the Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Juan C. Vázquez-Chagoyán
- Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados en Salud Animal, Universidad Autónoma de Estado de México, Toluca, México
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Kaur M, Garg R, Singh S, Bhatnagar R. Rabies vaccines: where do we stand, where are we heading? Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 14:369-81. [PMID: 25348036 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.973403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Rabies being the most lethal zoonotic, vaccine-preventable viral disease with worldwide distribution of reservoir wild animals presents unique challenges for its diagnosis, management and control. Although vaccines available are highly effective, which had played the key role in controlling rabies in North America, western Europe and in a number of Asian and Latin American countries, the requirement of multiple doses along with boosters, associated cost to reduce the incidence in wild animals and prophylactic human vaccination has remained a major impediment towards achieving the same goals in poorer parts of the world such as sub-Saharan Africa and southeast Asia. Current efforts to contain rabies worldwide are directed towards the development of more safe, cheaper and efficacious vaccines along with anti-rabies antibodies for post-exposure prophylaxis. The work presented here provides an overview of the advances made towards controlling the human rabies, particularly in last 10 years, and future perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manpreet Kaur
- BSL3 Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi - 110067, Delhi, India
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6
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Garg R, Kaur M, Saxena A, Bhatnagar R. DNA vaccination for rabies: Evaluation of preclinical safety and toxicology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trivac.2014.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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7
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Gil A, Shen S, Coley S, Gibson L, Diamond DJ, Wang S, Lu S. DNA vaccine prime followed by boost with live attenuated virus significantly improves antigen-specific T cell responses against human cytomegalovirus. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2013; 9:2120-32. [PMID: 24051429 DOI: 10.4161/hv.25750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
As a leading cause of congenital infection and a major threat to immunocompromised individuals, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a major global public health concern. Effective HCMV vaccines would need to induce potent and balanced humoral and cellular immune responses. In this pilot study, immunogenicity studies were conducted in mice to examine HCMV antigen-specific antibody and T cell responses when a heterologous prime-boost immunization strategy was tested. DNA vaccines expressing either targets of protective antibody responses (gB and gM/gN) or well characterized T cell immunogens (pp65, pp150, and IE1) were used as the priming immunization while the live attenuated HCMV vaccine Towne strain was used as the boost, which may act like an inactivated vaccine due to the inability of HCMV to replicate in a mouse host. Our data indicate that while DNA vaccines were effective in priming HCMV-specific antibody responses, the final titers of gB- or gM-specific antibodies were not much different from those elicited by using multiple immunizations of HCMV alone. In contrast, DNA priming significantly enhanced T cell responses against gB, pp65, and IE1 as measured by IFN-γ. However, HCMV alone was not effective in eliciting strong T cell immune responses when used in a mouse host. Our data indicate that the complexity of antigen composition from a large virus, such as HCMV, may affect the profile of immune responses when viral vaccines are used as a boost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Gil
- Department of Medicine; University of Massachusetts Medical School; Worcester, MA USA; Department of Pathology; University of Massachusetts Medical School; Worcester, MA USA
| | - Siyuan Shen
- Department of Medicine; University of Massachusetts Medical School; Worcester, MA USA
| | - Scott Coley
- Department of Medicine; University of Massachusetts Medical School; Worcester, MA USA
| | - Laura Gibson
- Department of Medicine; University of Massachusetts Medical School; Worcester, MA USA; Department of Pediatrics; University of Massachusetts Medical School; Worcester, MA USA
| | - Don J Diamond
- Division of Translational Vaccine Research; Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope; Duarte, CA USA
| | - Shixia Wang
- Department of Medicine; University of Massachusetts Medical School; Worcester, MA USA
| | - Shan Lu
- Department of Medicine; University of Massachusetts Medical School; Worcester, MA USA
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The synergistic effect of combined immunization with a DNA vaccine and chimeric yellow fever/dengue virus leads to strong protection against dengue. PLoS One 2013; 8:e58357. [PMID: 23472186 PMCID: PMC3589436 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2012] [Accepted: 02/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The dengue envelope glycoprotein (E) is the major component of virion surface and its ectodomain is composed of domains I, II and III. This protein is the main target for the development of a dengue vaccine with induction of neutralizing antibodies. In the present work, we tested two different vaccination strategies, with combined immunizations in a prime/booster regimen or simultaneous inoculation with a DNA vaccine (pE1D2) and a chimeric yellow fever/dengue 2 virus (YF17D-D2). The pE1D2 DNA vaccine encodes the ectodomain of the envelope DENV2 protein fused to t-PA signal peptide, while the YF17D-D2 was constructed by replacing the prM and E genes from the 17D yellow fever vaccine virus by those from DENV2. Balb/c mice were inoculated with these two vaccines by different prime/booster or simultaneous immunization protocols and most of them induced a synergistic effect on the elicited immune response, mainly in neutralizing antibody production. Furthermore, combined immunization remarkably increased protection against a lethal dose of DENV2, when compared to each vaccine administered alone. Results also revealed that immunization with the DNA vaccine, regardless of the combination with the chimeric virus, induced a robust cell immune response, with production of IFN-γ by CD8+ T lymphocytes.
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9
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Ullas PT, Desai A, Madhusudana SN. Rabies DNA Vaccines: Current Status and Future. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.4236/wjv.2012.21005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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10
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Expression and solubilization of insect cell-based rabies virus glycoprotein and assessment of its immunogenicity and protective efficacy in mice. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2011; 18:1673-9. [PMID: 21813661 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.05258-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease of serious public health and economic significance worldwide. The rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG) has been the major target for subunit vaccine development, since it harbors domains responsible for induction of virus-neutralizing antibodies, infectivity, and neurovirulence. The glycoprotein (G) was cloned using the baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS) and expressed in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf-9) cells. In order to obtain a soluble form of G suitable for experimentation in mice, 18 different combinations of buffers and detergents were evaluated for their ability to solubilize the insect cell membrane-associated G. The combination that involved 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)-dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS) detergent in lysis buffer 1, formulated with Tris, NaCl, 10% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and EDTA, gave the highest yield of soluble G, as evidenced by the experimental data. Subsequently, several other parameters, such as the concentration of CHAPS and the duration and temperature of the treatment for the effective solubilization of G, were optimized. The CHAPS detergent, buffered at a concentration of 0.4% to 0.7% (wt/vol) at room temperature (23 to 25°C) for 30 min to 1 h using buffer 1, containing 10% DMSO, resulted in consistently high yields. The G solubilized using CHAPS detergent was found to be immunogenic when tested in mice, as evidenced by high virus-neutralizing antibody titers in sera and 100% protection upon virulent intracerebral challenge with the challenge virus standard (CVS) strain of rabies virus. The results of the mice study indicated that G solubilized with CHAPS detergent retained the immunologically relevant domains in the native conformation, thereby paving the way for producing a cell-free and efficacious subunit vaccine.
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Bot A, Qiu Z, Wong R, Obrocea M, Smith KA. Programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) at the heart of heterologous prime-boost vaccines and regulation of CD8+ T cell immunity. J Transl Med 2010; 8:132. [PMID: 21144062 PMCID: PMC3012026 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-8-132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2010] [Accepted: 12/14/2010] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Developing new vaccination strategies and optimizing current vaccines through heterologous prime-boost carries the promise of integrating the benefits of different yet synergistic vectors. It has been widely thought that the increased immunity afforded by heterologous prime-boost vaccination is mainly due to the minimization of immune responses to the carrier vectors, which allows a progressive build up of immunity against defined epitopes and the subsequent induction of broader immune responses against pathogens. Focusing on CD8+ T cells, we put forward a different yet complementary hypothesis based primarily on the systematic analysis of DNA vaccines as priming agents. This hypothesis relies on the finding that during the initiation of immune response, acquisition of co-inhibitory receptors such as programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) is determined by the pattern of antigen exposure in conjunction with Toll-like receptor (TLR)-dependent stimulation, critically affecting the magnitude and profile of secondary immunity. This hypothesis, based upon the acquisition and co-regulation of pivotal inhibitory receptors by CD8+ T cells, offers a rationale for gene-based immunization as an effective priming strategy and, in addition, outlines a new dimension to immune homeostasis during immune reaction to pathogens. Finally, this model implies that new and optimized immunization approaches for cancer and certain viral infections must induce highly efficacious T cells, refractory to a broad range of immune-inhibiting mechanisms, rather than solely or primarily focusing on the generation of large pools of vaccine-specific lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Bot
- MannKind Corporation, 28903 North Avenue Paine, Valencia, CA 91355, USA.
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Abstract
Cited are literary data related to the development of DNA vaccines against rabies virus. Research results regarding gene vaccination of different models of laboratory animals and different ways of vaccine introduction are presented. Possibility to potentiate immunogenicity of DNA vaccines using adjuvants and cytokines is considered. Ways of improving of polynucleotide vaccines are discussed.
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Lu S. Heterologous prime-boost vaccination. Curr Opin Immunol 2009; 21:346-51. [PMID: 19500964 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2009.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 341] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2009] [Revised: 05/13/2009] [Accepted: 05/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
An effective vaccine usually requires more than one time immunization in the form of prime-boost. Traditionally the same vaccines are given multiple times as homologous boosts. New findings suggested that prime-boost can be done with different types of vaccines containing the same antigens. In many cases such heterologous prime-boost can be more immunogenic than homologous prime-boost. Heterologous prime-boost represents a new way of immunization and will stimulate better understanding on the immunological basis of vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Lu
- China-US Vaccine Research Center and Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.
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SopB of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium is a potential DNA vaccine candidate in conjugation with live attenuated bacteria. Vaccine 2009; 27:2804-11. [PMID: 19428891 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.02.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2008] [Revised: 02/12/2009] [Accepted: 02/25/2009] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The immune response against Salmonella is multi-faceted involving both the innate and the adaptive immune system. The characterization of specific Salmonella antigens inducing immune response could critically contribute to the development of epitope based vaccines for Salmonella. We have tried to identify a protective T cell epitope(s) of Salmonella, as cell mediated immunity conferred by CD8+ T cells is the most crucial subset conferring protective immunity against Salmonella. It being a proven fact that secreted proteins are better in inducing cell mediated immunity than cell surface and cytosolic antigens, we have analyzed all the genbank annotated Salmonella pathogenicity island 1 and 2 secreted proteins of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. typhimurium) and S. enterica serovar Typhi (S. typhi). They were subjected to BIMAS and SYFPEITHI analysis to map MHC-I and MHC-II binding epitopes. The huge profile of possible T cell epitopes obtained from the two classes of secreted proteins were tabulated and using a scoring system that considers the binding affinity and promiscuity of binding to more than one allele, SopB and SifB were chosen for experimental confirmation in murine immunization model. The entire SopB and SifB genes were cloned into DNA vaccine vectors and were administered along with live attenuated Salmonella and it was found that SopB vaccination reduced the bacterial burden of organs by about 5-fold on day 4 and day 8 after challenge with virulent Salmonella and proved to be a more efficient vaccination strategy than live attenuated bacteria alone.
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15
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Li P, Cao RB, Zheng QS, Liu JJ, Li Y, Wang EX, Li F, Chen PY. Enhancement of humoral and cellular immunity in mice against Japanese encephalitis virus using a DNA prime-protein boost vaccine strategy. Vet J 2008; 183:210-6. [PMID: 19008134 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2008] [Revised: 09/17/2008] [Accepted: 09/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A synthetic multi-epitope gene containing critical epitopes of the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) envelope gene was cloned into both prokaryotic and eukaryotic expression vectors. The recombinant plasmid and purified recombinant protein (heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli) were used as immunogens in a mouse model. The results indicate that both the recombinant protein and the DNA vaccine induce humoral and cellular immune responses. Neutralising antibody titres in mice in the pcDNA-TEP plus rEP group increased considerably relative to mice immunised using either pcDNA-TEP or rEP alone (P<0.05). Furthermore, the highest levels of interleukin (IL)-2, interferon-gamma and IL-4 were induced following priming with the DNA vaccine and boosting with the recombinant protein. Together these findings demonstrate that a DNA-recombinant protein prime-boost vaccination strategy can produce high levels of antibody and trigger significant T cell responses in mice, highlighting the potential value of such an approach in the prevention of JEV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Diagnosis and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China
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16
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Lu S, Wang S, Grimes-Serrano JM. Current progress of DNA vaccine studies in humans. Expert Rev Vaccines 2008; 7:175-91. [PMID: 18324888 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.7.2.175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Despite remarkable progress in the field of DNA vaccine research since its discovery in the early 1990 s, the formal acceptance of this novel technology as a new modality of human vaccines depends on the successful demonstration of its safety and efficacy in advanced clinical trials. Although clinical trials conducted so far have provided overwhelming evidence that DNA vaccines are well tolerated and have an excellent safety profile, the early designs of DNA vaccines failed to demonstrate sufficient immunogenicity in humans. However, studies conducted over the last few years have led to promising results, particularly when DNA vaccines were used in combination with other forms of vaccines. Here, we provide a review of the data from reported DNA vaccine clinical studies with an emphasis on the ability of DNA vaccines to elicit antigen-specific, cell-mediated and antibody responses in humans. The majority of these trials are designed to test candidate vaccines against several major human pathogens and the remaining studies tested the immunogenicity of therapeutic vaccines against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Lu
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation Street, LRB 304, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
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17
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Nagarajan T, Rupprecht CE, Dessain SK, Rangarajan PN, Thiagarajan D, Srinivasan VA. Human monoclonal antibody and vaccine approaches to prevent human rabies. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2007; 317:67-101. [PMID: 17990790 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-72146-8_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Rabies, being a major zoonotic disease, significantly impacts global public health. It is invariably fatal once clinical signs are apparent. The majority of human rabies deaths occur in developing countries. India alone reports more than 50% of the global rabies deaths. Although it is a vaccine-preventable disease, effective rabies prevention in humans with category III bites requires the combined administration of rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) and vaccine. Cell culture rabies vaccines have become widely available in developing countries, virtually replacing the inferior and unsafe nerve tissue vaccines. Limitations inherent to the conventional RIG of either equine or human origin have prompted scientists to look for monoclonal antibody-based human RIG as an alternative. Fully human monoclonal antibodies have been found to be safer and equally efficacious than conventional RIG when tested in mice and hamsters. In this chapter, rabies epidemiology, reservoir control measures, post-exposure prophylaxis of human rabies, and combination therapy for rabies are discussed. Novel human monoclonal antibodies, their production, and the significance of plants as expression platforms are emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Nagarajan
- Indian Immunologicals Limited Gachibowli Post, Hyderabad, India.
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18
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Imoto JI, Konishi E. Dengue tetravalent DNA vaccine increases its immunogenicity in mice when mixed with a dengue type 2 subunit vaccine or an inactivated Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Vaccine 2007; 25:1076-84. [PMID: 17084490 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.09.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2006] [Revised: 09/15/2006] [Accepted: 09/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We previously developed a dengue tetravalent DNA vaccine that can induce neutralizing antibodies against four dengue viruses in mice. Here, we demonstrated that immunogenicity of our tetravalent vaccine is synergistically increased in mice by co-immunization with dengue type 2 virus (DENV2) subviral extracellular particles (D2EPs) or inactivated Japanese encephalitis vaccine (JEVAX). A single immunization with a mixture of 100 microg of the tetravalent vaccine and 150 ng of D2EPs or a 1/10 dose of JEVAX induced moderate levels of neutralizing antibodies in a 90% plaque reduction assay. Immunized mice were protected from "artificial" viremia created by intravenous injection with DENV2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Ichi Imoto
- Department of Health Sciences, Kobe University School of Medicine, 7-10-2 Tomogaoka, Suma-ku, Kobe 654-0142, Japan
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19
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Lu S. Combination DNA plus protein HIV vaccines. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 28:255-65. [PMID: 17021720 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-006-0028-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2006] [Accepted: 03/10/2006] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
A major challenge in developing an HIV vaccine is to identify immunogens and delivery methods that will elicit balanced humoral and cell mediate immunities against primary isolates of HIV with diverse sequence variations. Since the discovery of using protein coding nucleic acids (mainly DNA but also possible RNA) as a means of immunization in the early 1990s, there has been rapid progress in the creative use of this novel approach for the development of HIV vaccines. Although the initial impetus of using DNA immunization was for the induction of strong cell-mediated immunity, recent studies have greatly expanded our understanding on the potential role of DNA immunization to elicit improved quality of antibody responses. This function is particularly important to the development of HIV vaccines due to the inability of almost every previous attempt to develop broadly reactive neutralizing antibodies against primary HIV-1 isolates. Similar to the efforts of developing cell mediated immunity by using a DNA prime plus viral vector boost approach, the best antibody responses with DNA immunization were achieved when a protein boost component was included as part of the immunization schedule. Current experience has suggested that a combination DNA plus protein vaccination strategy is able to utilize the benefits of DNA and protein vaccines to effectively induce both cell-mediated immunity and antibody responses against invading organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Lu
- Laboratory of Nucleic Acid Vaccines, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
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20
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Saha S, Murthy S, Rangarajan PN. Identification and characterization of a virus-inducible non-coding RNA in mouse brain. J Gen Virol 2006; 87:1991-1995. [PMID: 16760401 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.81768-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection of mice with Japanese encephalitis virus or Rabies virus results in the activation of a gene encoding a novel, non-coding RNA (ncRNA) in the mouse central nervous system. This transcript, named virus-inducible ncRNA (VINC), is identical to a 3.18 kb transcript expressed in mouse neonate skin (GenBank accession no. AK028745) that, together with a number of unannotated cDNAs and expressed sequence tags, is grouped in the mouse unigene cluster Mm281895. VINC is expressed constitutively in early mouse embryo and several adult non-neuronal mouse tissues, as well as a murine renal adenocarcinoma (RAG) cell line. Northern blotting of nuclear and cytoplasmic RNAs revealed that VINC is localized primarily in the nucleus of RAG cells and is thus a novel member of the nuclear ncRNA family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sougata Saha
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - Sreenivasa Murthy
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - Pundi N Rangarajan
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
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21
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Rath A, Choudhury S, Batra D, Kapre SV, Rupprecht CE, Gupta SK. DNA vaccine for rabies: relevance of the trans-membrane domain of the glycoprotein in generating an antibody response. Virus Res 2005; 113:143-52. [PMID: 15978691 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2005.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2005] [Revised: 05/06/2005] [Accepted: 05/06/2005] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Various studies have demonstrated the potential of immunization with DNA vaccines encoding the rabies virus glycoprotein (RV-G) to elicit humoral responses. In the present study, we have designed four constructs using a VR1020 vector, wherein the RV-G ectodomain has been cloned without the signal sequence (SS) and the trans-membrane domain (TD) (rGVR), without the SS but with the TD (rGVRt), with the SS but without the TD (rGVRs) and with the SS and the TD (rGVRst), under the control of a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter, and downstream of the tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) signal sequence. In addition, RV-G has been expressed as a His6 tag fusion protein, both in Escherichia coli as well as in baculovirus expression systems. Using a prime-boost strategy, BALB/cJ mice administered with the rGVRt construct either in saline (intramuscularly) or adsorbed onto gold microcarriers (delivered intradermally by gene gun) generated the highest rabies virus neutralizing antibody (RVNA) titers. Inclusion of the SS, in addition to the TD (rGVRst), led to a significant decrease in RVNA titers, compared to the rGVRt construct. The DNA vaccine construct lacking both the SS and the TD domain and the vaccine having only the SS generated lower antibody responses, compared to the rGVRt construct. After priming with DNA vaccine, boosting with both E. coli- as well as baculovirus-expressed rRV-G led to an increase in the RVNA titers. The present results demonstrate that a DNA vaccine encoding the full-length sequence of the ectodomain plus TD of the mature native RV-G is capable of expressing an 'ideal' immunogen to produce RVNA titers.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/blood
- Antigens, Viral/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Viral/genetics
- Antigens, Viral/immunology
- Baculoviridae/metabolism
- Escherichia coli/metabolism
- Genetic Vectors
- Glycoproteins/biosynthesis
- Glycoproteins/genetics
- Glycoproteins/immunology
- Gold
- Immunization, Secondary
- Injections, Intramuscular
- Injections, Subcutaneous
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Neutralization Tests
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Rabies/blood
- Rabies/immunology
- Rabies Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Rabies Vaccines/immunology
- Sodium Chloride
- Vaccination
- Vaccines, DNA/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, DNA/immunology
- Viral Envelope Proteins/biosynthesis
- Viral Envelope Proteins/genetics
- Viral Envelope Proteins/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Archana Rath
- Gamete Antigen Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
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22
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Rajcáni J, Mosko T, Rezuchová I. Current developments in viral DNA vaccines: shall they solve the unsolved? Rev Med Virol 2005; 15:303-25. [PMID: 15906276 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
This review describes the mechanisms of immune response following DNA vaccination. The efficacy of DNA vaccines in animal models is highlighted, especially in viral diseases against which no widely accepted vaccination is currently available. Emphasis is given to possible therapeutic vaccination in chronic infections due to persisting virus genomes, such as recurrent herpes (HSV-1 and HSV-2), pre-AIDS (HIV-1) and/or chronic hepatitis B (HBV). In these, the problem of introducing foreign viral DNA may not be of crucial importance, since the immunised subject is already a viral DNA (or provirus) carrier. The DNA-based immunisation strategies may overcome several problems of classical viral vaccines. Novel DNA vaccines could induce immunity against multiple viral epitopes including the conservative type common ones, which do not undergo antigenic drifts. Within the immunised host, they mimic the effect of live attenuated viral vaccines when continuously expressing the polypeptide in question. For this reason they directly stimulate the antigen-presenting cells, especially dendritic cells. The antigen encoded by plasmid elicits T helper cell activity (Th1 and Th2 type responses), primes the cytotoxic T cell memory and may induce a satisfactory humoral response. The efficacy of DNA vaccines can be improved by adding plasmids encoding immunomodulatory cytokines and/or their co-receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rajcáni
- Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 05 Bratislava, Slovak Republic.
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23
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Zakhartchouk AN, Liu Q, Petric M, Babiuk LA. Augmentation of immune responses to SARS coronavirus by a combination of DNA and whole killed virus vaccines. Vaccine 2005; 23:4385-91. [PMID: 16005746 PMCID: PMC7115501 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2004] [Revised: 02/18/2005] [Accepted: 04/14/2005] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
We studied the immunogenicity of a DNA SARS-vaccine, a whole killed virus, or a whole killed and DNA vaccine combination. The DNA vaccine contained a plasmid encoding the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) S protein under the control of the human CMV promoter and intron A. The whole killed virus vaccine was comprised of SARS-CoV, propagated in Vero-E6 cells, with subsequent β-propilactone inactivation and formulated with aluminum hydroxide adjuvant. Mice immunized twice with the DNA vaccine and once with the whole killed virus elicited higher antibody responses than mice immunized three times with the DNA vaccine or once with the whole killed virus vaccine. Mice immunized twice with the whole killed virus vaccine elicited higher antibody responses than mice immunized three times with the DNA vaccine or once with the whole killed virus vaccine. However, a combination of the vaccines induced T-helper type 1 (Th1) immune responses while the whole killed virus vaccine induced T helper type 2 (Th2) immune response. These results demonstrate that combination of the DNA vaccine and the whole killed virus vaccine can be used to enhance the magnitude and change the bias of the immune responses to SARS-CoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander N Zakhartchouk
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization, University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Road, Saskatoon, Sask., Canada S7N 5E3.
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24
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Ashraf S, Singh P, Yadav DK, Shahnawaz M, Mishra S, Sawant SV, Tuli R. High level expression of surface glycoprotein of rabies virus in tobacco leaves and its immunoprotective activity in mice. J Biotechnol 2005; 119:1-14. [PMID: 16038998 PMCID: PMC7114349 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2005.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2005] [Revised: 05/23/2005] [Accepted: 06/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A synthetic gene coding for the surface glycoprotein (G protein) of rabies virus was strategically designed to achieve high-level expression in transgenic plants. The native signal peptide was replaced by that of the pathogenesis related protein, PR-S of Nicotiana tabacum. An endoplasmic reticulum retention signal was included at C-terminus of the G protein. Tobacco plants were genetically engineered by nuclear transformation. Selected transgenic lines expressed the chimeric G protein at 0.38% of the total soluble leaf protein. Mice immunized intraperitoneally with the G protein purified from tobacco leaf microsomal fraction elicited high level of immune response as compared to the inactivated commercial viral vaccine. The plant-derived G protein induced complete protective immunity in mice against intracerebral lethal challenge with live rabies virus. The results establish that plants can provide a safe and effective production system for the expression of immunoprotective rabies virus surface protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shadma Ashraf
- National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001, India
| | - P.K. Singh
- National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001, India
| | - Dinesh K. Yadav
- National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001, India
| | - Md. Shahnawaz
- National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001, India
| | - Satish Mishra
- National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001, India
| | - Samir V. Sawant
- National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001, India
| | - Rakesh Tuli
- National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001, India
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25
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Imoto JI, Konishi E. Needle-free jet injection of a mixture of Japanese encephalitis DNA and protein vaccines: a strategy to effectively enhance immunogenicity of the DNA vaccine in a murine model. Viral Immunol 2005; 18:205-12. [PMID: 15802965 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2005.18.205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Combined immunization with gene-based and protein-based vaccines can increase vaccine effectiveness. We previously demonstrated, using a murine model for Japanese encephalitis (JE), that simultaneous immunization with a DNA vaccine (pcJEME) by the intramuscular route and a protein vaccine consisting of subviral extracellular particles (EPs) by the subcutaneous route provided a synergistic increase in immunogenicities of these vaccines. Here, we investigated a novel immunization protocol consisting of a single inoculation with a mixture of DNA and protein vaccines using a needle-free jet injector. Immunization of ddY mice with 1 microg of pcJEME mixed with 1 microg of EPs or a 1/100 dose of commercial inactivated JE vaccine (JEVAX) induced neutralizing antibody titers of 1:40 to 1:80 (90% plaque reduction) 6 weeks after immunization, whereas immunization with DNA or protein alone only induced low titers (< or =1:10). Co-immunization with pcDNA3, a CpGcontaining vector of the vaccine plasmid, increased immunogenicity of JEVAX to some extent. IgG1/IgG2a isotype profiles supported increased production of EPs in pcJEME-inoculated mice by needle-free injection and an adjuvant effect of the vector on immunogenicity of JEVAX.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/blood
- CpG Islands/immunology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Drug Combinations
- Encephalitis Virus, Japanese/genetics
- Encephalitis, Japanese/blood
- Encephalitis, Japanese/immunology
- Encephalitis, Japanese/prevention & control
- Injections, Jet
- Mice
- Neutralization Tests
- Vaccination
- Vaccines, DNA/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Synthetic/administration & dosage
- Viral Vaccines/administration & dosage
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Ichi Imoto
- Department of Health Sciences, Kobe University School of Medicine, 7-10-2 Tomogaoka, Suma-ku, Kobe 654-0142, Japan
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26
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Saha S, Rangarajan PN. Common host genes are activated in mouse brain by Japanese encephalitis and rabies viruses. J Gen Virol 2003; 84:1729-1735. [PMID: 12810866 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.18826-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study identified nine genes whose expression is upregulated in the central nervous system (CNS) of mice during Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection. These include: cathepsin S, oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS), GARG49/IRG2, lymphocyte antigen-6A (Ly-6A), macrophage activation gene-2 (Mpa2), early growth response gene1 (Egr1), pyrimidine 5'-nucleotidase (P5N), apolipoprotein D (ApoD) and STAT1. Activation of all nine genes during JEV infection was confirmed by Northern blot analysis. JEV replication was inhibited in the majority of mice immunized with Biken JEV vaccine, and these mice also exhibited reduced expression of JEV-inducible CNS genes. Thus, there is a good correlation between virus load and upregulation of host CNS genes. It was also demonstrated that all the CNS genes activated by JEV are also upregulated during rabies virus infection. In addition, GARG49, STAT1, cathepsin S and ApoD are known to be upregulated in the CNS by Sindbis virus, an alphavirus, and this supports the proposal that common host cell pathways are activated in the CNS by different neurotropic viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Saha
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - P N Rangarajan
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
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