Α-tubulin K40 acetylation is required for contact inhibition of proliferation and cell-substrate adhesion

Comparative Proteomic Analysis Reveals Altered Ciliary Proteins in Sickle Cell Disease

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is an inherited hemoglobinopathy characterized by sickle-shaped red blood cells (RBCs). Primary cilia are mechanosensory organelles and are projected in the lumen of blood vessels to detect blood flow. We previously reported that interaction between microvasculature endothelial cells and sickled RBCs resulted in altered blood flow that can elevate reactive oxygen species, leading to increased deciliation in SCD patients. However, the impact of deciliation mediated by sickled RBCs in the context of the ciliary protein profiles remains unclear. Here, we investigated cell-cilia stability under different physiological shear-stress magnitudes and examined cilia protein profiles in SCD, utilizing mouse models and human participants. Our results demonstrate that subjecting endothelial cilia to sickled RBCs at 5.0 dyn/cm2 led to significant deciliation events. The proteomic and bioinformatic analyses showed different ciliary protein profiles, distinct signaling pathways, and unique post-translational modification processes in the SCD mouse model. Consistent with the SCD mouse model results, our translational studies validated the enrichment of specific proteins, including Transferrin Receptor-1 (TfR1), Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate-Dehydrogenase (GAPDH), and ADP Ribosylation Factor Like GTPase-13B (ARL13B) in SCD patients. These findings underscore the clinical relevance of cilia in SCD and suggest that ciliary proteins are potential biomarkers for assessing vascular damage.

CRISPR/Cas9-directed epigenetic editing in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a leading cause of cancer-related illness and death worldwide, arising from a complex interplay of genetic predisposition, environmental influences, and epigenetic dysregulation. Among these factors, epigenetic modifications-reversible and heritable changes in gene expression-serve as crucial regulators of CRC progression. Understanding these modifications is essential for identifying potential biomarkers for early diagnosis and developing targeted therapeutic strategies. Epigenetic drugs (epidrugs) such as DNA methyltransferase inhibitors (e.g., decitabine) and bromodomain inhibitors (e.g., JQ1) have shown promise in modulating aberrant epigenetic changes in CRC. However, challenges such as drug specificity, delivery, and safety concerns limit their clinical application. Advances in CRISPR-Cas9-based epigenetic editing offer a more precise approach to modifying specific epigenetic markers, presenting a potential breakthrough in CRC treatment. Despite its promise, CRISPR-based epigenome editing may result in unintended genetic modifications, necessitating stringent regulations and safety assessments. Beyond pharmacological interventions, lifestyle factors-including diet and gut microbiome composition-play a significant role in shaping the epigenetic landscape of CRC. Nutritional and microbiome-based interventions have shown potential in preventing CRC development by maintaining intestinal homeostasis and reducing tumor-promoting epigenetic changes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of epigenetic alterations in CRC, exploring their implications for diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. By integrating multi-omics approaches, single-cell technologies, and model organism studies, future research can enhance the specificity and efficacy of epigenetic-based therapies. Shortly, a combination of advanced gene-editing technologies, targeted epidrugs, and lifestyle interventions may pave the way for more effective and personalized CRC treatment strategies.

Optogenetically Induced Microtubule Acetylation Unveils the Molecular Dynamics of Actin-Microtubule Crosstalk in Directed Cell Migration

Microtubule acetylation is implicated in regulating cell motility, yet its physiological role in directional migration and the underlying molecular mechanisms have remained unclear. This knowledge gap has persisted primarily due to a lack of tools capable of rapidly manipulating microtubule acetylation in actively migrating cells. To overcome this limitation and elucidate the causal relationship between microtubule acetylation and cell migration, we developed a novel optogenetic actuator, optoTAT, which enables precise and rapid induction of microtubule acetylation within minutes in live cells. Using optoTAT, we observed striking and rapid responses at both molecular and cellular level. First, microtubule acetylation triggers release of the RhoA activator GEF-H1 from sequestration on microtubules. This release subsequently enhances actomyosin contractility and drives focal adhesion maturation. These subcellular processes collectively promote sustained directional cell migration. Our findings position GEF-H1 as a critical molecular responder to microtubule acetylation in the regulation of directed cell migration, revealing a dynamic crosstalk between the actin and microtubule cytoskeletal networks.

Sirt2 Regulates Liver Metabolism in a Sex-Specific Manner

Sirtuin-2 (Sirt2), an NAD+-dependent lysine deacylase enzyme, has previously been implicated as a regulator of glucose metabolism, but the specific mechanisms remain poorly defined. Here, we observed that Sirt2-/- males, but not females, have decreased body fat, moderate hypoglycemia upon fasting, and perturbed glucose handling during exercise compared to wild type controls. Conversion of injected lactate, pyruvate, and glycerol boluses into glucose via gluconeogenesis was impaired, but only in males. Primary Sirt2-/- male hepatocytes exhibited reduced glycolysis and reduced mitochondrial respiration. RNAseq and proteomics were used to interrogate the mechanisms behind this liver phenotype. Loss of Sirt2 did not lead to transcriptional dysregulation, as very few genes were altered in the transcriptome. In keeping with this, there were also negligible changes to protein abundance. Site-specific quantification of the hepatic acetylome, however, showed that 13% of all detected acetylated peptides were significantly increased in Sirt2-/- male liver versus wild type, representing putative Sirt2 target sites. Strikingly, none of these putative target sites were hyperacetylated in Sirt2-/- female liver. The target sites in the male liver were distributed across mitochondria (44%), cytoplasm (32%), nucleus (8%), and other compartments (16%). Despite the high number of putative mitochondrial Sirt2 targets, Sirt2 antigen was not detected in purified wild type liver mitochondria, suggesting that Sirt2's regulation of mitochondrial function occurs from outside the organelle. We conclude that Sirt2 regulates hepatic protein acetylation and metabolism in a sex-specific manner.

Extracellular signals induce dynamic ER remodeling through αTAT1-dependent microtubule acetylation

Dynamic changes in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) morphology are central to maintaining cellular homeostasis. Microtubules (MT) facilitate the continuous remodeling of the ER network into sheets and tubules by coordinating with many ER-shaping protein complexes, although how this process is controlled by extracellular signals remains unknown. Here we report that TAK1, a kinase responsive to various growth factors and cytokines including TGF-β and TNF-α, triggers ER tubulation by activating αTAT1, an MT-acetylating enzyme that enhances ER-sliding. We show that this TAK1/αTAT1-dependent ER remodeling promotes cell survival by actively downregulating BOK, an ER membrane-associated proapoptotic effector. While BOK is normally protected from degradation when complexed with IP3R, it is rapidly degraded upon their dissociation during the ER sheets-to-tubules conversion. These findings demonstrate a distinct mechanism of ligand-induced ER remodeling and suggest that the TAK1/αTAT1 pathway may be a key target in ER stress and dysfunction.

The α-tubulin acetyltransferase ATAT1: structure, cellular functions, and its emerging role in human diseases

The acetylation of α-tubulin on lysine 40 is a well-studied post-translational modification which has been associated with the presence of long-lived stable microtubules that are more resistant to mechanical breakdown. The discovery of α-tubulin acetyltransferase 1 (ATAT1), the enzyme responsible for lysine 40 acetylation on α-tubulin in a wide range of species, including protists, nematodes, and mammals, dates to about a decade ago. However, the role of ATAT1 in different cellular activities and molecular pathways has been only recently disclosed. This review comprehensively summarizes the most recent knowledge on ATAT1 structure and substrate binding and analyses the involvement of ATAT1 in a variety of cellular processes such as cell motility, mitosis, cytoskeletal organization, and intracellular trafficking. Finally, the review highlights ATAT1 emerging roles in human diseases and discusses ATAT1 potential enzymatic and non-enzymatic roles and the current efforts in developing ATAT1 inhibitors.

Linking acetylated α-Tubulin redistribution to α-Synuclein pathology in brain of Parkinson's disease patients

Highly specialized microtubules in neurons are crucial to both health and disease of the nervous system, and their properties are strictly regulated by different post-translational modifications, including α-Tubulin acetylation. An imbalance in the levels of acetylated α-Tubulin has been reported in experimental models of Parkinson's disease (PD) whereas pharmacological or genetic modulation that leads to increased acetylated α-Tubulin successfully rescues axonal transport defects and inhibits α-Synuclein aggregation. However, the role of acetylation of α-Tubulin in the human nervous system is largely unknown as most studies are based on in vitro evidence. To capture the complexity of the pathological processes in vivo, we analysed post-mortem human brain of PD patients and control subjects. In the brain of PD patients at Braak stage 6, we found a redistribution of acetylated α-Tubulin, which accumulates in the neuronal cell bodies in subcortical structures but not in the cerebral cortex, and decreases in the axonal compartment, both in putamen bundles of fibres and in sudomotor fibres. High-resolution and 3D reconstruction analysis linked acetylated α-Tubulin redistribution to α-Synuclein oligomerization and to phosphorylated Ser 129 α-Synuclein, leading us to propose a model for Lewy body (LB) formation. Finally, in post-mortem human brain, we observed threadlike structures, resembling tunnelling nanotubes that contain α-Synuclein oligomers and are associated with acetylated α-Tubulin enriched neurons. In conclusion, we support the role of acetylated α-Tubulin in PD pathogenesis and LB formation.

Trabid patient mutations impede the axonal trafficking of adenomatous polyposis coli to disrupt neurite growth

ZRANB1 (human Trabid) missense mutations have been identified in children diagnosed with a range of congenital disorders including reduced brain size, but how Trabid regulates neurodevelopment is not understood. We have characterized these patient mutations in cells and mice to identify a key role for Trabid in the regulation of neurite growth. One of the patient mutations flanked the catalytic cysteine of Trabid and its deubiquitylating (DUB) activity was abrogated. The second variant retained DUB activity, but failed to bind STRIPAK, a large multiprotein assembly implicated in cytoskeleton organization and neural development. Zranb1 knock-in mice harboring either of these patient mutations exhibited reduced neuronal and glial cell densities in the brain and a motor deficit consistent with fewer dopaminergic neurons and projections. Mechanistically, both DUB-impaired and STRIPAK-binding-deficient Trabid variants impeded the trafficking of adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) to microtubule plus-ends. Consequently, the formation of neuronal growth cones and the trajectory of neurite outgrowth from mutant midbrain progenitors were severely compromised. We propose that STRIPAK recruits Trabid to deubiquitylate APC, and that in cells with mutant Trabid, APC becomes hyperubiquitylated and mislocalized causing impaired organization of the cytoskeleton that underlie the neuronal and developmental phenotypes.

YAP co-localizes with the mitotic spindle and midbody to safeguard mitotic division in lung-cancer cells

YES-associated protein (YAP) is a part of the Hippo pathway, with pivotal roles in several developmental processes and dual functionality as both a tumor suppressor and an oncogene. In the present study, we identified YAP activity as a microtubular scaffold protein that maintains the stability of the mitotic spindle and midbody by physically interacting with α-tubulin during mitotic progression. The interaction of YAP and α-tubulin was evident in co-immunoprecipitation assays, as well as observing their co-localization in the microtubular structure of the mitotic spindle and midbody in immunostainings. With YAP depletion, levels of ECT2, MKLP-1, and Aurora B are reduced, which is consistent with YAP functioning in midbody formation during cytokinesis. The concomitant decrease in α-tubulin and increase in acetyl-α-tubulin during YAP depletion occurred at the post-transcriptional level. This suggests that YAP maintains the stability of the mitotic spindle and midbody, which ensures appropriate chromosome segregation during mitotic division. The increase in acetyl-α-tubulin during YAP depletion may provide a lesion-halting mechanism in maintaining the microtubule structure. The depletion of YAP also results in multinuclearity and aneuploidy, which supports its role in stabilizing the mitotic spindle and midbody.

Structural remodeling of the endoplasmic reticulum in response to extracellular signals requires αTAT1-induced microtubule acetylation

Dynamic changes in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) morphology are central to maintaining cellular homeostasis. Microtubules (MT) facilitate the continuous remodeling of the ER network into sheets and tubules by coordinating with many ER-shaping protein complexes, although how this process is controlled by extracellular signals remains unknown. Here we report that TAK1, a kinase responsive to numerous growth factors and cytokines including TGF-β and TNF-α, triggers ER tubulation by activating αTAT1, an MT-acetylating enzyme that enhances ER-sliding. We show that this TAK1/αTAT-dependent ER remodeling promotes cell survival by actively downregulating BOK, an ER membrane-associated proapoptotic effector. While BOK is normally protected from degradation when complexed with IP3R, it is rapidly degraded upon their dissociation during the ER sheets-to-tubules conversion. These findings demonstrate a distinct mechanism of ligand-induced ER remodeling and suggest that the TAK1/αTAT pathway may be a key target in ER stress and dysfunction.

Tubulin Post-Translational Modifications: The Elusive Roles of Acetylation

Microtubules (MTs), dynamic polymers of α/β-tubulin heterodimers found in all eukaryotes, are involved in cytoplasm spatial organization, intracellular transport, cell polarity, migration and division, and in cilia biology. MTs functional diversity depends on the differential expression of distinct tubulin isotypes and is amplified by a vast number of different post-translational modifications (PTMs). The addition/removal of PTMs to α- or β-tubulins is catalyzed by specific enzymes and allows combinatory patterns largely enriching the distinct biochemical and biophysical properties of MTs, creating a code read by distinct proteins, including microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), which allow cellular responses. This review is focused on tubulin-acetylation, whose cellular roles continue to generate debate. We travel through the experimental data pointing to α-tubulin Lys40 acetylation role as being a MT stabilizer and a typical PTM of long lived MTs, to the most recent data, suggesting that Lys40 acetylation enhances MT flexibility and alters the mechanical properties of MTs, preventing MTs from mechanical aging characterized by structural damage. Additionally, we discuss the regulation of tubulin acetyltransferases/desacetylases and their impacts on cell physiology. Finally, we analyze how changes in MT acetylation levels have been found to be a general response to stress and how they are associated with several human pathologies.

Microtubules as a potential platform for energy transfer in biological systems: a target for implementing individualized, dynamic variability patterns to improve organ function

Variability characterizes the complexity of biological systems and is essential for their function. Microtubules (MTs) play a role in structural integrity, cell motility, material transport, and force generation during mitosis, and dynamic instability exemplifies the variability in the proper function of MTs. MTs are a platform for energy transfer in cells. The dynamic instability of MTs manifests itself by the coexistence of growth and shortening, or polymerization and depolymerization. It results from a balance between attractive and repulsive forces between tubulin dimers. The paper reviews the current data on MTs and their potential roles as energy-transfer cellular structures and presents how variability can improve the function of biological systems in an individualized manner. The paper presents the option for targeting MTs to trigger dynamic improvement in cell plasticity, regulate energy transfer, and possibly control quantum effects in biological systems. The described system quantifies MT-dependent variability patterns combined with additional personalized signatures to improve organ function in a subject-tailored manner. The platform can regulate the use of MT-targeting drugs to improve the response to chronic therapies. Ongoing trials test the effects of this platform on various disorders.

Non-catalytic allostery in α-TAT1 by a phospho-switch drives dynamic microtubule acetylation

Spatiotemporally dynamic microtubule acetylation underlies diverse physiological and pathological events. Despite its ubiquity, the molecular mechanisms that regulate the sole microtubule acetylating agent, α-tubulin-N-acetyltransferase-1 (α-TAT1), remain obscure. Here, we report that dynamic intracellular localization of α-TAT1 along with its catalytic activity determines efficiency of microtubule acetylation. Specifically, we newly identified a conserved signal motif in the intrinsically disordered C-terminus of α-TAT1, consisting of three competing regulatory elements-nuclear export, nuclear import, and cytosolic retention. Their balance is tuned via phosphorylation by CDK1, PKA, and CK2, and dephosphorylation by PP2A. While the unphosphorylated form binds to importins and resides both in cytosol and nucleus, the phosphorylated form binds to specific 14-3-3 adapters and accumulates in the cytosol for maximal substrate access. Unlike other molecules with a similar phospho-regulated signal motif, α-TAT1 uniquely uses the nucleus as a hideout. This allosteric spatial regulation of α-TAT1 function may help uncover a spatiotemporal code of microtubule acetylation in normal and aberrant cell behavior.

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) exposure affects early embryonic development and offspring oocyte quality via inducing mitochondrial dysfunction

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is a synthetic perfluorinated compound that is extensively used as an integral surfactant in commercial production. Owing to its hydrophilicity and persistence, PFOA can accumulate in living organisms and induce severe disease in animals and humans. It has been reported that PFOA exposure can affect ovarian function and induce reproductive toxicity; however, the effects and potential mechanism of PFOA exposure during gestation on early embryonic development and offspring remain unclear. This study found that PFOA exposure in vitro disrupted spindle assembly and chromosome alignment during the first cleavage of early mouse embryos, which impacted early embryonic cleavage and blastocyst formation. Moreover, PFOA exposure caused mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress by inducing aberrant Ca²⁺ levels, liquid drops(LDs), and mitochondrial membrane potential in the 2-cell stage. Furthermore, we found that PFOA exposure resulted in DNA damage, autophagy, and apoptosis in 2-cell stage by inhibiting SOD2 function. Gestational exposure to PFOA significantly increased ovarian apoptosis and disrupted follicle development in F1 offspring. In addition, oocyte maturation competence was decreased in F1 offspring. Finally, single-cell transcriptome analysis revealed that PFOA-induced oocyte deterioration was caused by mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis in the F1 offspring. In summary, our results indicated that gestational exposure to PFOA had potential toxic effects on ovarian function and led to a higher incidence of meiotic defects in F1 female offspring.

Simazine perturbs the maturational competency of mouse oocyte through inducing oxidative stress and DNA damage

Simazine is a triazine pesticides that typically detected in ground water and soil, and can reportedly affect reproductive health in humans and animals. However, the effect of simazine on female germ cell development remains unclear. In the present study, we observed that simazine exposure decreased oocyte maturation competence and embryonic developmental capacity. Importantly, simazine exposure disrupted microtubule stability and actin polymerization, resulting in failure of spindle assembly and migration. In addition, simazine exposure impaired mitochondrial function and cytosolic Ca2+ homeostasis in both oocyte and 2-cell embryos, thus increasing the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, simazine exposure induced DNA damage and early apoptosis during oocyte maturation. Collectively, our results demonstrate that simazine exposure-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis are major causes of poor oocytes quality.

Protein lysine acetylation and its role in different human pathologies: a proteomic approach

INTRODUCTION

Lysine acetylation is a reversible post-translational modification (PTM) regulated through the action of specific types of enzymes: lysine acetyltransferases (KATs) and lysine deacetylases (HDACs), in addition to bromodomains, which are a group of conserved domains which identify acetylated lysine residues, several of the players in the process of protein acetylation, including enzymes and bromodomain-containing proteins, have been related to the progression of several diseases. The combination of high-resolution mass spectrometry-based proteomics, and immunoprecipitation to enrich acetylated peptides has contributed in recent years to expand the knowledge about this PTM described initially in histones and nuclear proteins, and is currently reported in more than 5000 human proteins, that are regulated by this PTM.

AREAS COVERED

This review presents an overview of the main participant elements, the scenario in the development of protein lysine acetylation, and its role in different human pathologies.

EXPERT OPINION

Acetylation targets are practically all cellular processes in eukaryotes and prokaryotes organisms. Consequently, this modification has been linked to many pathologies like cancer, viral infection, obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular, and nervous system-associated diseases, to mention a few relevant examples. Accordingly, some intermediate mediators in the acetylation process have been projected as therapeutic targets.

Mitotic Acetylation of Microtubules Promotes Centrosomal PLK1 Recruitment and Is Required to Maintain Bipolar Spindle Homeostasis

Tubulin post-translational modifications regulate microtubule properties and functions. Mitotic spindle microtubules are highly modified. While tubulin detyrosination promotes proper mitotic progression by recruiting specific microtubule-associated proteins motors, tubulin acetylation that occurs on specific microtubule subsets during mitosis is less well understood. Here, we show that siRNA-mediated depletion of the tubulin acetyltransferase ATAT1 in epithelial cells leads to a prolonged prometaphase arrest and the formation of monopolar spindles. This results from collapse of bipolar spindles, as previously described in cells deficient for the mitotic kinase PLK1. ATAT1-depleted mitotic cells have defective recruitment of PLK1 to centrosomes, defects in centrosome maturation and thus microtubule nucleation, as well as labile microtubule-kinetochore attachments. Spindle bipolarity could be restored, in the absence of ATAT1, by stabilizing microtubule plus-ends or by increasing PLK1 activity at centrosomes, demonstrating that the phenotype is not just a consequence of lack of K-fiber stability. We propose that microtubule acetylation of K-fibers is required for a recently evidenced cross talk between centrosomes and kinetochores.

Epigenetically Mediated Ciliogenesis and Cell Cycle Regulation, and Their Translational Potential

Primary cilia biogenesis has been closely associated with cell cycle progression. Cilia assemble when cells exit the cell cycle and enter a quiescent stage at the post-mitosis phase, and disassemble before cells re-enter a new cell cycle. Studies have focused on how the cell cycle coordinates with the cilia assembly/disassembly process, and whether and how cilia biogenesis affects the cell cycle. Appropriate regulation of the functions and/or expressions of ciliary and cell-cycle-associated proteins is pivotal to maintaining bodily homeostasis. Epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation and histone/chromatin modifications, are involved in the regulation of cell cycle progression and cilia biogenesis. In this review, first, we discuss how epigenetic mechanisms regulate cell cycle progression and cilia biogenesis through the regulation of DNA methylation and chromatin structures, to either promote or repress the transcription of genes associated with those processes and the modification of cytoskeleton network, including microtubule and actin. Next, we discuss the crosstalk between the cell cycle and ciliogenesis, and the involvement of epigenetic regulators in this process. In addition, we discuss cilia-dependent signaling pathways in cell cycle regulation. Understanding the mechanisms of how epigenetic regulators contribute to abnormal cell cycle regulation and ciliogenesis defects would lead to developing therapeutic strategies for the treatment of a wide variety of diseases, such as cancers, polycystic kidney disease (PKD), and other ciliopathy-associated disorders.

Sperm-borne miR-202 targets SEPT7 and regulates first cleavage of bovine embryos via cytoskeletal remodeling

In mammals, sperm-borne regulators can be transferred to oocytes during fertilization and have different effects on the formation of pronuclei, the first cleavage of zygotes, the development of preimplantation embryos and even the metabolism of individuals after birth. The regulatory role of sperm microRNAs (miRNAs) in the development of bovine preimplantation embryos has not been reported in detail. By constructing and screening miRNA expression libraries, we found that miR-202 was highly enriched in bovine sperm. As a target gene of miR-202, co-injection of SEPT7 siRNA can partially reverse the accelerated first cleavage of bovine embryos caused by miR-202 inhibitor. In addition, both a miR-202 mimic and SEPT7 siRNA delayed the first cleavage of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) embryos, suggesting that miR-202-SEPT7 mediates the delay of first cleavage of bovine embryos. By further exploring the relationship between miR-202/SEPT7, HDAC6 and acetylated α-tubulin during embryonic development, we investigated how sperm-borne miR-202 regulates the first cleavage process of bovine embryos by SEPT7 and demonstrate the potential of sperm-borne miRNAs to improve the efficiency of SCNT.

Centrosome and ciliary abnormalities in fetal akinesia deformation sequence human fibroblasts

Ciliopathies are clinical disorders of the primary cilium with widely recognised phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity. Here, we found impaired ciliogenesis in fibroblasts derived from individuals with fetal akinesia deformation sequence (FADS), a broad spectrum of neuromuscular disorders arising from compromised foetal movement. We show that cells derived from FADS individuals have shorter and less primary cilia (PC), in association with alterations in post-translational modifications in α-tubulin. Similarly, siRNA-mediated depletion of two known FADS proteins, the scaffold protein rapsyn and the nucleoporin NUP88, resulted in defective PC formation. Consistent with a role in ciliogenesis, rapsyn and NUP88 localised to centrosomes and PC. Furthermore, proximity-ligation assays confirm the respective vicinity of rapsyn and NUP88 to γ-tubulin. Proximity-ligation assays moreover show that rapsyn and NUP88 are adjacent to each other and that the rapsyn-NUP88 interface is perturbed in the examined FADS cells. We suggest that the perturbed rapsyn-NUP88 interface leads to defects in PC formation and that defective ciliogenesis contributes to the pleiotropic defects seen in FADS.

The Tubulin Code in Mitosis and Cancer

The “tubulin code” combines different α/β-tubulin isotypes with several post-translational modifications (PTMs) to generate microtubule diversity in cells. During cell division, specific microtubule populations in the mitotic spindle are differentially modified, but only recently, the functional significance of the tubulin code, with particular emphasis on the role specified by tubulin PTMs, started to be elucidated. This is the case of α-tubulin detyrosination, which was shown to guide chromosomes during congression to the metaphase plate and allow the discrimination of mitotic errors, whose correction is required to prevent chromosomal instability—a hallmark of human cancers implicated in tumor evolution and metastasis. Although alterations in the expression of certain tubulin isotypes and associated PTMs have been reported in human cancers, it remains unclear whether and how the tubulin code has any functional implications for cancer cell properties. Here, we review the role of the tubulin code in chromosome segregation during mitosis and how it impacts cancer cell properties. In this context, we discuss the existence of an emerging “cancer tubulin code” and the respective implications for diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic purposes.

Histone modifications in epigenetic regulation of cancer: Perspectives and achieved progress

Epigenetic changes associated with histone modifications play an important role in the emergence and maintenance of the phenotype of various cancer types. In contrast to direct mutations in the main DNA sequence, these changes are reversible, which makes the development of inhibitors of enzymes of post-translational histone modifications one of the most promising strategies for the creation of anticancer drugs. To date, a wide variety of histone modifications have been found that play an important role in the regulation of chromatin state, gene expression, and other nuclear events. This review examines the main features of the most common and studied epigenetic histone modifications with a proven role in the pathogenesis of a wide range of malignant neoplasms: acetylation / deacetylation and methylation / demethylation of histone proteins, as well as the role of enzymes of the HAT / HDAC and HMT / HDMT families in the development of oncological pathologies. The data on the relationship between histone modifications and certain types of cancer are presented and discussed. Special attention is devoted to the consideration of various strategies for the development of epigenetic inhibitors. The main directions of the development of inhibitors of histone modifications are analyzed and effective strategies for their creation are identified and discussed. The most promising strategy is the use of multitarget drugs, which will affect multiple molecular targets of cancer. A critical analysis of the current status of approved epigenetic anticancer drugs has also been performed.

Lysine Acetyltransferase Inhibitors From Natural Sources

Acetylation of histone and non-histone protein lysine residues has been widely described as a critical modulator of several cell functions in humans. Lysine acetyltransferases (KATs) catalyse the transfer of acetyl groups on substrate proteins and are involved in multiple physiological processes such as cell signalling, metabolism, gene regulation, and apoptosis. Given the pivotal role of acetylation, the alteration of KATs enzymatic activity has been clearly linked to various cellular dysfunctions leading to several inflammatory, metabolic, neurological, and cancer diseases. Hence, the use KAT inhibitors (KATi) has been suggested as a potentially successful strategy to reverse or prevent these conditions. To date, only a few KATi have proven to be potential drug candidates, and there is still a keen interest in designing molecules showing drug-like properties from both pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics point of view. Increasing literature evidence has been highlighting natural compounds as a wide source of molecular scaffolds for developing therapeutic agents, including KATi. In fact, several polyphenols, catechins, quinones, and peptides obtained from natural sources (including nuts, oils, root extracts, and fungi metabolites) have been described as promising KATi. Here we summarize the features of this class of compounds, describing their modes of action, structure-activity relationships and (semi)-synthetic derivatives, with the aim of assisting the development of novel more potent, isoform selective and drug-like KATi.

Role of tubulin acetylation in cellular functions and diseases

Acetylation is a well-studied post-translational modification (PTM) of tubulin. Acetylated tubulin is present in the centrioles, primary cilia, and flagella, which contain long-lived stable microtubules. Tubulin acetylation plays an important role in cellular activities including cell polarity, cell migration, vesicle transport, and cell development. Cryo-electron microscopy reconstructions have revealed conformational changes in acetylated tubulin, revealing a reduction in intermonomer interactions among tubulins and an increase in microtubule elasticity. The kinetics of conformational changes in acetylated tubulin may elucidate microtubule functions in these cellular activities. Abnormal tubulin acetylation has been implicated in neurodegenerative disorders, ciliopathies, and cancers. Thus, it is important to elucidate the mechanisms underlying tubulin acetylation and its effects on cellular activity to understand these diseases and to design potential therapeutic strategies. This review discusses the cellular distribution and dynamics of acetylated tubulin and its role in regulating cellular activities.

Inhibition of lysine acetyltransferases impairs tumor angiogenesis acting on both endothelial and tumor cells

Background

Understanding the signalling pathways involved in angiogenesis, and developing anti-angiogenic drugs are one of the major focuses on cancer research. Herein, we assessed the effect of CPTH6, a lysine acetyltransferase inhibitor and anti-tumoral compound, on angiogenesis-related properties of both endothelial and cancer cells.

Methods

The in vitro effect of CPTH6 on protein acetylation and anti-angiogenic properties on endothelial and lung cancer cells was evaluated via wound healing, trans-well invasion and migration, tube formation, immunoblotting and immunofluorescence. Matrigel plug assay, zebrafish embryo and mouse xenograft models were used to evaluate in vivo anti-angiogenic effect of CPTH6.

Results

CPTH6 impaired in vitro endothelial angiogenesis-related functions, and decreased the in vivo vascularization both in mice xenografts and zebrafish embryos. Mechanistically, CPTH6 reduced α-tubulin acetylation and induced accumulation of acetylated microtubules in the perinuclear region of endothelial cells. Interestingly, CPTH6 also affected the angiogenesis-related properties of lung cancer cells, and conditioned media derived from CPTH6-treated lung cancer cells impaired endothelial cells morphogenesis. CPTH6 also modulated the VEGF/VEGFR2 pathway, and reshaped cytoskeletal organization of lung cancer cells. Finally, anti-migratory effect of CPTH6, dependent on α-tubulin acetylation, was also demonstrated by genetic approaches in lung cancer cells.

Conclusion

Overall, this study indicates that α-tubulin acetylation could play a role in the anti-angiogenic effect of CPTH6 and, more in general, it adds information to the role of histone acetyltransferases in tumor angiogenesis, and proposes the inhibition of these enzymes as an antiangiogenic therapy of cancer.

The Major Capsid Protein, VP1, of the Mouse Polyomavirus Stimulates the Activity of Tubulin Acetyltransferase 1 by Microtubule Stabilization

Viruses have evolved mechanisms to manipulate microtubules (MTs) for the efficient realization of their replication programs. Studying the mechanisms of replication of mouse polyomavirus (MPyV), we observed previously that in the late phase of infection, a considerable amount of the main structural protein, VP1, remains in the cytoplasm associated with hyperacetylated microtubules. VP1–microtubule interactions resulted in blocking the cell cycle in the G2/M phase. We are interested in the mechanism leading to microtubule hyperacetylation and stabilization and the roles of tubulin acetyltransferase 1 (αTAT1) and deacetylase histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) and VP1 in this mechanism. Therefore, HDAC6 inhibition assays, αTAT1 knock out cell infections, in situ cell fractionation, and confocal and TIRF microscopy were used. The experiments revealed that the direct interaction of isolated microtubules and VP1 results in MT stabilization and a restriction of their dynamics. VP1 leads to an increase in polymerized tubulin in cells, thus favoring αTAT1 activity. The acetylation status of MTs did not affect MPyV infection. However, the stabilization of MTs by VP1 in the late phase of infection may compensate for the previously described cytoskeleton destabilization by MPyV early gene products and is important for the observed inhibition of the G2→M transition of infected cells to prolong the S phase.

The spectraplakin Dystonin antagonizes YAP activity and suppresses tumourigenesis

Aberrant expression of the Spectraplakin Dystonin (DST) has been observed in various cancers, including those of the breast. However, little is known about its role in carcinogenesis. In this report, we demonstrate that Dystonin is a candidate tumour suppressor in breast cancer and provide an underlying molecular mechanism. We show that in MCF10A cells, Dystonin is necessary to restrain cell growth, anchorage-independent growth, self-renewal properties and resistance to doxorubicin. Strikingly, while Dystonin maintains focal adhesion integrity, promotes cell spreading and cell-substratum adhesion, it prevents Zyxin accumulation, stabilizes LATS and restricts YAP activation. Moreover, treating DST-depleted MCF10A cells with the YAP inhibitor Verteporfin prevents their growth. In vivo, the Drosophila Dystonin Short stop also restricts tissue growth by limiting Yorkie activity. As the two Dystonin isoforms BPAG1eA and BPAG1e are necessary to inhibit the acquisition of transformed features and are both downregulated in breast tumour samples and in MCF10A cells with conditional induction of the Src proto-oncogene, they could function as the predominant Dystonin tumour suppressor variants in breast epithelial cells. Thus, their loss could deem as promising prognostic biomarkers for breast cancer.

α-Tubulin Acetylation Restricts Axon Overbranching by Dampening Microtubule Plus-End Dynamics in Neurons

Axon growth is tightly controlled to establish functional neural circuits during brain development. Despite the belief that cytoskeletal dynamics is critical for cell morphology, how microtubule acetylation regulates axon development in the mammalian central nervous system remains unclear. Here, we report that loss of α-tubulin acetylation by ablation of MEC-17 in mice predisposes neurons to axon overbranching and overgrowth. Introduction of MEC-17F183A lacking α-tubulin acetyltransferase activity into MEC-17-deficient neurons failed to rescue axon defects. Moreover, loss of α-tubulin acetylation led to increases in microtubule debundling, microtubule invasion into filopodia and growth cones, and microtubule plus-end dynamics along the axon. Taxol application dampened microtubule hyperdynamics and suppressed axon overbranching and overgrowth in MEC-17-deficient neurons. Thus, our study reveals that α-tubulin acetylation acts as a brake for axon overbranching and overgrowth by dampening microtubule dynamics, providing insight into the role of microtubule post-translational modifications in regulating neural development.

Microtubules: Evolving roles and critical cellular interactions

Microtubules are cytoskeletal elements known as drivers of directed cell migration, vesicle and organelle trafficking, and mitosis. In this review, we discuss new research in the lens that has shed light into further roles for stable microtubules in the process of development and morphogenesis. In the lens, as well as other systems, distinct roles for characteristically dynamic microtubules and stabilized populations are coming to light. Understanding the mechanisms of microtubule stabilization and the associated microtubule post-translational modifications is an evolving field of study. Appropriate cellular homeostasis relies on not only one cytoskeletal element, but also rather an interaction between cytoskeletal proteins as well as other cellular regulators. Microtubules are key integrators with actin and intermediate filaments, as well as cell–cell junctional proteins and other cellular regulators including myosin and RhoGTPases to maintain this balance.

Impact statement

The role of microtubules in cellular functioning is constantly expanding. In this review, we examine new and exciting fields of discovery for microtubule’s involvement in morphogenesis, highlight our evolving understanding of differential roles for stabilized versus dynamic subpopulations, and further understanding of microtubules as a cellular integrator.

Ac-SDKP increases α-TAT 1 and promotes the apoptosis in lung fibroblasts and epithelial cells double-stimulated with TGF-β1 and silica

Crystalline silica (SiO₂) particles have very strong toxicity to the lungs, and silicosis is an excessive pulmonary interstitial remodeling disease that follows persistent SiO₂ injury. We showed here that DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) and apoptosis were aggravated during rat silicosis induced by SiO₂ exposure. Ac-SDKP attenuates lung parenchymal distortion and collagen deposition, and decreases the expression of γH2AX, p21, and cleaved caspase-3, as well as improves the reduction of pulmonary function caused by silicosis. In vitro, we found an evolution of smooth muscle actin α (α-SMA), collagen type I (Col I) in both A549 and MRC-5 cells in response to transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1) + SiO₂. Only A549 cells showed any reduction in the rate of apoptosis induced by the double stimulation, because of the anti-apoptotic effects of TGF-β1. N-acetyl-seryl-aspartyl-lysyl-proline (Ac-SDKP) is an anti-fibrotic tetrapeptide. It also has the ability to promote the apoptosis of leukemia cells. However its role in promoting cell apoptosis in silicosis is still unknown. We here found that Ac-SDKP could induce cell apoptosis and inhibit fibrotic response in A549 and MRC-5 cells treated with TGF-β1 + SiO₂, and these effects depended on regulation of α-tubulin acetyltransferase 1 (α-TAT1). These findings suggest that Ac-SDKP may have therapeutic value in the treatment of silicotic fibrosis.

The role of microtubules and the dynein/dynactin motor complex of host cells in the biogenesis of the Coxiella burnetii-containing vacuole

Microtubules (Mts) are dynamic cytoskeleton structures that play a key role in vesicular transport. The Mts-mediated transport depends on motor proteins named kinesins and the dynein/dynactin motor complex. The Rab7 adapter protein FYCO1 controls the anterograde transport of the endocytic compartments through the interaction with the kinesin KIF5. Rab7 and its partner RILP induce the recruitment of dynein/dynactin to late endosomes regulating its retrograde transport to the perinuclear area to fuse with lysosomes. The late endosomal-lysosomal fusion is regulated by the HOPS complex through its interaction with RILP and the GTPase Arl8. Coxiella burnetii (Cb), the causative agent of Q fever, is an obligate intracellular pathogen, which generates a large compartment with autophagolysosomal characteristics named Cb-containing vacuole (CCV). The CCV forms through homotypic fusion between small non-replicative CCVs (nrCCV) and through heterotypic fusion with other compartments, such as endosomes and lysosomes. In this work, we characterise the role of Mts, motor proteins, RILP/Rab7 and Arl8 on the CCV biogenesis. The formation of the CCV was affected when either the dynamics and/or the acetylation state of Mts were modified. Similarly, the overexpression of the dynactin subunit non-functional mutants p150^Glued and RILP led to the formation of small nrCCVs. This phenomenon is not observed in cells overexpressing WT proteins, the motor KIF5 or its interacting protein FYCO1. The formation of the CCV was normal in infected cells that overexpressed Arl8 alone or together with hVps41 (a HOPS subunit) or in cells co-overexpressing hVps41 and RILP. The dominant negative mutant of Arl8 and the non-functional hVps41 inhibited the formation of the CCV. When the formation of CCV was affected, the bacterial multiplication diminished. Our results suggest that nrCCVs recruit the molecular machinery that regulate the Mts-dependent retrograde transport, Rab7/RILP and the dynein/dynactin system, as well as the tethering processes such as HOPS complex and Arl8 to finally originate the CCV where C. burnetii multiplies.

[On the road to deciphering the tubulin code: focus on acetylation and detyrosination]

Microtubules are cytoskeletal fibers formed by the assembly of α- and β-tubulin heterodimers. They contribute to cell morphology, mobility and polarity, as well as to cellular transport processes and cell division. The microtubular network constantly adapts to cellular needs and may be composed of very dynamic or more stable microtubules. To regulate their diverse functions in a spatio-temporal manner, microtubules are subjected to numerous reversible post-translational modifications, which generate the "tubulin code". This review focuses on two modifications characteristic of stable microtubules - acetylation and detyrosination of α-tubulin - and their deregulation in certain pathologies.

Emerging Role of Histone Acetyltransferase in Stem Cells and Cancer

Protein acetylation is one of the most important posttranslational modifications catalyzed by acetyltransferases and deacetylases, through the addition and removal of acetyl groups to lysine residues. Lysine acetylation can affect protein-nucleic acid or protein-protein interactions and protein localization, transport, stability, and activity. It regulates the function of a large variety of proteins, including histones, oncoproteins, tumor suppressors, and transcription factors, thus representing a crucial regulator of several biological processes with particular prominent roles in transcription and metabolism. Thus, it is unsurprising that alteration of protein acetylation is involved in human disease, including metabolic disorders and cancers. In this context, different hematological and solid tumors are characterized by deregulation of the protein acetylation pattern as a result of genetic or epigenetic changes. The imbalance between acetylation and deacetylation of histone or nonhistone proteins is also involved in the modulation of the self-renewal and differentiation ability of stem cells, including cancer stem cells. Here, we summarize a combination of in vitro and in vivo studies, undertaken on a set of acetyltransferases, and discuss the physiological and pathological roles of this class of enzymes. We also review the available data on the involvement of acetyltransferases in the regulation of stem cell renewal and differentiation in both normal and cancer cell population.

Downregulation of SPIN90 promotes fibroblast activation via periostin-FAK-ROCK signaling module

Alterations in mechanical properties in the extracellular matrix are modulated by myofibroblasts and are required for progressive fibrotic diseases. Recently, we reported that fibroblasts depleted of SPIN90 showed enhanced differentiation into myofibroblasts via increased acetylation of microtubules in the soft matrix; the mechanisms of the underlying signaling network, however, remain unclear. In this study, we determine the effect of depletion of SPIN90 on FAK/ROCK signaling modules. Transcriptome analysis of Spin90 KO mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) and fibroblasts activated by TGF-β revealed that Postn is the most significantly upregulated gene. Knockdown of Postn by small interfering RNA suppressed cell adhesion and myofibroblastic differentiation and downregulated FAK activity in Spin90 KO MEF. Our results indicate that SPIN90 depletion activates FAK/ROCK signaling, induced by Postn expression, which is critical for myofibroblastic differentiation on soft matrices mimicking the mechanical environment of a normal tissue.

Coordination of microtubule acetylation and the actin cytoskeleton by formins

The acetylation of the lysine 40 residue of α-tubulin was described more than 30 years ago and has been the subject of intense research ever since. Although the exact function of this covalent modification of tubulin in the cell remains unknown, it has been established that tubulin acetylation confers resilience to mechanical stress on the microtubules. Formins have a dual role in the fate of the actin and tubulin cytoskeletons. On the one hand, they catalyze the formation of actin filaments, and on the other, they bind microtubules, act on their stability, and regulate their acetylation and alignment with actin fibers. Recent evidence indicates that formins coordinate the actin cytoskeleton and tubulin acetylation by modulating the levels of free globular actin (G-actin). G-actin, in turn, controls the activity of the myocardin-related transcription factor-serum response factor transcriptional complex that regulates the expression of the α-tubulin acetyltransferase 1 (α-TAT1) gene, which encodes the main enzyme responsible for tubulin acetylation. The effect of formins on tubulin acetylation is the combined result of their ability to activate α-TAT1 gene transcription and of their capacity to regulate microtubule stabilization. The contribution of these two mechanisms in different formins is discussed, particularly with respect to INF2, a formin that is mutated in hereditary human renal and neurodegenerative disorders.

Microtubule Hyperacetylation Enhances KL1-Dependent Micronucleation under a Tau Deficiency in Mammary Epithelial Cells

Enhanced microtubule acetylation has been identified as a negative prognostic indicator in breast cancer. We reported previously that primary cultured human mammary epithelial cells manifest breast cancer-related aneuploidization via the activation of severing protein katanin-like (KL)1 when tau is deficient. To address in this current study whether microtubule hyperacetylation is involved in breast carcinogenesis through mitosis, the effects of tubacin on human mammary epithelial cells were tested using immunofluorescence techniques. Tau-knockdown cells showed enhancement of KL1-dependent events, chromosome-bridging and micronucleation in response to tubacin. These enhancements were suppressed by further expression of an acetylation-deficient tubulin mutant. Consistently, using a rat fibroblast-based microtubule sensitivity test, it was confirmed that KL1 also shows enhanced activity in response to microtubule hyperacetylation as well as katanin. It was further observed in rat fibroblasts that exogenously expressed KL1 results in more micronucleation under microtubule hyperacetylation conditions. These data suggest that microtubule acetylation upregulates KL1 and induces more aneuploidy if tau is deficient. It is thus plausible that microtubule hyperacetylation promotes tumor progression by enhancing microtubule sensitivity to KL1, thereby disrupting spindle microtubules and this process could be reversed by the microtubule-binding and microtubule protective octapeptide NAPVSIPQ (NAP) which recruits tau to the microtubules.

Integration of intracellular signaling: Biological analogues of wires, processors and memories organized by a centrosome 3D reference system

BACKGROUND

Myriads of signaling pathways in a single cell function to achieve the highest spatio-temporal integration. Data are accumulating on the role of electromechanical soliton-like waves in signal transduction processes. Theoretical studies strongly suggest feasibility of both classical and quantum computing involving microtubules.

AIM

A theoretical study of the role of the complex composed of the plasma membrane and the microtubule-based cytoskeleton as a system that transmits, stores and processes information.

METHODS

Theoretical analysis presented here refers to (i) the Penrose-Hameroff theory of consciousness (Orchestrated Objective Reduction; Orch OR), (ii) the description of the centrosome as a reference system for construction of the 3D map of the cell proposed by Regolini, (iii) the Heimburg-Jackson model of the nerve pulse propagation along axons' lipid bilayer as soliton-like electro-mechanical waves.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The ideas presented in this paper provide a qualitative model for the decision-making processes in a living cell undergoing a differentiation process.

OUTLOOK

This paper paves the way for the real-time live-cell observation of information processing by microtubule-based cytoskeleton and cell fate decision making.

Expression of acetylated tubulin in the postnatal developing mouse cochlea

Microtubules are an essential component of the cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell. The post-translational tubulin modifications play an important role in regulating microtubule properties, acetylation tubulin is one of the major post-translational modifications of microtubules. Acetylation tubulin has also been shown to be expressed in the cochlea. However, the detailed expression profiles of acetylation tubulin protein during development have not yet been investigated in the postnatal mammalian cochlea. Here, we first examined the spatio-temporal expression of acetylated tubulin in the mouse cochlea during postnatal development. At postnatal day 1 (P1), acetylated tubulin was localized primarily to the auditory nerve inside the cochlea and their synaptic contacts with the inner and outer hair cells (IHCs and OHCs). In the organ of Corti, acetylated tubulin occurred first at the apex of pillar cells. At P5, acetylated tubulin first appeared in the phalangeal processes of Deiters’ cells. At P8, staining was maintained in the phalangeal processes of Deiters’ cells and neural elements. At P10, labeling in Deiters’ cells extended from the apices of OHCs to the basilar membrane, acetylated tubulin was expressed throughout the cytoplasm of inner and outer pillar cells. At P12, acetylated tubulin displayed prominent and homogeneous labeling along the full length of the pillar cells. Linear labeling was present mainly in the Deiters’ cell bodies underlying OHCs. Between P14 and P17, acetylated tubulin was strongly expressed in inner and outer pillar cells and Deiters’ cells in a similar pattern as observed in the adult, and labeling in these cells were arranged in bundles. In addition, acetylated tubulin was expressed in stria vascularis, root cell bodies, and a small number of fibrocytes of the spiral ligament until the adult. In the adult mouse cochlea, immunostaining continued to predominate in Deiters’ cells and pillar cells. In Deiters’ cells, immunolabeling formed cups securing OHCs basal portions, and continued presence of acetylated tubulin-labeled nerve terminals below IHCs was shown. Our results presented here underscored the essential role played by acetylated tubulin in postnatal cochlear development, auditory neurotransmission and cochlear mechanics.

Causes and Consequences of Microtubule Acetylation

Among the different types of cytoskeletal components, microtubules arguably accumulate the greatest diversity of post-translational modifications (PTMs). Acetylation of lysine 40 (K40) of α-tubulin has received particular attention because it is the only tubulin PTM to be found in the lumen of microtubules: most other tubulin PTMs are found at the outer surface of the microtubule. As a consequence, the enzyme catalyzing K40 acetylation needs to penetrate the narrow microtubule lumen to find its substrate. Acetylated microtubules have been considered to be stable, long-lived microtubules; however, until recently, there was little information about whether the longevity of these microtubules is the cause or the consequence of acetylation. Current advances suggest that this PTM helps the microtubule lattice to cope with mechanical stress, thus facilitating microtubule self-repair. These observations now shed new light on the structural integrity of microtubules, as well as on the mechanisms and biological functions of tubulin acetylation. Here, we discuss recent insights into how acetylation is generated in the lumen of microtubules, and how this 'hidden' PTM can control the properties and functions of microtubules.

Cilium structure, assembly, and disassembly regulated by the cytoskeleton

The cilium, once considered a vestigial structure, is a conserved, microtubule-based organelle critical for transducing extracellular chemical and mechanical signals that control cell polarity, differentiation, and proliferation. The cilium undergoes cycles of assembly and disassembly that are controlled by complex inter-relationships with the cytoskeleton. Microtubules form the core of the cilium, the axoneme, and are regulated by post-translational modifications, associated proteins, and microtubule dynamics. Although actin and septin cytoskeletons are not major components of the axoneme, they also regulate cilium organization and assembly state. Here, we discuss recent advances on how these different cytoskeletal systems­ affect cilium function, structure, and organization.

Dynamic localization of α-tubulin acetyltransferase ATAT1 through the cell cycle in human fibroblastic KD cells

Acetylation of α-tubulin is a well-studied posttranscriptional modification, which is mostly catalyzed by α-tubulin N-acetyltransferase (ATAT1). ATAT1 possibly affects various cellular functions related with microtubules, such as intracellular transport, cell motility, cilia formation, and neuronal signaling. Here, we analyzed the subcellular localization of immunolabeled ATAT1 in human fibroblast KD cells through the cell cycle using confocal laser scanning microscopy. ATAT1 dramatically changed its localization through the cell cycle, depending on the mitotic phase. In interphase, immunolabeled ATAT1 was observed in centrioles, nuclei, and basal bodies if the cells projected primary cilia. ATAT1 was intensely detected as clusters in the nuclei in the G1-G2 phase. In telophase, ATAT1 colocalized with chromatids and spindle poles, and ultimately migrated to the daughter nucleus, newly synthesized centrioles, and midbody. The nucleolus is a core region of ribosomal RNA transcription, and the midbody is associated with severing and depolymerizing of microtubules in the stembody. The specific distributions of ATAT1 through the cell cycle suggest multiple functions of ATAT1, which could include acetylation of microtubules, RNA transcription activity, severing microtubules, and completion of cytokinesis.

TAK1 activation of alpha-TAT1 and microtubule hyperacetylation control AKT signaling and cell growth

Acetylation of microtubules (MT) confers mechanical stability necessary for numerous functions including cell cycle and intracellular transport. Although αTAT1 is a major MT acetyltransferase, how this enzyme is regulated remains much less clear. Here we report TGF-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) as a key activator of αTAT1. TAK1 directly interacts with and phosphorylates αTAT1 at Ser237 to critically enhance its catalytic activity, as mutating this site to alanine abrogates, whereas a phosphomimetic induces MT hyperacetylation across cell types. Using a custom phospho-αTAT1-Ser237 antibody, we screen various mouse tissues to discover that brain contains some of the highest TAK1-dependent αTAT1 activity, which, accordingly, is diminished rapidly upon intra-cerebral injection of a TAK1 inhibitor. Lastly, we show that TAK1 selectively inhibits AKT to suppress mitogenic and metabolism-related pathways through MT-based mechanisms in culture and in vivo. Collectively, our findings support a fundamental new role for TGF-β signaling in MT-related functions and disease.

Acetylation of microtubules (MT) confers mechanical stability necessary for numerous cellular functions but its regulation is unclear. Here the authors show that the MT acetyltransferase αTAT1 is regulated by TGF-β-activated kinase 1 implicating TGF-β signaling in MT-related functions and disease.

The multifaceted role of lysine acetylation in cancer: prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target

Lysine acetylation is a post-translational modification that regulates gene transcription by targeting histones as well as a variety of transcription factors in the nucleus. Recently, several reports have demonstrated that numerous cytosolic proteins are also acetylated and that this modification, affecting protein activity, localization and stability has profound consequences on their cellular functions. Interestingly, most non-histone proteins targeted by acetylation are relevant for tumorigenesis. In this review, we will analyze the functional implications of lysine acetylation in different cellular compartments, and will examine our current understanding of lysine acetyltransferases family, highlighting the biological role and prognostic value of these enzymes and their substrates in cancer. The latter part of the article will address challenges and current status of molecules targeting lysine acetyltransferase enzymes in cancer therapy.

The actin-MRTF-SRF transcriptional circuit controls tubulin acetylation via α-TAT1 gene expression

The role of formins in microtubules is not well understood. In this study, we have investigated the mechanism by which INF2, a formin mutated in degenerative renal and neurological hereditary disorders, controls microtubule acetylation. We found that silencing of INF2 in epithelial RPE-1 cells produced a dramatic drop in tubulin acetylation, increased the G-actin/F-actin ratio, and impaired myocardin-related transcription factor (MRTF)/serum response factor (SRF)-dependent transcription, which is known to be repressed by increased levels of G-actin. The effect on tubulin acetylation was caused by the almost complete absence of α-tubulin acetyltransferase 1 (α-TAT1) messenger RNA (mRNA). Activation of the MRTF-SRF transcriptional complex restored α-TAT1 mRNA levels and tubulin acetylation. Several functional MRTF-SRF-responsive elements were consistently identified in the α-TAT1 gene. The effect of INF2 silencing on microtubule acetylation was also observed in epithelial ECV304 cells, but not in Jurkat T cells. Therefore, the actin-MRTF-SRF circuit controls α-TAT1 transcription. INF2 regulates the circuit, and hence microtubule acetylation, in cell types where it has a prominent role in actin polymerization.

Microtubules acquire resistance from mechanical breakage through intralumenal acetylation

Eukaryotic cells rely on long-lived microtubules for intracellular transport and as compression-bearing elements. We considered that long-lived microtubules are acetylated inside their lumen and that microtubule acetylation may modify microtubule mechanics. Here, we found that tubulin acetylation is required for the mechanical stabilization of long-lived microtubules in cells. Depletion of the tubulin acetyltransferase TAT1 led to a significant increase in the frequency of microtubule breakage. Nocodazole-resistant microtubules lost upon removal of acetylation were largely restored by either pharmacological or physical removal of compressive forces. In in vitro reconstitution experiments, acetylation was sufficient to protect microtubules from mechanical breakage. Thus, acetylation increases mechanical resilience to ensure the persistence of long-lived microtubules.

HDAC6 inhibition by tubastatin A is protective against oxidative stress in a photoreceptor cell line and restores visual function in a zebrafish model of inherited blindness

Retinal diseases, such as hereditary retinitis pigmentosa and age-related macular degeneration, are characterized by the progressive loss of photoreceptors. Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) is considered as a stress surveillance factor and a potential target for neuroprotection and regeneration. Overexpression of HDAC6 has been connected to neurodegenerative disorders, and its suppression may provide protection. Here we show that HDAC6 is constitutively present in the mouse retina, and in the cone-like mouse cell line 661W. In 661W cells HDAC6 inhibition by the specific inhibitor tubastatin A (TST) led to the acetylation of α-tubulin, which is a major substrate for HDAC6. After oxidative stress, exerted by hydrogen peroxide, TST promoted cell survival and the upregulation of heat-shock proteins HSP70 and HSP25 by activation of heat-shock transcription factor 1. Furthermore, in response to oxidative stress the redox regulatory protein peroxiredoxin 1 (Prx1) was modulated in 661W cells by HDAC6 inhibition. The peroxide reducing activity of Prx1 is dependent on its acetylation, which is mediated by HDAC6. Pre-incubation with TST prevented the inactivation of Prx1 and its preserved activity may exert protective effects in photoreceptor cells. To determine whether TST treatment has a therapeutic effect on visual function, the dye^ucd6 zebrafish model of inherited sight loss was utilized. Zebrafish have developed as a suitable model system for pharmacological testing. In vivo application of TST caused the hyperacetylation of α-tubulin, indicating that HDAC6 is active in this model. Furthermore, TST was sufficient to rescue visual function and retinal morphology. Hence, HDAC6 inhibition and the regulation of peroxiredoxin activity may play a significant role in protecting retinal cells and in particular photoreceptors, which are exposed to high levels of reactive oxygen species derived from oxidative stress-induced injuries.

Increased acetylation of microtubules rescues human tau-induced microtubule defects and neuromuscular junction abnormalities in Drosophila

Tau normally associates with and stabilizes microtubules (MTs), but is hyperphosphorylated and aggregated into neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease and related neurodegenerative diseases, which are collectively known as tauopathies. MTs are regulated by different forms of post-translational modification, including acetylation; acetylated MTs represent a more stable microtubule population. In our previous study, we showed that inhibition of histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6), which deacetylates tubulin at lysine 40, rescues defects in MTs and in neuromuscular junction growth caused by tau overexpression. However, HDAC6 also acts on other proteins that are involved in distinct biological processes unrelated to tubulins. In order to examine directly the role of increased tubulin acetylation against tau toxicity, we generated a site-directed α-tubulin^K40Q mutation by CRISPR/Cas9 technology to mimic the acetylated MTs and found that acetylation-mimicking α-tubulin rescued tau-induced MT defects and neuromuscular junction developmental abnormalities. We also showed that late administration of ACY-1215 and tubastatin A, two potent and selective inhibitors of HDAC6, rescued the tau-induced MT defects after the abnormalities had already become apparent. Overall, our results indicate that increasing MT acetylation by either genetic manipulations or drugs might be used as potential strategies for intervention in tauopathies.

Highlighted Article: Increased acetylation of microtubules by genetic and pharmacological approaches rescues human tau overexpression-induced toxicity in Drosophila muscles and neurons.