Sucrose promotes stem branching through cytokinin

Auxin regulates bulbil initiation by mediating sucrose metabolism in Lilium lancifolium

Lily bulbils, which serve as advantageous axillary organs for vegetative propagation, have not been extensively studied in terms of the mechanism of bulbil initiation. The functions of auxin and sucrose metabolism have been implicated in axillary organ development, but their relationship in regulating bulbil initiation remains unclear. In this study, exogenous indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) treatment increased the endogenous auxin levels at leaf axils and significantly decreased bulbil number, whereas treatment with the auxin polar transport inhibitor N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA), which resulted in a low auxin concentration at leaf axils, stimulated bulbil initiation and increased bulbil number. A low level of auxin caused by NPA spraying or silencing of auxin biosynthesis genes YUCCA FLAVIN MONOOXYGENASE-LIKE 6 (LlYUC6) and TRYPTOPHAN AMINOTRANSFERASERELATED 1 (LlTAR1) facilitated sucrose metabolism by activating the expression of SUCROSE SYNTHASES 1 (LlSusy1) and CELL WALL INVERTASE 2 (LlCWIN2), resulting in enhanced bulbil initiation. Silencing LlSusy1 or LlCWIN2 hindered bulbil initiation. Moreover, the transcription factor BASIC HELIX-LOOP-HELIX 35 (LlbHLH35) directly bound the promoter of LlSusy1, but not the promoter of LlCWIN2, and activated its transcription in response to the auxin content, bridging the gap between auxin and sucrose metabolism. In conclusion, our results reveal that an LlbHLH35-LlSusy1 module mediates auxin-regulated sucrose metabolism during bulbil initiation.

Predicting resprouting of Platanus × hispanica following branch pruning by means of machine learning

Introduction

Resprouting is a crucial survival strategy following the loss of branches, being it by natural events or artificially by pruning. The resprouting prediction on a physiological basis is a highly complex approach. However, trained gardeners try to predict a tree's resprouting after pruning purely based on their empirical knowledge. In this study, we explore how far such predictions can also be made by machine learning.

Methods

Table-topped annually pruned Platanus × hispanica trees at a nursery were LiDAR-scanned for two consecutive years. Topological structures for these trees were abstracted by cylinder fitting. Then, new shoots and trimmed branches were labelled on corresponding cylinders. Binary and multiclass classification models were tested for predicting the location and number of new sprouts.

Results

The accuracy for predicting whether having or not new shoots on each cylinder reaches 90.8% with the LGBMClassifier, the balanced accuracy is 80.3%. The accuracy for predicting the exact numbers of new shoots with the GaussianNB model is 82.1%, but its balanced accuracy is reduced to 42.9%.

Discussion

The results were validated with a separate dataset, proving the feasibility of resprouting prediction after pruning using this approach. Different tree species, tree forms, and other variables should be addressed in further research.

Knockout of the sugar transporter OsSTP15 enhances grain yield by improving tiller number due to increased sugar content in the shoot base of rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Sugar transporter proteins (STPs) play critical roles in regulating plant stress tolerance, growth, and development. However, the role of STPs in regulating crop yield is poorly understood. This study elucidates the mechanism by which knockout of the sugar transporter OsSTP15 enhances grain yield via increasing the tiller number in rice. We found that OsSTP15 is specifically expressed in the shoot base and vascular bundle sheath of seedlings and encodes a plasma membrane-localized high-affinity glucose efflux transporter. OsSTP15 knockout enhanced sucrose and trehalose-6-phosphate (Tre6P) synthesis in leaves and improved sucrose transport to the shoot base by inducing the expression of sucrose transporters. Higher glucose, sucrose, and Tre6P contents were observed at the shoot base of stp15 plants. Transcriptome and metabolome analyses of the shoot base demonstrated that OsSTP15 knockout upregulated the expression of cytokinin (CK) synthesis- and signaling pathway-related genes and increased CK levels. These findings suggest that OsSTP15 knockout represses glucose export from the cytoplasm and simultaneously enhances sugar transport from source leaves to the shoot base by promoting the synthesis of sucrose and Tre6P in leaves. Subsequent accumulation of glucose, sucrose, and Tre6P in the shoot base promotes tillering by stimulating the CK signaling pathway.

Population genetics provides insights into the important agronomic traits of Ganoderma cultivation varieties in China

This study aimed to investigate the species diversity and genetic differentiation of the genome of the main cultivated strains of Ganoderma in China. Population genomics analysis was conducted based on 150 cultivated strains of Ganoderma collected nationwide. The results indicated that the main species currently cultivated in China were Ganoderma sichuanense and Ganoderma lucidum, with a minor proportion of Ganoderma sessile, Ganoderma weberianum, Ganoderma sinense, Ganoderma gibbosum and Ganoderma australe. A total of 336,506 high-quality single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci were obtained through population evolution analysis. The Fst values were calculated using a 5-kb sliding window, which ranged from 0.11 to 0.74. This suggests varying degrees of genetic differentiation between populations and genetic exchange among varieties. On this basis, the genes related to the stipe length, cap color and branch phenotypes of Ganoderma were excavated, and the region with the top 1% ZFst value region was used as a candidate region. A total of 137, 270 and 222 candidate genes were identified in the aforementioned 3 phenotypes, respectively. Gene annotation revealed that genes associated with stipe length were mainly related to cell division and differentiation, including proteins such as Nse4 protein and DIM1 protein. The genes related to Ganoderma red color were mainly related to the metabolism of tryptophan and flavonoids. The genes related to the branch were mainly related to cytokinin synthesis, ABC transporter and cytochrome P450. This study provided 150 valuable genome resequencing data in assessing the diversity and genetic differentiation of Ganoderma and laid a foundation for agronomic trait analysis and the development of new varieties of Ganoderma.

Exogenous Sucrose Confers Low Light Tolerance in Tomato Plants by Increasing Carbon Partitioning from Stems to Leaves

Low light (LL) stress adversely affects plant growth and productivity. The role of exogenous sucrose in enhancing plant LL tolerance was investigated by spraying sucrose on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) leaves. This study employed physiological and molecular approaches to identify the underlying mechanisms. Exogenous sucrose activated sucrose hydrolysis-related enzyme activity and upregulated genes encoding sucrose and hexose transporters in mature leaves, decreasing endogenous sucrose levels and promoting sucrose unloading during LL. Stem-related genes associated with sucrose synthesis and transport were also upregulated, enhancing sucrose phloem loading. Furthermore, sucrose from stems activated sucrose unloading in sink leaves, forming a feed-forward loop to sustain sucrose flow during LL. This led to increased nonstructural carbohydrates (NSCs), improved energy metabolism, and enhanced protein synthesis in leaves, ultimately boosting photosynthesis and fruit yield after light recovery. These findings highlight how exogenous sucrose enhances LL tolerance in tomatoes by increasing the transport of NSCs from stems to leaves.

Transcriptomic Analyses Reveal the Role of Cytokinin and the Nodal Stem in Microtuber Sprouting in Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

In potatoes, tuber secondary growth, especially sprouting, deforms the tubers and severely lowers their commercial value. Tuber sprouting is induced by signal substances, such as gibberellin (GA), which are transported to the tuber from the plant body. The molecular mechanism underlying GA-induced sprouting remains ambiguous. Here, we tried to recreate tuber secondary growth using in vitro stemmed microtubers (MTs) (with the nodal stem attached) and MT halves (with the nodal stem entirely removed). Our experiments showed that GA alone could initiate the sprouting of stemmed microtubers; however, GA failed to initiate MT halves unless 6-benzyladenine, a synthetic cytokinin CK, was co-applied. Here, we analyzed the transcriptional profiles of sprouting buds using these in vitro MTs. RNA-seq analysis revealed a downregulation of cytokinin-activated signaling but an upregulation of the "Zeatin biosynthesis" pathway, as shown by increased expression of CYP735A, CISZOG, and UGT85A1 in sprouting buds; additionally, the upregulation of genes, such as IAA15, IAA22, and SAUR50, associated with auxin-activated signaling and one abscisic acid (ABA) negative regulator, PLY4, plays a vital role during sprouting growth. Our findings indicate that the role of the nodal stem is synonymous with CK in sprouting growth, suggesting that CK signaling and homeostasis are critical to supporting GA-induced sprouting. To effectively control tuber sprouting, more effort is required to be devoted to these critical genes.

Interaction of Phytohormones and External Environmental Factors in the Regulation of the Bud Dormancy in Woody Plants

Bud dormancy and release are essential phenomena that greatly assist in adapting to adverse growing conditions and promoting the holistic growth and development of perennial plants. The dormancy and release process of buds in temperate perennial trees involves complex interactions between physiological and biochemical processes influenced by various environmental factors, representing a meticulously orchestrated life cycle. In this review, we summarize the role of phytohormones and their crosstalk in the establishment and release of bud dormancy. External environmental factors, such as light and temperature, play a crucial role in regulating bud germination. We also highlight the mechanisms of how light and temperature are involved in the regulation of bud dormancy by modulating phytohormones. Moreover, the role of nutrient factors, including sugar, in regulating bud dormancy is also discussed. This review provides a foundation for enhancing our understanding of plant growth and development patterns, fostering agricultural production, and exploring plant adaptive responses to adversity.

Functions of sucrose and trehalose 6-phosphate in controlling plant development

Plants exhibit enormous plasticity in regulating their architecture to be able to adapt to a constantly changing environment and carry out vital functions such as photosynthesis, anchoring, and nutrient uptake. Phytohormones play a role in regulating these responses, but sugar signalling mechanisms are also crucial. Sucrose is not only an important source of carbon and energy fuelling plant growth, but it also functions as a signalling molecule that influences various developmental processes. Trehalose 6-phosphate (Tre6P), a sucrose-specific signalling metabolite, is emerging as an important regulator in plant metabolism and development. Key players involved in sucrose and Tre6P signalling pathways, including MAX2, SnRK1, bZIP11, and TOR, have been implicated in processes such as flowering, branching, and root growth. We will summarize our current knowledge of how these pathways shape shoot and root architecture and highlight how sucrose and Tre6P signalling are integrated with known signalling networks in shaping plant growth.

Integrated multi-omic analysis reveals the cytokinin and sucrose metabolism-mediated regulation of flavone glycoside biosynthesis by MeJA exposure in Ficus pandurata Hance

Ficus pandurata Hance (FPH) holds a rich history as a traditional Chinese botanical remedy, utilized both as a culinary condiment and a medicinal intervention for diverse ailments. This study focuses on enhancing FPH's therapeutic potential by subjecting it to exogenous methyl jasmonate (MeJA) treatment, a strategy aimed at elevating the levels of active constituents to align with clinical and commercial requirements. Employing metabolomics, the impact of MeJA treatment on the lipid and flavonoid profiles of FPH leaves was investigated, revealing a marked increase in flavone glycosides, a subset of flavonoids. Investigation into the regulatory mechanism governing flavone glycoside biosynthesis uncovered elevated expression of structural genes associated with flavonoid production in response to MeJA exposure. Global endogenous hormone analysis pinpointed the selective activation of JA and cytokinin biosynthesis following MeJA treatment. Through a comprehensive integration of transcriptomic and metabolomic data, the cooperative stimulation of glucosyltransferase activity, alongside the JA and cytokinin signaling pathways, orchestrated by MeJA were explored. Furthermore, genes linked to sucrose metabolism exhibited heightened expression, concomitant with a noteworthy surge in antioxidant activity subsequent to MeJA treatment. These findings validate the augmentation of FPH leaf antioxidant capacity through MeJA intervention, while also offering profound insights into the regulatory role of MeJA in flavone glycoside biosynthesis, mediated by the interplay between cytokinin and sucrose metabolism pathways.

The transcription factor SPL13 mediates strigolactone suppression of shoot branching by inhibiting cytokinin synthesis in Solanum lycopersicum

Plant architecture imposes a large impact on crop yield. IDEAL PLANT ARCHITECTURE 1 (IPA1), which encodes a SQUAMOSA PROMOTER BINDING PROTEIN-LIKE (SPL) transcription factor, is a target of molecular design for improving grain yield. However, the roles of SPL transcription factors in regulating tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plant architecture are unclear. Here, we show that the expression of SPL13 is down-regulated in the lateral buds of strigolactone (SL)-deficient ccd mutants and is induced by GR24 (a synthetic analog of SL). Knockout of SPL13 by CRISPR/Cas9 resulted in higher levels of cytokinins (CKs) and transcripts of the CK synthesis gene ISOPENTENYL TRANSFERASES 1 (IPT1) in the stem nodes, and more growth of lateral buds. GR24 suppresses CK synthesis and lateral bud growth in ccd mutants, but is not effective in spl13 mutants. On the other hand, silencing of the IPT1 gene inhibited bud growth of spl13 mutants. Interestingly, SL levels in root extracts and exudates are significantly increased in spl13 mutants. Molecular studies indicated that SPL13 directly represses the transcription of IPT1 and the SL synthesis genes CAROTENOID CLEAVAGE DIOXYGENASE 7 (CCD7) and MORE AXILLARY GROWTH 1 (MAX1). The results demonstrate that SPL13 acts downstream of SL to suppress lateral bud growth by inhibiting CK synthesis in tomato. Tuning the expression of SPL13 is a potential approach for decreasing the number of lateral shoots in tomato.

Strigolactones and Shoot Branching: What Is the Real Hormone and How Does It Work?

There have been substantial advances in our understanding of many aspects of strigolactone regulation of branching since the discovery of strigolactones as phytohormones. These include further insights into the network of phytohormones and other signals that regulate branching, as well as deep insights into strigolactone biosynthesis, metabolism, transport, perception and downstream signaling. In this review, we provide an update on recent advances in our understanding of how the strigolactone pathway co-ordinately and dynamically regulates bud outgrowth and pose some important outstanding questions that are yet to be resolved.

Interaction between sugar transport and plant development

Endogenous programs and constant interaction with the environment regulate the development of the plant organism and its individual organs. Sugars are necessary building blocks for plant and organ growth and at the same time act as critical integrators of the metabolic state into the developmental program. There is a growing recognition that the specific type of sugar and its subcellular or tissue distribution is sensed and translated to developmental responses. Therefore, the transport of sugars across membranes is a key process in adapting plant organ properties and overall development to the nutritional state of the plant. In this review, we discuss how plants exploit various sugar transporters to signal growth responses, for example, to control the development of sink organs such as roots or fruits. We highlight which sugar transporters are involved in root and shoot growth and branching, how intracellular sugar allocation can regulate senescence, and, for example, control fruit development. We link the important transport processes to downstream signaling cascades and elucidate the factors responsible for the integration of sugar signaling and plant hormone responses.

Cytokinin and Metabolites Affect Rhizome Growth and Development in Kentucky Bluegrass (Poa pratensis)

Rhizome growth and development is regulated by phytohormone. However, endogenous phytohormones affect rhizome initiation, and sustained growth in perennial grass species remains elusive. In this study, we investigated the morphological characteristics and the content of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), zeatin (ZT), gibberellic acid (GA3), and abscisic acid (ABA) in the rhizomes of two different Kentucky bluegrass. Using ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS), we performed metabolite analysis of two different rhizomes. In our study, the multi-rhizome Kentucky bluegrass material 'Yuzhong' had an average of 1113 rhizomes, while the few-rhizome material 'Anding' had an average of 347 rhizomes. The diameter of rhizome and length of rhizome internode in 'Yuzhong' were 1.68-fold and 1.33-fold higher than that of the 'Anding', respectively. The rhizome dry weight of 'Yuzhong' was 75.06 g, while the 'Anding' was 20.79 g. 'Yuzhong' had a higher ZT content (5.50 μg·g-1), which is 2.4-fold that of 'Anding' (2.27 μg·g-1). In contrast, the IAA, ABA, and GA3 content of rhizome were markedly higher in 'Anding' than 'Yuzhong'. Correlation analysis revealed significant correlations between ZT and ZT/ABA with the number of rhizomes, diameter of rhizome, and length of rhizome internode, whereas IAA, ABA, GA3, and IAA/ZT were opposite. In the metabolic profiles, we identified 163 differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) (60 upregulated and 103 downregulated) in positive ion mode and 75 DEMs (36 upregulated and 39 downregulated) in negative ion mode. Histidine metabolism and ABC transporters pathways were the most significantly enriched in the positive and negative ion mode, respectively, both of which are involved in the synthesis and transport of cytokinin. These results indicate that cytokinin is crucial for rhizome development and promotes rhizome germination and growth of Kentucky bluegrass.

The strigolactone pathway plays a crucial role in integrating metabolic and nutritional signals in plants

Strigolactones are rhizosphere signals and phytohormones that play crucial roles in plant development. They are also well known for their role in integrating nitrate and phosphate signals to regulate shoot and root development. More recently, sugars and citrate (an intermediate of the tricarboxylic acid cycle) were reported to inhibit the strigolactone response, with dramatic effects on shoot architecture. This Review summarizes the discoveries recently made concerning the mechanisms through which the strigolactone pathway integrates sugar, metabolite and nutrient signals. We highlight here that strigolactones and MAX2-dependent signalling play crucial roles in mediating the impacts of nutritional and metabolic cues on plant development and metabolism. We also discuss and speculate concerning the role of these interactions in plant evolution and adaptation to their environment.

Girdling promotes tomato fruit enlargement by enhancing fruit sink strength and triggering cytokinin accumulation

Girdling is a horticultural technique that enhances fruit size by allocating more carbohydrates to fruits, yet its underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. In this study, girdling was applied to the main stems of tomato plants 14 days after anthesis. Following girdling, there was a significant increase in fruit volume, dry weight, and starch accumulation. Interestingly, although sucrose transport to the fruit increased, the fruit's sucrose concentration decreased. Girdling also led to an increase in the activities of enzymes involved in sucrose hydrolysis and AGPase, and to an upregulation in the expression of key genes related to sugar transport and utilization. Moreover, the assay of carboxyfluorescein (CF) signal in detached fruit indicated that girdled fruits exhibited a greater ability to take up carbohydrates. These results indicate that girdling improves sucrose unloading and sugar utilization in fruit, thereby enhancing fruit sink strength. In addition, girdling induced cytokinin (CK) accumulation, promoted cell division in the fruit, and upregulated the expression of genes related to CK synthesis and activation. Furthermore, the results of a sucrose injection experiment suggested that increased sucrose import induced CK accumulation in the fruit. This study sheds light on the mechanisms by which girdling promotes fruit enlargement and provides novel insights into the interaction between sugar import and CK accumulation.

Metabolic regulation of quiescence in plants

Quiescence is a crucial survival attribute in which cell division is repressed in a reversible manner. Although quiescence has long been viewed as an inactive state, recent studies have shown that it is an actively monitored process that is influenced by environmental stimuli. Here, we provide a perspective of the quiescent state and discuss how this process is tuned by energy, nutrient and oxygen status, and the pathways that sense and transmit these signals. We not only highlight the governance of canonical regulators and signalling mechanisms that respond to changes in nutrient and energy status, but also consider the central significance of mitochondrial functions and cues as key regulators of nuclear gene expression. Furthermore, we discuss how reactive oxygen species and the associated redox processes, which are intrinsically linked to energy carbohydrate metabolism, also play a key role in the orchestration of quiescence.

Auxin-independent effects of apical dominance induce changes in phytohormones correlated with bud outgrowth

The inhibition of shoot branching by the growing shoot tip of plants, termed apical dominance, was originally thought to be mediated by auxin. Recently, the importance of the shoot tip sink strength during apical dominance has re-emerged with recent studies highlighting roles for sugars in promoting branching. This raises many unanswered questions on the relative roles of auxin and sugars in apical dominance. Here we show that auxin depletion after decapitation is not always the initial trigger of rapid cytokinin (CK) increases in buds that are instead correlated with enhanced sugars. Auxin may also act through strigolactones (SLs) which have been shown to suppress branching after decapitation, but here we show that SLs do not have a significant effect on initial bud outgrowth after decapitation. We report here that when sucrose or CK is abundant, SLs are less inhibitory during the bud release stage compared to during later stages and that SL treatment rapidly inhibits CK accumulation in pea (Pisum sativum) axillary buds of intact plants. After initial bud release, we find an important role of gibberellin (GA) in promoting sustained bud growth downstream of auxin. We are, therefore, able to suggest a model of apical dominance that integrates auxin, sucrose, SLs, CKs, and GAs and describes differences in signalling across stages of bud release to sustained growth.

Spectral light quality regulates the morphogenesis, architecture, and flowering in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.)

Transparent plastic films with poor light transmittance seriously affect the mass composition of visible light in many greenhouses, which leads to the reduction of photosynthesis in vegetable crops. Understanding the regulatory mechanisms of monochromatic light in the vegetative and reproductive growth of vegetable crops is of great importance for the application of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in the greenhouse. In this study, three monochromatic light treatments (red-, green- and blue-light) were simulated by using LEDs to explore light quality-dependent regulation from the stage of seedling to flowering in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). The results showed that light quality-dependent regulation guides the growth and morphogenesis in pepper plants. Red- and blue-light played opposite roles in determining the plant height, stomatal density, axillary bud growth, photosynthetic characteristics, flowering time and hormone metabolism, while green light treatment resulted in taller plants and fewer branches, which was similar to the red-light treatment. The weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) based on mRNA-seq results revealed that the two modules named "MEred" and "MEmidnightblue" were positively correlated with red- and blue-light treatment, respectively, exhibiting high correlations with the traits such as plant hormone content, branching and flowering. Moreover, our results suggest that the light response factor ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 5 (HY5) is essential for blue light-induced plant growth and development by regulating photosynthesis in pepper plants. Hence, this study uncovers crucial molecular mechanisms of how light quality determines the morphogenesis, architecture, and flowering in pepper plants, thus providing a basic concept of manipulating light quality to regulate pepper plant growth and flowering under greenhouse conditions.

Effects of source-sink regulation and nodal position of the main crop on the sprouting of regenerated buds and grain yield of ratoon rice

Ratoon rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the production of a second season rice that utilizes the dormant buds surviving on the stubble left behind after the harvest of the main crop. However, the sprouting mechanism of regenerated buds at separate nodes is rarely reported. Field experiments were conducted to examine the effects of leaf-cutting and spikelet thinning on the sprouting of regenerated buds at the separate node, the contributions of regenerated panicles at the separate node to the total grain yield in the ratoon crop, and the associated mechanism. The results showed that the contribution of separate node yields to the total grain yield in the ratoon crop was D2 (panicles regenerated from the 2^nd node from the top) >D3 (panicles regenerated from the 3^rd node from the top) >D4 (panicles regenerated from the lower nodes below the 3^rd node), and the contribution of D2 and D3 made up approximately 80% of the total yield in the ratoon crop. In addition, the effect of leaf-cutting treatment and spikelet-thinning treatment on the grain yield of ratoon season was mainly realized by regulating the relative contribution rate of D2 and D4 grain yield to the total yield of ratoon season. Further analysis indicated that the sprouting of regenerated buds at the D2 node was mainly affected by the content of CTK, while D3 was mainly regulated by GAs and CTK, and D4 was mainly regulated by ABA and CTK. However, only the CTK content in stems and buds was positively correlated with single bud length and bud number at each nodes. These results indicated that CTK might be the main signal regulating the sprouting of regenerated buds and the grain yield at separate nodes, which might change the transport of assimilates to stems and buds.

An alternative pathway to plant cold tolerance in the absence of vacuolar invertase activity

To cope with cold stress, plants have developed antioxidation strategies combined with osmoprotection by sugars. In potato (Solanum tuberosum) tubers, which are swollen stems, exposure to cold stress induces starch degradation and sucrose synthesis. Vacuolar acid invertase (VInv) activity is a significant part of the cold-induced sweetening (CIS) response, by rapidly cleaving sucrose into hexoses and increasing osmoprotection. To discover alternative plant tissue pathways for coping with cold stress, we produced VInv-knockout lines in two cultivars. Genome editing of VInv in 'Désirée' and 'Brooke' was done using stable and transient expression of CRISPR/Cas9 components, respectively. After storage at 4°C, sugar analysis indicated that the knockout lines showed low levels of CIS and maintained low acid invertase activity in storage. Surprisingly, the tuber parenchyma of vinv lines exhibited significantly reduced lipid peroxidation and reduced H₂ O₂ levels. Furthermore, whole plants of vinv lines exposed to cold stress without irrigation showed normal vigor, in contrast to WT plants, which wilted. Transcriptome analysis of vinv lines revealed upregulation of an osmoprotectant pathway and ethylene-related genes during cold temperature exposure. Accordingly, higher expression of antioxidant-related genes was detected after exposure to short and long cold storage. Sugar measurements showed an elevation of an alternative pathway in the absence of VInv activity, raising the raffinose pathway with increasing levels of myo-inositol content as a cold tolerance response.

Regeneration pattern and genome-wide transcription profile of rhizome axillary buds after perennial rice harvest

Perennial rice is a new type of rice that allows the harvest of rice for multiple years without growing new seedlings annually. This technology represents a green and sustainable agricultural production mode with many advantages for balancing agricultural ecology and food security. However, the differences in regeneration patterns between perennial and annual rice and the gene regulatory pathways of the apical dominance in axillary bud growth after harvest in perennial rice are still unclear. In this study, perennial rice (PR23) and annual rice (Chugeng28) were used to investigate axillary bud growth patterns before and after apical spike removal. After elimination of apical dominance at different development stages, perennial rice rhizome axillary buds at the compression nodes germinated more rapidly than others and developed into new seedlings. The axillary buds at the high-position nodes in annual rice grew faster than those at other nodes. Furthermore, the global gene expression patterns of PR23 rhizome buds at compression nodes grown for 1, 3, 4, and 5 days after apical spike removal were analyzed by transcriptome sequencing. Compared with the control buds without apical removal, 264, 3,484, 2,095, and 3,398 genes were up-regulated, and 674, 3,484, 1,594, and 1,824 genes were down-regulated in the buds grown for 1, 3, 4, and 5 days after apical spike removal, respectively. Trend analysis of the expressed genes at different time points was performed and co-expression network was constructed to identify key genes in rhizome axillary bud regrowth. The results showed that 85 hub genes involved in 12 co-regulatory networks were mainly enriched in the light system, photosynthesis-antenna protein, plant hormone signal transduction, ABC transporter and metabolic pathways, which suggested that hormone and photosynthetic signals might play important roles in the regulation of rhizome axillary bud regeneration in perennial rice. Overall, this study clarified the differences in the regeneration patterns of axillary buds between perennial and annual rice and provided insight into the complex regulatory networks during the regeneration of rhizome axillary buds in perennial rice.

Activation of apoplastic sugar at the transition stage may be essential for axillary bud outgrowth in the grasses

Shoot branches develop from buds in leaf axils. Once formed from axillary meristems, the buds enter a transition stage before growing into branches. The buds may transition into dormancy if internal and environmental factors limit sucrose supply to the buds. A fundamental question is why sucrose can be limiting at the transition stage for bud outgrowth, whereas new buds continue to be formed. Sucrose is transported to sink tissues through symplastic or apoplastic pathways and a shift from symplastic to apoplastic pathway is common during seed and fruit development. In addition, symplastic connected tissues are stronger sinks than symplastically isolated tissues that rely on sugars effluxed to the apoplast. Recent studies in sorghum, sugarcane, and maize indicate activation of apoplastic sugar in buds that transition to outgrowth but not to dormancy, although the mode of sugar transport during bud formation is still unclear. Since the apoplastic pathway in sorghum buds was specifically activated during bud outgrowth, we posit that sugar for axillary bud formation is most likely supplied through the symplastic pathway. This suggests a key developmental change at the transition stage, which alters the sugar transport pathway of newly-formed buds from symplastic to apoplastic, making the buds a less strong sink for sugars. We suggest therefore that bud outgrowth that relies on overflow of excess sucrose to the apoplast will be more sensitive to internal and environmental factors that enhance the growth of sink tissues and sucrose demand in the parent shoot; whereas bud formation that relies on symplastic sucrose will be less affected by these factors.

Advances in protoplast transfection promote efficient CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing in tetraploid potato

An efficient method of DNA-free gene-editing in potato protoplasts was developed using linearized DNA fragments, UBIQUITIN10 promoters of several plant species, kanamycin selection, and transient overexpression of the BABYBOOM transcription factor. Plant protoplasts represent a reliable experimental system for the genetic manipulation of desired traits using gene editing. Nevertheless, the selection and regeneration of mutated protoplasts are challenging and subsequent recovery of successfully edited plants is a significant bottleneck in advanced plant breeding technologies. In an effort to alleviate the obstacles related to protoplasts' transgene expression and protoplasts' regeneration, a new method was developed. In so doing, it was shown that linearized DNA could efficiently transfect potato protoplasts and that UBIQUITIN10 promoters from various plants could direct transgene expression in an effective manner. Also, the inhibitory concentration of kanamycin was standardized for transfected protoplasts, and the NEOMYCIN PHOSPHOTRANSFERASE2 (NPT2) gene could be used as a potent selection marker for the enrichment of transfected protoplasts. Furthermore, transient expression of the BABYBOOM (BBM) transcription factor promoted the regeneration of protoplast-derived calli. Together, these methods significantly increased the selection for protoplasts that displayed high transgene expression, and thereby significantly increased the rate of gene editing events in protoplast-derived calli to 95%. The method developed in this study facilitated gene-editing in tetraploid potato plants and opened the way to sophisticated genetic manipulation in polyploid organisms.

Shoot Branching Phenotyping in Arabidopsis and Tomato

Shoot branching is an important trait that depends on the activity of axillary meristems and buds and their outgrowth into branches. It is remarkably plastic, being influenced by a number of external cues, such as light, temperature, soil nutrients, and mechanical manipulation. These are transduced into an internal hormone signaling network where auxin, cytokinins, and strigolactones play leading regulatory roles. Recently, sugars have also emerged as important signals promoting bud activation. These signals are in part integrated by the bud-specific growth repressor BRANCHED1 (BRC1).To understand how shoot branching is affected by particular growth conditions or in specific plant lines, it is necessary to count the number of branches and/or quantify other branch-related parameters. Here we describe how to perform such quantifications in Arabidopsis and in tomato.

Sucrose promotes D53 accumulation and tillering in rice

Shoot branching is regulated by multiple signals. Previous studies have indicated that sucrose may promote shoot branching through suppressing the inhibitory effect of the hormone strigolactone (SL). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this effect are unknown. Here, we used molecular and genetic tools to identify the molecular targets underlying the antagonistic interaction between sucrose and SL. We showed that sucrose antagonizes the suppressive action of SL on tillering in rice and on the degradation of D53, a major target of SL signalling. Sucrose inhibits the gene expression of D3, the orthologue of the Arabidopsis F-box MAX2 required for SL signalling. Overexpression of D3 antagonizes sucrose inhibition of D53 degradation and enables the SL inhibition of tillering under high sucrose. Sucrose prevents SL-induced degradation of D14, the SL receptor involved in D53 degradation. In contrast to D3, D14 overexpression enhances D53 protein levels and sucrose-induced tillering, even in the presence of SL. Our results show that sucrose inhibits SL response by affecting key components of SL signalling and, together with previous studies reporting the inhibition of SL synthesis by nitrate and phosphate, demonstrate the central role played by SLs in the regulation of plant architecture by nutrients.

Overexpression of the Potato Monosaccharide Transporter StSWEET7a Promotes Root Colonization by Symbiotic and Pathogenic Fungi by Increasing Root Sink Strength

Root colonization by filamentous fungi modifies sugar partitioning in plants by increasing the sink strength. As a result, a transcriptional reprogramming of sugar transporters takes place. Here we have further advanced in the characterization of the potato SWEET sugar transporters and their regulation in response to the colonization by symbiotic and pathogenic fungi. We previously showed that root colonization by the AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis induces a major transcriptional reprogramming of the 35 potato SWEETs, with 12 genes induced and 10 repressed. In contrast, here we show that during the early colonization phase, the necrotrophic fungus Fusarium solani only induces one SWEET transporter, StSWEET7a, while represses most of the others (25). StSWEET7a was also induced during root colonization by the hemi-biotrophic fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. tuberosi. StSWEET7a which belongs to the clade II of SWEET transporters localized to the plasma membrane and transports glucose, fructose and mannose. Overexpression of StSWEET7a in potato roots increased the strength of this sink as evidenced by an increase in the expression of the cell wall-bound invertase. Concomitantly, plants expressing StSWEET7a were faster colonized by R. irregularis and by F. oxysporum f. sp. tuberosi. The increase in sink strength induced by ectopic expression of StSWEET7a in roots could be abolished by shoot excision which reverted also the increased colonization levels by the symbiotic fungus. Altogether, these results suggest that AM fungi and Fusarium spp. might induce StSWEET7a to increase the sink strength and thus this gene might represent a common susceptibility target for root colonizing fungi.

Antagonistic Effect of Sucrose Availability and Auxin on Rosa Axillary Bud Metabolism and Signaling, Based on the Transcriptomics and Metabolomics Analysis

Shoot branching is crucial for successful plant development and plant response to environmental factors. Extensive investigations have revealed the involvement of an intricate regulatory network including hormones and sugars. Recent studies have demonstrated that two major systemic regulators-auxin and sugar-antagonistically regulate plant branching. However, little is known regarding the molecular mechanisms involved in this crosstalk. We carried out two complementary untargeted approaches-RNA-seq and metabolomics-on explant stem buds fed with different concentrations of auxin and sucrose resulting in dormant and non-dormant buds. Buds responded to the combined effect of auxin and sugar by massive reprogramming of the transcriptome and metabolome. The antagonistic effect of sucrose and auxin targeted several important physiological processes, including sink strength, the amino acid metabolism, the sulfate metabolism, ribosome biogenesis, the nucleic acid metabolism, and phytohormone signaling. Further experiments revealed a role of the TOR-kinase signaling pathway in bud outgrowth through at least downregulation of Rosa hybrida BRANCHED1 (RhBRC1). These new findings represent a cornerstone to further investigate the diverse molecular mechanisms that drive the integration of endogenous factors during shoot branching.

Plasticity of bud outgrowth varies at cauline and rosette nodes in Arabidopsis thaliana

Shoot branching is a complex mechanism in which secondary shoots grow from buds that are initiated from meristems established in leaf axils. The model plant Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) has a rosette leaf growth pattern in the vegetative stage. After flowering initiation, the main stem elongates with the top leaf primordia developing into cauline leaves. Meristems in Arabidopsis initiate in the axils of rosette or cauline leaves, giving rise to rosette or cauline buds, respectively. Plasticity in the process of shoot branching is regulated by resource and nutrient availability as well as by plant hormones. However, few studies have attempted to test whether cauline and rosette branching are subject to the same plasticity. Here, we addressed this question by phenotyping cauline and rosette branching in three Arabidopsis ecotypes and several Arabidopsis mutants with varied shoot architectures. Our results showed no negative correlation between cauline and rosette branch numbers in Arabidopsis, demonstrating that there is no tradeoff between cauline and rosette bud outgrowth. Through investigation of the altered branching pattern of flowering pathway mutants and Arabidopsis ecotypes grown in various photoperiods and light regimes, we further elucidated that the number of cauline branches is closely related to flowering time. The number of rosette branches has an enormous plasticity compared with cauline branches and is influenced by genetic background, flowering time, light intensity, and temperature. Our data reveal different levels of plasticity in the regulation of branching at rosette and cauline nodes, and promote a framework for future branching analyses.

Hormone and carbohydrate metabolism associated genes play important roles in rhizome bud full-year germination of Cephalostachyum pingbianense

Cephalostachyum pingbianense is the only woody bamboo species that can produce bamboo shoots in four seasons under natural conditions. So far, the regulatory mechanism of shoot bud differentiation and development is unknown. In the present study, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), zeatin riboside (ZR), gibberellin A3 (GA₃ ) and abscisic acid (ABA) contents determination, RNA sequencing and differentially expressed gene analysis were performed on dormant rhizome bud (DR), growing rhizome bud (GR), and germinative bud (GB) in each season. The results showed that the contents of IAA and ZR increased while ABA content decreased, and GA₃ content was stable during bud transition from dormancy to germination in each season. Moreover, rhizome bud germination was cooperatively regulated by multiple pathways such as carbohydrate metabolism, hormone signal transduction, cell wall biogenesis, temperature response, and water transport. The inferred hub genes among these candidates were identified by protein-protein interaction network analyses, most of which were involved in hormone and carbohydrate metabolism, such as HK and BGLU4 in spring, IDH and GH3 in winter, GPI and talA/talB in summer and autumn. It is speculated that dynamic phytohormone changes and differential expression of these genes promote the release of rhizome bud dormancy and contribute to the phenological characteristics of full-year shooting. Moreover, the rhizome buds of C. pingbianense may not suffer from ecodormancy in winter. These findings would help accumulate knowledge on shooting mechanisms in woody bamboos and provide a physiological insight into germplasm conservation and forest management of C. pingbianense.

Sugars and the speed of life-Metabolic signals that determine plant growth, development and death

Plant growth and development depend on the availability of carbohydrates synthesised in photosynthesis (source activity) and utilisation of these carbohydrates for growth (sink activity). External conditions, such as temperature, nutrient availability and stress, can affect source as well as sink activity. Optimal utilisation of resources is under circadian clock control. This molecular timekeeper ensures that growth responses are adjusted to different photoperiod and temperature settings by modulating starch accumulation and degradation accordingly. For example, during the night, starch degradation is required to provide sugars for growth. Under favourable growth conditions, high sugar availability stimulates growth and development, resulting in an overall accelerated life cycle of annual plants. Key signalling components include trehalose-6-phosphate (Tre6P), which reflects sucrose availability and stimulates growth and branching when the conditions are favourable. Under sink limitation, Tre6P does, however, inhibit night-time starch degradation. Tre6P interacts with Sucrose-non-fermenting1-Related Kinase1 (SnRK1), a protein kinase that inhibits growth under starvation and stress conditions and delays development (including flowering and senescence). Tre6P inhibits SnRK1 activity, but SnRK1 increases the Tre6P to sucrose ratio under favourable conditions. Alongside Tre6P, Target of Rapamycin (TOR) stimulates processes such as protein synthesis and growth when sugar availability is high. In annual plants, an accelerated life cycle results in early leaf and plant senescence, thus shortening the lifespan. While the availability of carbohydrates in the form of sucrose and other sugars also plays an important role in seasonal life cycle events (phenology) of perennial plants, the sugar signalling pathways in perennials are less well understood.

Biological Functions of Strigolactones and Their Crosstalk With Other Phytohormones

Phytohormones are small chemicals critical for plant development and adaptation to a changing environment. Strigolactones (SLs), carotenoid-derived small signalling molecules and a class of phytohormones, regulate multiple developmental processes and respond to diverse environmental signals. SLs also coordinate adjustments in the balance of resource distribution by strategic modification of the plant development, allowing plants to adapt to nutrient deficiency. Instead of operating independently, SL interplays with abscisic acid, cytokinin, auxin, ethylene, and some other plant phytohormones, forming elaborate signalling networks. Hormone signalling crosstalk in plant development and environmental response may occur in a fully concerted manner or as a cascade of sequential events. In many cases, the exact underlying mechanism is unclear because of the different effects of phytohormones and the varying backgrounds of their actions. In this review, we systematically summarise the synthesis, signal transduction, and biological functions of SLs and further highlight the significance of crosstalk between SLs and other phytohormones during plant development and resistance to ever-changing environments.

HEXOKINASE1 signalling promotes shoot branching and interacts with cytokinin and strigolactone pathways

Plant architecture is controlled by several endogenous signals including hormones and sugars. However, only little information is known about the nature and roles of the sugar signalling pathways in this process. Here we test whether the sugar signalling pathway mediated by HEXOKINASE1 (HXK1) is involved in the control of shoot branching. To test the involvement of HXK1 in shoot branching and in the hormonal network controlling this process, we modulated the HXK1 pathway using physiological and genetic approaches in rose, pea and arabidopsis. Mannose-induced HXK signalling triggered bud outgrowth in rose and pea. In arabidopsis, both HXK1 deficiency and defoliation led to decreased shoot branching and conferred hypersensitivity to auxin. Complementation of the HXK1 knockout mutant gin2 with a catalytically inactive HXK1, restored shoot branching to the wild-type level. HXK1-deficient plants displayed decreased cytokinin levels and increased expression of MAX2, which is required for strigolactone signalling. The branching phenotype of HXK1-deficient plants could be partly restored by cytokinin treatment and strigolactone deficiency could override the negative impact of HXK1 deficiency on shoot branching. Our observations demonstrate that HXK1 signalling contributes to the regulation of shoot branching and interacts with hormones to modulate plant architecture.