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Kakooza-Mwesige A, Tshala-Katumbay D, Juliano SL. Viral infections of the central nervous system in Africa. Brain Res Bull 2019; 145:2-17. [PMID: 30658129 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2018.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Viral infections are a major cause of human central nervous system infection, and may be associated with significant mortality, and long-term sequelae. In Africa, the lack of effective therapies, limited diagnostic and human resource facilities are especially in dire need. Most viruses that affect the central nervous system are opportunistic or accidental pathogens. Some of these viruses were initially considered harmless, however they have now evolved to penetrate the nervous system efficiently and exploit neuronal cell biology thus resulting in severe illness. A number of potentially lethal neurotropic viruses have been discovered in Africa and over the course of time shown their ability to spread wider afield involving other continents leaving a devastating impact in their trail. In this review we discuss key viruses involved in central nervous system disease and of major public health concern with respect to Africa. These arise from the families of Flaviviridae, Filoviridae, Retroviridae, Bunyaviridae, Rhabdoviridae and Herpesviridae. In terms of the number of cases affected by these viruses, HIV (Retroviridae) tops the list for morbidity, mortality and long term disability, while the Rift Valley Fever virus (Bunyaviridae) is at the bottom of the list. The most deadly are the Ebola and Marburg viruses (Filoviridae). This review describes their epidemiology and key neurological manifestations as regards the central nervous system such as meningoencephalitis and Guillain-Barré syndrome. The potential pathogenic mechanisms adopted by these viruses are debated and research perspectives suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelina Kakooza-Mwesige
- Department of Paediatrics & Child Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences and Mulago Hospital, Kampala, Uganda; Astrid Lindgren Children's Hospital, Neuropediatric Research Unit, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden.
| | - Desire Tshala-Katumbay
- Department of Neurology and School of Public Health, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Kinshasa, and Institut National de Recherches Biomedicales, University of Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
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Singh R, Singh KP, Cherian S, Saminathan M, Kapoor S, Manjunatha Reddy GB, Panda S, Dhama K. Rabies - epidemiology, pathogenesis, public health concerns and advances in diagnosis and control: a comprehensive review. Vet Q 2017. [PMID: 28643547 DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2017.1343516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a zoonotic, fatal and progressive neurological infection caused by rabies virus of the genus Lyssavirus and family Rhabdoviridae. It affects all warm-blooded animals and the disease is prevalent throughout the world and endemic in many countries except in Islands like Australia and Antarctica. Over 60,000 peoples die every year due to rabies, while approximately 15 million people receive rabies post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) annually. Bite of rabid animals and saliva of infected host are mainly responsible for transmission and wildlife like raccoons, skunks, bats and foxes are main reservoirs for rabies. The incubation period is highly variable from 2 weeks to 6 years (avg. 2-3 months). Though severe neurologic signs and fatal outcome, neuropathological lesions are relatively mild. Rabies virus exploits various mechanisms to evade the host immune responses. Being a major zoonosis, precise and rapid diagnosis is important for early treatment and effective prevention and control measures. Traditional rapid Seller's staining and histopathological methods are still in use for diagnosis of rabies. Direct immunofluoroscent test (dFAT) is gold standard test and most commonly recommended for diagnosis of rabies in fresh brain tissues of dogs by both OIE and WHO. Mouse inoculation test (MIT) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are superior and used for routine diagnosis. Vaccination with live attenuated or inactivated viruses, DNA and recombinant vaccines can be done in endemic areas. This review describes in detail about epidemiology, transmission, pathogenesis, advances in diagnosis, vaccination and therapeutic approaches along with appropriate prevention and control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajendra Singh
- a Division of Pathology , ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute , Bareilly , Uttar Pradesh , India
| | - Karam Pal Singh
- b Centre for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis (CADRAD) , ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute , Bareilly , Uttar Pradesh , India
| | - Susan Cherian
- a Division of Pathology , ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute , Bareilly , Uttar Pradesh , India
| | - Mani Saminathan
- a Division of Pathology , ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute , Bareilly , Uttar Pradesh , India
| | - Sanjay Kapoor
- c Department of Veterinary Microbiology , LLR University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences , Hisar , Haryana , India
| | - G B Manjunatha Reddy
- d ICAR-National Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Disease Informatics , Bengaluru , Karnataka , India
| | - Shibani Panda
- a Division of Pathology , ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute , Bareilly , Uttar Pradesh , India
| | - Kuldeep Dhama
- a Division of Pathology , ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute , Bareilly , Uttar Pradesh , India
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Srithayakumar V, Sribalachandran H, Rosatte R, Nadin-Davis SA, Kyle CJ. Innate immune responses in raccoons after raccoon rabies virus infection. J Gen Virol 2013; 95:16-25. [PMID: 24085257 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.053942-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Zoonotic wildlife diseases pose significant health risks not only to their primary vectors but also to humans and domestic animals. Rabies is a lethal encephalitis caused by rabies virus (RV). This RNA virus can infect a range of terrestrial mammals but each viral variant persists in a particular reservoir host. Active management of these host vectors is needed to minimize the negative impacts of this disease, and an understanding of the immune response to RV infection aids strategies for host vaccination. Current knowledge of immune responses to RV infection comes primarily from rodent models in which an innate immune response triggers activation of several genes and signalling pathways. It is unclear, however, how well rodent models represent the immune response of natural hosts. This study investigates the innate immune response of a primary host, the raccoon, to a peripheral challenge using the raccoon rabies virus (RRV). The extent and temporal course of this response during RRV infection was analysed using genes predicted to be upregulated during infection (IFNs; IFN regulatory factors; IL-6; Toll like receptor-3; TNF receptor). We found that RRV activated components of the innate immune system, with changes in levels of transcripts correlated with presence of viral RNA. Our results suggest that natural reservoirs of rabies may not mimic the immune response triggered in rodent models, highlighting the need for further studies of infection in primary hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vythegi Srithayakumar
- Natural Resources DNA Profiling and Forensics Centre, DNA Building, Trent University, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON, Canada.,Environmental and Life Sciences Graduate Program, Trent University, 1600 West Bank Drive Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | | | - Rick Rosatte
- Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Wildlife Research and Development Section, Trent University, DNA Building, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Susan A Nadin-Davis
- Centre of Expertise for Rabies, Ottawa Laboratory Fallowfield, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Christopher J Kyle
- Forensic Science Department, Trent University, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON, Canada.,Natural Resources DNA Profiling and Forensics Centre, DNA Building, Trent University, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON, Canada
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Velandia ML, Pérez-Castro R, Hurtado H, Castellanos JE. Ultrastructural description of rabies virus infection in cultured sensory neurons. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2007; 102:441-7. [PMID: 17612763 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762007005000030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2006] [Accepted: 03/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary cultures were made from adult mouse spinal ganglia for depicting an ultrastructural description of rabies virus (RABV) infection in adult mouse sensory neuron cultures; they were infected with rabies virus for 24, 36, and 48 h. The monolayers were processed for transmission electron microscopy and immunochemistry studies at the end of each period. As previously reported, sensory neurons showed great susceptibility to infection by RABV; however, in none of the periods evaluated were assembled virions observed in the cytoplasm or seen to be associated with the cytoplasmic membrane. Instead, fibril matrices of aggregated ribonucleoprotein were detected in the cytoplasm. When infected culture lysate were inoculated into normal animals via intra-cerebral route it was observed that these animals developed clinical symptoms characteristic of infection and transmission electron microscopy revealed assembled virions in the cerebral cortex and other areas of the brain. Sensory neurons infected in vitro by RABV produced a large amount of unassembled viral ribonucleoprotein. However, this intracellular material was able to produce infection and virions on being intra-cerebrally inoculated. It can thus be suggested that the lack of intracellular assembly in sensory neurons forms part of an efficient dissemination strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam L Velandia
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Bogotá, Colombia
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Johnson N, McKimmie CS, Mansfield KL, Wakeley PR, Brookes SM, Fazakerley JK, Fooks AR. Lyssavirus infection activates interferon gene expression in the brain. J Gen Virol 2006; 87:2663-2667. [PMID: 16894206 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.82024-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate the innate immune response within the brain to lyssavirus infection, key transcripts indicative of innate defences were measured in a mouse model system. Following infection with Rabies virus, transcript levels for type 1 interferons (IFN-alpha and -beta), the inflammatory mediator interleukin 6 (IL-6) and the antiviral protein Mx1 increased in the brains of mice. Intracranial inoculation resulted in the early detection of virus replication and rapid expression within the brain of the innate immune response genes. Transcripts for type 1 IFNs declined as the disease progressed. Peripheral, extraneural inoculation delayed the host response until virus entered the brain, but then resulted in a large increase in the level of IFN-beta, IL-6 and Mx1 transcripts. Induction of this response was also observed following infection with the related European bat lyssaviruses, a group of zoonotic viruses capable of causing fatal, rabies-like disease in mammalian species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Johnson
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group (WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterization of Rabies and Rabies-related Viruses), Department of Virology, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Clive S McKimmie
- Virology, Centre for Infectious Diseases, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
| | - Karen L Mansfield
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group (WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterization of Rabies and Rabies-related Viruses), Department of Virology, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Philip R Wakeley
- Technology Transfer Unit, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Sharon M Brookes
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group (WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterization of Rabies and Rabies-related Viruses), Department of Virology, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - John K Fazakerley
- Virology, Centre for Infectious Diseases, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 1QH, UK
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group (WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterization of Rabies and Rabies-related Viruses), Department of Virology, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (Weybridge), Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
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Nakamichi K, Inoue S, Takasaki T, Morimoto K, Kurane I. Rabies virus stimulates nitric oxide production and CXC chemokine ligand 10 expression in macrophages through activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2. J Virol 2004; 78:9376-88. [PMID: 15308732 PMCID: PMC506932 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.17.9376-9388.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophages represent an essential part of innate immunity, and the viral infection of macrophages results in the release of multiple proinflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide (NO), cytokines, and chemokines. This study was undertaken to define the molecular mechanism of macrophage activation in response to rabies virus (RV) infection. In RAW264 murine macrophage cells, a well-characterized macrophage model, RV replication was strictly restricted, whereas cell proliferation was significantly enhanced upon RV inoculation. Transcriptional analyses for the expression of inducible forms of NO synthase (iNOS), cytokines, and chemokines revealed that RV virions potentiate the gene expression of iNOS and CXC chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10), a major chemoattractant of T helper cell type 1. However, RV stimulation had little or no effect on the expression profiles of proinflammatory cytokines and other types of chemokines. In macrophages stimulated with UV-inactivated RV virions, as well as infectious viruses, the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1 and 2, members of the mitogen-activated protein kinase family, was significantly induced. Specific inhibitors of MAPK/ERK kinase reduced the RV-induced production of NO and CXCL10. Furthermore, the RV-induced activation of the ERK1/2 pathway was severely impaired by the neutralization of the endosomal and lysosomal pH environment with lysosomotropic agents, indicating that endocytosis is a key step leading to the activation of ERK1/2 signaling. Taken together, these results suggest that the ERK1/2-mediated signaling pathway plays a cardinal role in the selective activation of macrophages in response to RV virions, thereby regulating cellular functions during virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuo Nakamichi
- Department of Virology I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan
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Abstract
Cultures of purified rat embryonic spinal cord motoneurons were used to investigate the capacity of the neurons to survive rabies virus infection in vitro. In crude primary spinal cord cultures, neurons did not survive more than 2 days after rabies virus infection with the fixed strain Challenge Virus Standard. In contrast, virus-infected purified motoneurons resisted cytolysis for at least 7 days, as also did infected motoneurons treated with conditioned medium sampled from rabies virus-infected crude spinal cord cultures. This survival rate was also observed when motoneurons were grown in the presence of astrocytes or fibroblasts and it was not dependent on the presence of growth factors in the culture medium. Moreover, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling experiments showed that only 30% of infected motoneurons were apoptotic after 7 days of infection. In vivo, despite the massive infection of the spinal cord in infected rat neonates, the moderate number of apoptotic cells in the ventral horn suggests that only a few motoneurons were affected by this mechanism of cell death. Morphometric analyses showed that motoneurons' axon elongated at a comparable rate in virus-infected and noninfected cultures, a sign of high metabolic activity maintained in rabies virus-infected motoneurons. In contrast, hippocampus neurons were susceptible to rabies virus infection, because 70% of infected neurons were destroyed within 3 days, a large proportion of them being apoptotic. These experiments suggest that spinal cord motoneurons consist in a neuronal population that survive rabies virus infection because the viral induction of apoptosis is delayed in these neurons. They suggest also that paralyses frequently observed in rabid animals could be the consequence of dysfunctions of the locomotor network or of the spinal cord motoneurons themselves, whose parameters could be studied in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Guigoni
- Groupe d'Etude des Réseaux Moteurs, CNRS, Marseille, France
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Abstract
Early events in rabies virus entry into neurons were investigated in chick spinal cord-muscle cocultures. Rabies virus (CVS strain) was adsorbed to the surface of cells in the cold. At times up to 10 min of warming to 37 degrees C, virus was most intensely localized to dense swellings on the myotube surface. Texas Red-labeled alpha-bungarotoxin, which binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, colocalized precisely with virus at the densities identifying these regions as neuromuscular junctions. Rabies virus also colocalized in the junctions with synapsin I, a marker for synaptic vesicles. The endosome tracers Lucifer Yellow, Texan Red-dextran, and rhodamine-wheat germ agglutinin were added to the cultures at the end of the virus adsorption period and the cultures were warmed. At 10 min, rabies virus and tracers colocalized at neuromuscular junctions and nerve terminals. At 30 min, rabies virus and tracers showed more intense fluorescence over nerve fibers and nerve cell bodies. At 60 min, nerve terminals, nerve fibers, and nerve cell bodies showed intense fluorescence and colocalization for rabies virus and tracers. LysoTracker Red, a marker for acidic compartments, colocalized with rabies virus at nerve-muscle contacts. These findings show that in nerve-muscle cocultures, the neuromuscular junction is the major site of entry into neurons. Colocalization of virus and endosome tracers within nerve terminals indicates that virus resides in an early endosome compartment, some of which are acidified. The progressive increase of virus and tracers in nerve fibers and nerve cell bodies over time is consistent with retrograde transport of endocytosed virus from the motor nerve terminal.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Lewis
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, PO Box 208002, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8002, USA
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Castellanos JE, Castañeda DR, Velandia AE, Hurtado H. Partial inhibition of the in vitro infection of adult mouse dorsal root ganglion neurons by rabies virus using nicotinic antagonists. Neurosci Lett 1997; 229:198-200. [PMID: 9237492 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(97)00440-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The infection of target cells by rabies virus is effected through membrane receptors. Several authors have suggested that nicotinic receptors could be used by this virus, but no direct experimental evidence is available. In this study mouse dorsal root ganglia cells were treated with various nicotinic antagonists (dihydro-beta-eritroidine, mecamilamine, d-tubocurarin, hexametonium, alpha-bungarotoxin and erabutoxin). After incubation, the cultures were infected with rabies virus. Cells were fixed, and processed for immunodetection of rabies virus. Treatment with mecamilamine or d-tubocurarine reduced the percentage of infected neurons. None of the antagonists tested changed the percentage of infected non-neuronal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Castellanos
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Santafé de Bogotá, Columbia.
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Lentz TL, Fu Y, Lewis P. Rabies virus infection of IMR-32 human neuroblastoma cells and effect of neurochemical and other agents. Antiviral Res 1997; 35:29-39. [PMID: 9224959 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-3542(97)01036-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
IMR-32 human neuroblastoma cells are a continuous nerve cell line expressing neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. These cells were found to be susceptible to infection by rabies virus (CVS strain). After infection, viral antigen accumulated in the cell body in puncta and larger masses and spread out into the processes until at 3-4 days the entire cell was filled with antigen and lysed. A variety of chemical agents including cholinergic agonists and antagonists were tested for ability to inhibit infection of IMR-32 cells in a fluorescent focus assay. Agents found to inhibit infection were antibodies against the viral glycoprotein, gangliosides, a synthetic peptide of the neurotoxin-binding site of Torpedo acetylcholine receptor alpha1 subunit, alpha-bungarotoxin, and lysosomotropic agents. All other agents tested including other cholinergic ligands and synthetic peptides were not effective. Except for lysosomotropic agents, the agents which inhibited infection also inhibited attachment of virus to the cell surface. These results indicate that IMR-32 cells are a useful model in studying the interaction of a neurotropic virus with human neurons. The ability of alpha-bungarotoxin to inhibit infection suggests that neuronal alpha-bungarotoxin-binding receptors might serve as central nervous system receptors for rabies virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- T L Lentz
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8002, USA.
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Broughan JH, Wunner WH. Characterization of protein involvement in rabies virus binding to BHK-21 cells. Arch Virol 1995; 140:75-93. [PMID: 7646349 DOI: 10.1007/bf01309725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Prior studies established the specificity of rabies virus receptors on BHK-21 cells based on the saturability of the receptors and on competitive binding. In the present study, we used protease-treated cells to identify the involvement of protein in the specific binding of rabies virus to these cells. In addition, biochemical characterization of n-octylglucoside solubilized BHK-21 plasma membranes demonstrated the involvement of a protease sensitive, heat insensitive, integral membrane protein or protein complex in rabies virus binding to these cells. The membrane component that binds rabies virus is associated with a high molecular weight fraction of the n-octylglucoside-plasma membrane extract isolated by gel filtration. This high molecular weight fraction (approximately 450 KDa) is enriched with a cell surface integral membrane component that comigrates with denatured bovine serum fibronectin (220 KDa). This cellular component did not bind polyclonal antisera to fibronectin in Western blot (native or denatured) or immunoprecipitation experiments. Direct and specific virus binding to high molecular weight plasma membrane protein(s) separated on Western blots further confirmed the role of a protein receptor in rabies virus binding to these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Broughan
- Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Charlton KM. The pathogenesis of rabies and other lyssaviral infections: recent studies. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1994; 187:95-119. [PMID: 7859501 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-78490-3_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K M Charlton
- Agriculture Canada, Animal Diseases Research Institute, Nepean, Ontario
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Ceccaldi PE, Fillion MP, Ermine A, Tsiang H, Fillion G. Rabies virus selectively alters 5-HT1 receptor subtypes in rat brain. Eur J Pharmacol 1993; 245:129-38. [PMID: 8491253 DOI: 10.1016/0922-4106(93)90120-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Rabies virus infection in man induces a series of clinical symptoms, some suggesting involvement of the central serotonergic system. The results of the present study show that, 5 days after rabies virus infection in rat, the total reversible high-affinity binding of [3H]5-HT in the hippocampus is not affected, suggesting that 5-HT1A binding is not altered. 5-HT1B sites identified by [125I]cyanopindolol binding are not affected in the cortex 3 and 5 days after the infection. Accordingly, the cellular inhibitory effect of trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP) on the [3H]acetylcholine-evoked release, presumably related to 5-HT1B receptor activity, is not modified 3 days after infection. In contrast, [3H]5-HT binding determined in the presence of drugs masking 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B and 5-HT1C receptors, is markedly (50%) reduced 3 days after the viral infection. These results suggest that 5-HT1D-like receptor subtypes may be affected specifically and at an early stage after rabies viral infection.
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Hanham CA, Zhao F, Tignor GH. Evidence from the anti-idiotypic network that the acetylcholine receptor is a rabies virus receptor. J Virol 1993; 67:530-42. [PMID: 7677960 PMCID: PMC237390 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.67.1.530-542.1993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
We have developed idiotype-anti-idiotype monoclonal antibodies that provide evidence for rabies virus binding to the acetylcholine receptor (AChR). Hybridoma cell lines 7.12 and 7.25 resulted after fusion of NS-1 myeloma cells with spleen cells from a BALB/c mouse immunized with rabies virus strain CVS. Antibody 7.12 reacted with viral glycoprotein and neutralized virus infectivity in vivo. It also neutralized infectivity in vitro when PC12 cells, which express neuronal AChR, but not CER cells or neuroblastoma cells (clone N18), which have no AChR, were used. Antibody 7.25 reacted with nucleocapsid protein. Anti-idiotypic monoclonal antibody B9 was produced from fusion of NS-1 cells with spleen cells from a mouse immunized with 7.12 Fab. In an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunoprecipitation, B9 reacted with 7.12, polyclonal rabies virus immune dog serum, and purified AChR. The binding of B9 to 7.12 and immune dog serum was inhibited by AChR. B9 also inhibited the binding of 7.12 to rabies virus both in vitro and in vivo. Indirect immunofluorescence revealed that B9 reacted at neuromuscular junctions of mouse tissue. B9 also reacted in indirect immunofluorescence with distinct neurons in mouse and monkey brain tissue as well as with PC12 cells. B9 staining of neuronal elements in brain tissue of rabies virus-infected mice was greatly reduced. Rabies virus inhibited the binding of B9 to PC12 cells. Mice immunized with B9 developed low-titer rabies virus-neutralizing antibody. These mice were protected from lethal intramuscular rabies virus challenge. In contrast, anti-idiotypic antibody raised against nucleocapsid antibody 7.25 did not react with AChR.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Hanham
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510
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Affiliation(s)
- H Tsiang
- Rabies Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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Lentz TL. Structure-function relationships of curaremimetic neurotoxin loop 2 and of a structurally similar segment of rabies virus glycoprotein in their interaction with the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Biochemistry 1991; 30:10949-57. [PMID: 1932020 DOI: 10.1021/bi00109a020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Peptides corresponding to portions of curaremimetic neurotoxin loop 2 and to a structurally similar segment of rabies virus glycoprotein were synthetically modified in order to gain information on structure-function relationships of neurotoxin loop 2 interactions with the acetylcholine receptor. Binding of synthetic peptides to the acetylcholine receptor of Torpedo electric organ membranes was assessed by measuring their ability to inhibit the binding of 125I-alpha-bungarotoxin to the receptor. The peptides showing the highest affinity for the receptor were a peptide corresponding to the sequence of loop 2 (residues 25-44) of Ophiophagus hannah (king cobra) toxin b (IC50 = 5.7 x 10(-6) M) and the structurally similar segment (residues 173-203) of CVS rabies virus glycoprotein (IC50 = 2.6 x 10(-6) M). These affinities were comparable to those of d-tubocurarine (IC50 = 3.4 x 10(-6) M) and suberyldicholine (IC50 = 2.5 x 10(-6) M). These results demonstrate the importance of loop 2 in the neurotoxin interaction with the receptor. N- and C-terminal deletions of the loop 2 peptides and substitution of residues invariant or highly conserved among neurotoxins were performed in order to determine the role of individual residues in binding. Residues 25-40 are the most crucial in the interaction with the acetylcholine receptor. Modifications involving Lys-27, Trp-29, Phe-33, Arg-37, and Gly-38 reduced affinity of binding. R37D and F33T modifications reduced the affinity of alpha-bungarotoxin residues 28-40 by an order of magnitude. Arg-37 may correspond to the positively charged quaternary ammonium group and Phe-33 to the hydrophobic acetyl methyl group of acetylcholine.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- T L Lentz
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510
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Shahar A, Lustig S, Akov Y, David Y, Schneider P, Levin R. Different pathogenicity of encephalitic togaviruses in organotypic cultures of spinal cord slices. J Neurosci Res 1990; 25:345-52. [PMID: 1691307 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.490250311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenicity of two encephalitic Togaviruses, Sindbis virus (SV), an alphavirus, and West Nile virus (WNV), a flavivirus, was studied in organotypic cultures of fetal mouse spinal cord slices grown in roller tubes. After about 3 weeks in vitro, during which time the cultures became abundantly myelinated, they were infected either by 5 X 10(5) PFU SV or by 5 X 10(6) PFU WNV per culture. The viruses caused different patterns of cytopathogenicity: SV induced severe cytotoxicity in all glia cells and neurons with concomitant demyelination within 48 hr. In contrast, WNV, even 4 days after infection, caused only mild cytopathic effects mainly to neurons and astrocytes and a slight degree of damage to the myelin sheath. A most remarkable finding was the entrapment of WNV particles in the interperiod lines of the myelin sheaths. Treatment of cultures with mouse alpha and beta interferon prior to their infection with either virus protected the cultures from any viral damage. Long-term exposure of non-infected control organotypic cultures of fetal spinal cord slices to mouse interferons had no significant effect on neuronal and glial differentiation, and myelin formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Shahar
- Department of Virology, Israel Institute for Biological Research Ness-Ziona
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Lentz TL. Binding of viral attachment protein to host-cell receptor: the Achilles heel of infectious viruses. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1988; 9:247-52. [PMID: 3073564 DOI: 10.1016/0165-6147(88)90154-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Gosztonyi G, Cervós-Navarro J. Immunohistochemical and electron microscopic techniques in the diagnosis of viral encephalitides. Pathol Res Pract 1988; 183:223-52. [PMID: 3047714 DOI: 10.1016/s0344-0338(88)80116-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Electron microscopy and in particular, immunohistochemical examination techniques have substantially improved the chances to attain an etiologic diagnosis in viral encephalitis. The application of these techniques is needed first of all in the examination of cerebral biopsy specimens, but they can contribute to the clearing of the etiology at post mortem study of the brain, too. This review outlines the basic techniques and their application fields. In immunohistochemistry beside the demonstration of specific viral antigens the analysis of the humoral and cellular immune reactions and the identification of the cell types involved by cell specific markers is also important. The second part of the review gives a synopsis of the results of electron microscopic and immunohistochemical studies in the most important acute, subacute and chronic encephalitides occurring in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Gosztonyi
- Institute of Neuropathology, Free University Berlin, F.R.G
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Conti C, Hauttecoeur B, Morelec MJ, Bizzini B, Orsi N, Tsiang H. Inhibition of rabies virus infection by a soluble membrane fraction from the rat central nervous system. Arch Virol 1988; 98:73-86. [PMID: 3341923 DOI: 10.1007/bf01321007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes the inhibitory effect of a normal rat brain solubilized membrane preparation (RBSM-liposomes) on rabies virus infection. Rabies virus was incubated with RBSM-liposomes or their separated components (proteins, phospholipids, gangliosides) before infection of CER or neuroblastoma cells. In addition, both RBSM-liposomes and target cells were treated with enzymes prior to the infection step. All these experimental procedures showed that the active components were mainly lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Conti
- Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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Abstract
The axonal transport of rabies virus (challenge virus strain of fixed virus) was studied in differentiated rat embryonic dorsal root ganglion cells. In addition, we observed the attachment of rabies virus to neuronal extensions and virus production by infected neurons. A compartmentalized cell culture system was used, allowing infection and manipulation of neuronal extensions without exposing the neural soma to the virus. The cultures consisted of 60% large neuronal cells whose extensions exhibited neurofilament structures. Rabies virus demonstrated high binding affinity to unmyelinated neurites, as suggested by assays of virus adsorption and immunofluorescence studies. The rate of axoplasmic transport of virus was 12 to 24 mm/day, including the time required for internalization of the virus into neurites. The virus transport could be blocked by cytochalasin B, vinblastine, and colchicine, none of which negatively affected the production of virus in cells once the infection was established. It was concluded that, for the retrograde transfer of rabies virus by neurites from the periphery to the neuronal soma, the integrity of tubulin- and actin-containing structures is essential. The rat sensory neurons were characterized as permissive, moderately susceptible, but low producers of rabies virus. These neurons were capable of harboring rabies virus for long periods of time and able to release virus into the culture medium without showing any morphological alterations. The involvement of sensory neurons in rabies virus pathogenesis, both in viral transport and as a site for persistent viral infection, is discussed.
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Lentz TL, Hawrot E, Wilson PT. Synthetic peptides corresponding to sequences of snake venom neurotoxins and rabies virus glycoprotein bind to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Proteins 1987; 2:298-307. [PMID: 3448605 DOI: 10.1002/prot.340020406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Peptides corresponding to portions of loop 2 of snake venom curare-mimetic neurotoxins and to a structurally similar region of rabies virus glycoprotein were synthesized. Interaction of these peptides with purified Torpedo electric organ acetylcholine receptor was tested by measuring their ability to block the binding of 125I-labeled alpha-bungarotoxin to the receptor. In addition, inhibition of alpha-bungarotoxin binding to a 32-residue synthetic peptide corresponding to positions 173-204 of the alpha-subunit was determined. Neurotoxin and glycoprotein peptides corresponding to toxin loop 2 inhibited labeled toxin binding to the receptor with IC50 values comparable to those of nicotine and the competitive antagonist d-tubocurarine and to the alpha-subunit peptides with apparent affinities between those of d-tubocurarine and alpha-cobratoxin. Substitution of neurotoxin residue Arg37, the proposed counterpart of the quaternary ammonium of acetylcholine, with a negatively charged Glu residue reduced the apparent affinity about 10-fold. Peptides containing the neurotoxin invariant residue Trp29 and 10- to 100-fold higher affinities than peptides lacking this residue. These results demonstrate that relatively short synthetic peptides retain some of the binding ability of the native protein from which they are derived, indicating that such peptides are useful in the study of protein-protein interactions. The ability of the peptides to compete alpha-bungarotoxin binding to the receptor with apparent affinities comparable to those of other cholinergic ligands indicates that loop 2 of the neurotoxins and the structurally similar segment of the rabies virus glycoprotein act as recognition sites for the acetylcholine receptor. Invariant toxin residues Arg37 and Trp29 and their viral homologs play important, although not essential, roles in binding, possibly by interaction with complementary anionic and hydrophobic subsites on the acetylcholine receptor. The alpha-subunit peptide most likely contains all of the determinants for binding of the toxin and glycoprotein peptides present on the alpha-subunit, because these peptides bind to the 32-residue alpha-subunit peptide with the same or greater affinity as to the intact subunit.
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Affiliation(s)
- T L Lentz
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510
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