CD44+ fibroblasts increases breast cancer cell survival and drug resistance via IGF2BP3-CD44-IGF2 signalling

LINC01559 drives osimertinib resistance in NSCLC through a ceRNA network regulating miR-320a/IGF2BP3 axis

Background

Osimertinib resistance remains a major challenge in the treatment of lung adenocarcinoma. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have emerged as key regulators of drug resistance, but their roles in osimertinib resistance are poorly understood. This study aimed to identify lncRNAs driving osimertinib resistance and elucidate their molecular mechanisms.

Methods

Multi-cohort analysis (GSE222820, GSE232890, GSE255958) identified osimertinib resistance-associated lncRNAs. Functional validation employed in vitro assays (proliferation, migration, invasion, drug sensitivity) and xenograft models. Mechanistic studies involved luciferase reporter assays, RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP), and Western blotting. Clinical correlations were analyzed using TCGA-LUAD data.

Results

Our findings demonstrated that LINC01559 was markedly upregulated in LUAD tissues and osimertinib-resistant cell lines, correlating with poor patient survival. Functional analyses revealed that LINC01559 critically regulates processes linked to drug resistance, enhancing tumor cell proliferation, migration, and invasive capabilities. Knockdown of LINC01559 sensitized resistant cells to osimertinib, significantly reducing colony-forming potential and suppressing migratory/invasive behaviors. In contrast, overexpression of LINC01559 exacerbated therapeutic resistance. Mechanistically, LINC01559 functions as a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) by sponging miR-320a, promote osimertinib -resistance and upregulate the expression of the miR-320a target IGF2BP3. Rescue experiments and xenograft models confirmed that Linc01559 drives resistance via the miR-320a/IGF2BP3 axis.

Conclusion

This study identifies LINC01559 as a novel ceRNA that drives osimertinib resistance in lung adenocarcinoma by sponging miR-320a to enhance IGF2BP3 expression. Targeting the LINC01559/miR-320a/IGF2BP3 axis may provide a therapeutic strategy to overcome osimertinib resistance.

IGF2BP3 is upregulated in endometrial cancer and tightly regulates the growth of drug-resistant endometrial cancer cells via HMGA1

OBJECTIVE

Endometrial cancer (EC) is a malignant tumor with various histological subtypes and molecular phenotypes. The evaluation of drug resistance is important for cancer treatment. Progesterone resistance is the major challenge in EC. Knowledge of drug resistance in EC is important in the development of novel therapies.

METHODS

In this study, ten paracancerous and ten tumor tissues were collected to measure the expression of insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA binding protein 3 (IGF2BP3) and high-mobility group protein 1 (HMGA1). AN3CA and Ishikawa cells were used to explore the effects of IGF2BP3 on EC.

RESULTS

The expression levels of IGF2BP3 and HMGA1 were higher in EC tumor tissues than in paracancerous tissues. IGF2BP3 and HMGA1 are highly expressed in cisplatin-resistant EC cells. IGF2BP3 knockdown decreased the growth of cisplatin-resistant EC cells. Knockdown of IGF2BP3 decreased the level of HMGA1 protein. HMGA1 knockdown decreased the growth of cisplatin-resistant EC cells.

DISCUSS AND CONCLUSIONS

The findings demonstrate that IGF2BP3 is upregulated in EC and closely regulates the growth of drug-resistant EC cells via HMGA1. The findings will inform the development of novel therapies for EC.

METTL5: A Potential Biomarker for Nonsmall Cell Lung Cancer That Promotes Cancer Cell Proliferation by Interacting with IGF2BP3

Objective: To examine if METTL5 promotes the proliferation of nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells by interacting with IGF2BP3. Methods: The expression patterns of METTL5 and IGF2BP3 in NSCLC tissues, their relationship with survival rate, and their correlation were analyzed using bioinformatics and clinical sample analyses. The effects of METTL5 overexpression and IGF2BP3 knockdown, as well as those of METTL5 knockdown and IGF2BP3 overexpression, on the proliferation of NSCLC cells were analyzed by transfecting appropriate constructs. The interaction between METTL5 and IGF2BP3 was verified using the co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) assay. The in vivo effects of METTL5 and IGF2BP3 on NSCLC growth were analyzed using the tumor-bearing nude mouse model. Results: METTL5 and IGF2BP3 expression levels were positively correlated and were associated with poor clinical prognosis. The METTL5 and IGF2BP3 expression levels were upregulated in the clinical NSCLC samples. IGF2BP3 expression did not affect METTL5 expression but was regulated by METTL5. IGF2BP3 overexpression mitigated the METTL5 knockdown-induced impaired cell proliferation. Meanwhile, IGF2BP3 knockdown suppressed METTL5-mediated NSCLC cell proliferation. The Co-IP assay results revealed the interaction between METTL5 and IGF2BP3 in NSCLC cells. IGF2BP3 knockdown suppressed tumor growth, whereas IGF2BP3 overexpression enhanced tumor volume and quality. Conclusion: METTL5 induces NSCLC cell proliferation by interacting with IGF2BP3. Thus, METTL5 is a potential biomarker and a therapeutic target for NSCLC.

Expression of CD44 is associated with aggressiveness in seminomas

BACKGROUND

Testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) exhibit diverse biological and pathological features and are divided in two main types, seminomas and nonseminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCTs). CD44 is a cell surface receptor, which is highly expressed in malignancies and is implicated in tumorigenesis affecting cell-matrix interactions and cell signaling.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Here, we examined the expression of CD44 in tumor cell lines and in patients' material. We found that CD44 is over-expressed in TGCTs compared to normal tissues. Immunohistochemical staining in 71 tissue specimens demonstrated increased expression of CD44 in some patients, whereas CD44 was absent in normal tissue. In seminomas, a high percentage of tumor and stromal cells showed cytoplasmic and/or cell surface staining for CD44 as well as increased staining for CD44 in the tumor stroma was found in some cases. The increased expression of CD44 either in tumor cells or in stromal components was associated with tumor size, nodal metastasis, vascular/lymphatic invasion, and disease stage only in seminomas. The increased stromal expression of CD44 in TGCTs was positively associated with angiogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

CD44 may exhibit diverse biological functions in seminomas and NSGCTs. The expression of CD44 in tumor cells as well as in tumor stroma fosters an aggressive phenotype in seminomas and should be considered in disease treatment.

METTL3/IGF2BP3-regulated m6A modification of HYOU1 confers doxorubicin resistance in breast cancer

Chemoresistance is a main reason for therapeutic failure and poor prognosis for breast cancer (BC) patients, especially for triple-negative BC patients. How the molecular mechanisms underlying the chemoresistance to doxorubicin (Dox) in BC is not well understood. Here, we revealed that METTL3/IGF2BP3-regulated m6A modification of HYOU1 increased Dox resistance in BC cells. CCK-8 and Annexin V-FITC/PI staining assays were employed to measure viability and cell death. Western blotting and qRT-PCR assays were applied to assay the expression of genes. Knockdown and rescue experiments were used to assay the role of METTL3, IGF2BP3 and HYOU1 in regulating BC cell responses to Dox. RIP, MeRIP and dual-luciferase activity assays were applied to examine the function of METTL3/IGF2BP3 in the m6A modification of HYOU1 mRNA. It was found that global mRNA m6A methylation levels were upregulated in Dox-resistant BC cell lines. The methyltransferase METTL3 was upregulated in Dox-resistant BC cell lines, and downregulation of METTL3 could overcome this resistance. Furthermore, HYOU1 was identified as a downstream target of METTL3-mediated m6A modification. Downregulation of HYOU1 could overcome Dox resistance, while forced expression of HYOU1 resulted in Dox resistance in BC cells. METTL3 cooperated with IGF2BP3 to modulate the m6A modification of HYOU1 mRNA and increase its stability. Collectively, our findings unveiled the key roles of the METTL3/IGF2BP3/HYOU1 axis in modulating Dox sensitivity in BC cells; thus, targeting this axis might be a potential strategy to increase Dox efficacy in the treatment of BC.

IGF2BPs as novel m6A readers: Diverse roles in regulating cancer cell biological functions, hypoxia adaptation, metabolism, and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment

m6A methylation is the most frequent modification of mRNA in eukaryotes and plays a crucial role in cancer progression by regulating biological functions. Insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA-binding proteins (IGF2BP) are newly identified m6A 'readers'. They belong to a family of RNA-binding proteins, which bind to the m6A sites on different RNA sequences and stabilize them to promote cancer progression. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms by which different upstream factors regulate IGF2BP in cancer. The current literature analyzed here reveals that the IGF2BP family proteins promote cancer cell proliferation, survival, and chemoresistance, inhibit apoptosis, and are also associated with cancer glycolysis, angiogenesis, and the immune response in the tumor microenvironment. Therefore, with the discovery of their role as 'readers' of m6A and the characteristic re-expression of IGF2BPs in cancers, it is important to elucidate their mechanism of action in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. We also describe in detail the regulatory and interaction network of the IGF2BP family in downstream target RNAs and discuss their potential clinical applications as diagnostic and prognostic markers, as well as recent advances in IGF2BP biology and associated therapeutic value.

Stiffness-dependent MSC homing and differentiation into CAFs - implications for breast cancer invasion

Cellular heterogeneity and extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffening have been shown to be drivers of breast cancer invasiveness. Here, we examine how stiffness-dependent crosstalk between cancer cells and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) within an evolving tumor microenvironment regulates cancer invasion. By analyzing previously published single-cell RNA sequencing datasets, we establish the existence of a subpopulation of cells in primary tumors, secondary sites and circulatory tumor cell clusters of highly aggressive triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) that co-express MSC and cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) markers. By using hydrogels with stiffnesses of 0.5, 2 and 5 kPa to mimic different stages of ECM stiffening, we show that conditioned medium from MDA-MB-231 TNBC cells cultured on 2 kPa gels, which mimic the pre-metastatic stroma, drives efficient MSC chemotaxis and induces stable differentiation of MSC-derived CAFs in a TGFβ (TGFB1)- and contractility-dependent manner. In addition to enhancing cancer cell proliferation, MSC-derived CAFs on 2 kPa gels maximally boost local invasion and confer resistance to flow-induced shear stresses. Collectively, our results suggest that homing of MSCs at the pre-metastatic stage and their differentiation into CAFs actively drives breast cancer invasion and metastasis in TNBC.

Synergetic impact of combined navoximod with cisplatin mitigates chemo-immune resistance via blockading IDO1+ CAFs-secreted Kyn/AhR/IL-6 and pol ζ-prevented CIN in human oral squamous cell carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most prevalent aggressive form of HNSC and treated with platinum-based chemotherapy as initial therapy. However, the development of acquired resistance and neurotoxicity to platinum agents poses a significant challenge to treat locally advanced OSCC. Notably, IDO1+ CAFs could promote immunosuppressive TME for OSCC progression. Therefore, we developed a potent IDO1 inhibitor navoximod to overcome chemo-immune resistance via an antitumor immune effect synergized with cisplatin in SCC-9 co-cultured IDO1+/IDO1- CAFs and SCC-7/IDO1+ CAFs-inoculated mice. The in vitro biological assays on IDO1+ CAFs co-cultured OSCC cancer cells supported that combined navoximod with cisplatin could mitigate chemo-immune resistance through blockading IDO1+ CAFs-secreted kynurenine (Kyn)-aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-IL-6 via suppressing p-STAT3/NF-κB signals and ceasing AhR-induced loss of pol ζ-caused chromosomal instability (CIN). Moreover, the combination elicited antitumor immunity via reducing IDO1+ CAFs-secreted Kyn/AhR and conferring pol ζ in SCC-7/IDO1+ CAFs-inoculated BALB/c mice. Meanwhile, the combination could block cisplatin-induced neurotoxicity and not interfere with chemotherapy. Taken together, the study investigated the promising therapeutic potential of combined navoximod with cisplatin to mitigate tumoral immune resistance via alleviating IDO1+ CAFs-secreted immune-suppression and CIN-caused cisplatin resistance, providing a paradigm for combined chemo-immunotherapy to prolong survival in patients with OSCC.

IGF2BP3-EGFR-AKT axis promotes breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cell growth

Insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA binding protein 3 (IGF2BP3) is an emerging prognostic indicator, and its elevated expression correlates with malignancy in a broad spectrum of cancers. However, its regulatory networks have not yet been reported. In this study, we identified the regulatory targets of IGF2BP3 in breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells using RNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (RIP-seq) and high-throughput RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq). We discovered that these targets were enriched in the inflammatory response, endoplasmic reticulum stress, cell cycle, and cancer-related pathways, providing a new perspective for better understanding the functional mechanisms of IGF2BP3. Moreover, we identified that the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), a downstream target, is regulated by IGF2BP3. IGF2BP3 binds to and protects EGFR mRNA from degradation and facilitates cell proliferation via the EGFR/AKT pathway in MDA-MB-231 cells. In addition, IGF2BP3 expression was robust and could not be altered by stimulation with EGF and anti-EGFR siRNA or EGFR signaling pathway inhibitors (gefitinib, LY294002 and SL-327). These results demonstrate that IGF2BP3, as a stubborn oncogene, promotes triple-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cell proliferation by strengthening the role of the EGFR-AKT axis.

Targeting IGF2BP3 in Cancer

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) can regulate multiple pathways by binding to RNAs, playing a variety of functions, such as localization, stability, and immunity. In recent years, with the development of technology, researchers have discovered that RBPs play a key role in the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification process. M6A methylation is the most abundant form of RNA modification in eukaryotes, which is defined as methylation on the sixth N atom of adenine in RNA. Insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA-binding protein 3 (IGF2BP3) is one of the components of m6A binding proteins, which plays an important role in decoding m6A marks and performing various biological functions. IGF2BP3 is abnormally expressed in many human cancers, often associated with poor prognosis. Here, we summarize the physiological role of IGF2BP3 in organisms and describe its role and mechanism in tumors. These data suggest that IGF2BP3 may be a valuable therapeutic target and prognostic marker in the future.

Comprehensive transcriptomic profiling and mutational landscape of primary gastric linitis plastica

BACKGROUND

Primary gastric linitis plastica (GLP) is a distinct phenotype of gastric cancer with poor survival. Comprehensive molecular profiles and putative therapeutic targets of GLP remain undetermined.

METHODS

We subjected 10 tumor-normal tissue pairs to whole exome sequencing (WES) and whole transcriptome sequencing (WTS). 10 tumor samples were all GLP which involves 100% of the gastric wall macroscopically. TCGA data were compared to generate the top mutated genes and the overexpressed genes in GLP.

RESULTS

Our results reveal that GLP has distinctive genomic and transcriptomic features, dysfunction in the Hippo pathway is likely to be a key step during GLP development. 6 genes were identified as significantly highly mutated genes in GLP, including AOX1, ANKRD36C, CPXM1, PTPN14, RPAP1, and DCDC1). MUC6, as a previously identified gastric cancer driver gene, has a high mutation rate (20%) in GLP. 20% of patients in our GLP cohort had CDH1 mutations, while none had RHOA mutations. GLP exhibits high immunodeficiency and low AMPK pathway activity. Our WTS results showed that 3 PI3K-AKT pathway-related genes (PIK3R2, AKT3, and IGF1) were significantly up-regulated in GLP. Two genes were identified using immunohistochemistry (IHC), IGF2BP3 and MUC16, which specifically expressed in diffuse-type-related gastric cancer cell lines, and its knockdown inhibits PI3K-AKT pathway activity.

CONCLUSIONS

We provide the first integrative genomic and transcriptomic profiles of GLP, which may facilitate its diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment.

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in hepatocellular carcinoma progression: Biological functions and new therapeutic targets

Liver is an important organ in body that performs vital functions such as detoxification. Liver is susceptible to development of cancers, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is among them. 75-85% of liver cancer cases are related to HCC. Therefore, much attention has been directed towards understanding factors mediating HCC progression. LncRNAs are epigenetic factors with more than 200 nucleotides in length located in both nucleus and cytoplasm and they are promising candidates in cancer therapy. Directing studies towards understanding function of lncRNAs in HCC is of importance. LncRNAs regulate cell cycle progression and growth of HCC cells, and they can also induce/inhibit apoptosis in tumor cells. LncRNAs affect invasion and metastasis in HCC mainly by epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) mechanism. Revealing the association between lncRNAs and downstream signaling pathways in HCC is discussed in the current manuscript. Infectious diseases can affect lncRNA expression in mediating HCC development and then, altered expression level of lncRNA is associated with drug resistance and radio-resistance. Biomarker application of lncRNAs and their role in prognosis and diagnosis of HCC are also discussed to pave the way for treatment of HCC patients.

Biological heterogeneity of primary cancer-associated fibroblasts determines the breast cancer microenvironment

Cancer-associated fibroblasts are a highly heterogeneous group of cells whose phenotypes and gene alterations are still under deep investigation. As a part of tumor microenvironment, they are the focus of a growing number of studies. Cancer-associated fibroblasts might become a new target of breast cancer therapy, but still more tests and analyses are needed to understand mechanisms and interactions between them and breast cancer cells. The study aimed to isolate cancer associated fibroblasts from breast cancer tissue and to phenotype the isolated cell lines. We focused on various cancer-associated fibroblast characteristic biomarkers and those that might differentiate various cancer-associated fibroblasts' subtypes. Patients with a histological diagnosis of invasive breast cancer (diameter ≤15 mm) and qualified for primary surgical treatment were enrolled in the study. Cell lines were isolated from breast cancer biopsy. For the phenotyping, we used flow cytometry, immunofluorescence and RT-qPCR analysis. Based on our study, there was no indication of a clear pattern in the cancer-associated fibroblasts' classification. Results of cancer-associated fibroblasts expression were highly heterogeneous, and specific subtypes were not defined. Moreover, comparing cancer-associated fibroblasts divided into groups based on BC subtypes from which they were isolated also did not allow to notice of any clear pattern of expressions. In the future, a higher number of analyzed cancer-associated fibroblast cell lines should be investigated to find expression schemes.

Leveraging epigenetics to enhance the efficacy of cancer-testis antigen: a potential candidate for immunotherapy

Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecological malignancy in women. The phenotype is characterized by delayed diagnosis, recurrence and drug resistance. Inherent immunogenicity potential, oncogenic function and expression of cancer-testis/germline antigen (CTA) in ovarian cancer render them a potential candidate for immunotherapy. Revolutionary clinical findings indicate that tumor antigen-mediated T-cell and dendritic cell-based immunotherapeutic approaches provide an excellent strategy for targeting tumors. Currently, dendritic cell vaccination for the treatment of B-cell lymphoma and CTA-based T-cell receptor transduced T-cell therapy involving MAGE-A4 and NY-ESO-1 are well documented and shown to be effective. This review highlighted the mechanical aspects of epigenetic drugs that can elicit a CTA-based humoral and cellular immune response and implicate T-cell and dendritic cell-based immunotherapeutic approaches.

A guide to the composition and functions of the extracellular matrix

Extracellular matrix (ECM) is a dynamic 3-dimensional network of macromolecules that provides structural support for the cells and tissues. Accumulated knowledge clearly demonstrated over the last decade that ECM plays key regulatory roles since it orchestrates cell signaling, functions, properties and morphology. Extracellularly secreted as well as cell-bound factors are among the major members of the ECM family. Proteins/glycoproteins, such as collagens, elastin, laminins and tenascins, proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans, hyaluronan, and their cell receptors such as CD44 and integrins, responsible for cell adhesion, comprise a well-organized functional network with significant roles in health and disease. On the other hand, enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases and specific glycosidases including heparanase and hyaluronidases contribute to matrix remodeling and affect human health. Several cell processes and functions, among them cell proliferation and survival, migration, differentiation, autophagy, angiogenesis, and immunity regulation are affected by certain matrix components. Structural alterations have been also well associated with disease progression. This guide on the composition and functions of the ECM gives a broad overview of the matrisome, the major ECM macromolecules, and their interaction networks within the ECM and with the cell surface, summarizes their main structural features and their roles in tissue organization and cell functions, and emphasizes the importance of specific ECM constituents in disease development and progression as well as the advances in molecular targeting of ECM to design new therapeutic strategies.

A novel m6A-related prognostic signature for predicting the overall survival of hepatocellular carcinoma patients

Liver hepatocellular carcinoma (LIHC) comprises most cases of liver cancer with a poor prognosis. N⁶‐methyladenosine (m6A) plays important biological functions in cancers. Thus, the present research was aimed to determine biomarkers of m6A regulators that could effectively predict the prognosis of LIHC patients. Based on the data collected from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, the correlation between the mRNA expression levels and copy number variation (CNV) patterns were determined. Higher mRNA expression resulted from the increasing number of 9 genes. Using the univariate Cox regression analysis, 11 m6A regulators that had close correlations with the LIHC prognosis were identified. In addition, under the support of the multivariate Cox regression models and the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator, a 4‐gene (YTHDF2, IGF2BP3, KIAA1429, and ALKBH5) signature of m6A regulators was constructed. This signature was expected to present a prognostic value in LIHC (log‐rank test p value < 0.0001). The GSE76427 (n = 94) and ICGC‐LIRI‐JP (n = 212) datasets were used to validate the prognostic signature, suggesting strong power to predict patients' prognosis for LIHC. To sum up, genetic alterations in m6A regulatory genes were identified as reliable and effective biomarkers for predicting the prognosis of LIHC patients.

Competing Endogenous RNA of Snail and Zeb1 UTR in Therapeutic Resistance of Colorectal Cancer

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) comprises an important biological mechanism not only for cancer progression but also in the therapeutic resistance of cancer cells. While the importance of the protein abundance of EMT-inducers, such as Snail (SNAI1) and Zeb1 (ZEB1), during EMT progression is clear, the reciprocal interactions between the untranslated regions (UTRs) of EMT-inducers via a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network have received little attention. In this study, we found a synchronized transcript abundance of Snail and Zeb1 mediated by a non-coding RNA network in colorectal cancer (CRC). Importantly, the trans-regulatory ceRNA network in the UTRs of EMT inducers is mediated by competition between tumor suppressive miRNA-34 (miR-34) and miRNA-200 (miR-200). Furthermore, the ceRNA network consisting of the UTRs of EMT inducers and tumor suppressive miRs is functional in the EMT phenotype and therapeutic resistance of colon cancer. In The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) samples, we also found genome-wide ceRNA gene sets regulated by miR-34a and miR-200 in colorectal cancer. These results indicate that the ceRNA networks regulated by the reciprocal interaction between EMT gene UTRs and tumor suppressive miRs are functional in CRC progression and therapeutic resistance.

Gold Nanoparticles; Potential Nanotheranostic Agent in Breast Cancer: A Comprehensive Review with Systematic Search Strategy

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease typically prevalent among women and is the second-largest cause of death worldwide. Early diagnosis is the key to minimize the cancer-induced complication, however, the conventional diagnostic strategies have been sluggish, complex, and, to some extent, non-specific. Therapeutic tools are not so convenient and side effects of current therapies offer the development of novel theranostic tool to combat this deadly disease.

OBJECTIVE

This article aims to summarize the advances in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer with gold nanoparticles (GNP or AuNP).

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted in the three popular electronic online databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, regarding GNP as breast cancer theranostics.

RESULTS

Published literature demonstrated that GNPs tuned with photosensitive moieties, nanomaterials, drugs, peptides, nucleotide, peptides, antibodies, aptamer, and other biomolecules improve the conventional diagnostic and therapeutic strategies of breast cancer management with minimum cytotoxic effect. GNP derived diagnosis system assures reproducibility, reliability, and accuracy cost-effectively. Additionally, surface-modified GNP displayed theranostic potential even in the metastatic stage of breast cancer.

CONCLUSION

Divergent strategies have shown the theranostic potential of surface tuned GNPs against breast cancer even in the metastatic stage with minimum cytotoxic effects both in vitro and in vivo.

Crosstalk between Tumor-Infiltrating Immune Cells and Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in Tumor Growth and Immunosuppression of Breast Cancer

Signals from the tumor microenvironment (TME) have a profound influence on the maintenance and progression of cancers. Chronic inflammation and the infiltration of immune cells in breast cancer (BC) have been strongly associated with early carcinogenic events and a switch to a more immunosuppressive response. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the most abundant stromal component and can modulate tumor progression according to their secretomes. The immune cells including tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) (cytotoxic T cells (CTLs), regulatory T cells (Tregs), and helper T cell (Th)), monocyte-infiltrating cells (MICs), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), mast cells (MCs), and natural killer cells (NKs) play an important part in the immunological balance, fluctuating TME between protumoral and antitumoral responses. In this review article, we have summarized the impact of these immunological players together with CAF secreted substances in driving BC progression. We explain the crosstalk of CAFs and tumor-infiltrating immune cells suppressing antitumor response in BC, proposing these cellular entities as predictive markers of poor prognosis. CAF-tumor-infiltrating immune cell interaction is suggested as an alternative therapeutic strategy to regulate the immunosuppressive microenvironment in BC.

The biological function of IGF2BPs and their role in tumorigenesis

The insulin-like growth factor-2 mRNA-binding proteins (IGF2BPs) pertain to a highly conservative RNA-binding family that works as a post-transcriptional fine-tuner for target transcripts. Emerging evidence suggests that IGF2BPs regulate RNA processing and metabolism, including stability, translation, and localization, and are involved in various cellular functions and pathophysiologies. In this review, we summarize the roles and molecular mechanisms of IGF2BPs in cancer development and progression. We mainly discuss the functional relevance of IGF2BPs in embryo development, neurogenesis, metabolism, RNA processing, and tumorigenesis. Understanding IGF2BPs role in tumor progression will provide new insight into cancer pathophysiology.

Mechanisms and Clinical Trials of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Immunotherapy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), one of the most common and lethal tumors worldwide, is usually not diagnosed until the disease is advanced, which results in ineffective intervention and unfavorable prognosis. Small molecule targeted drugs of HCC, such as sorafenib, provided only about 2.8 months of survival benefit, partially due to cancer stem cell resistance. There is an urgent need for the development of new treatment strategies for HCC. Tumor immunotherapies, including immune check point inhibitors, chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T) and bispecific antibodies (BsAb), have shown significant potential. It is known that the expression level of glypican-3 (GPC3) was significantly increased in HCC compared with normal liver tissues. A bispecific antibody (GPC3-S-Fabs) was reported to recruit NK cells to target GPC3 positive cancer cells. Besides, bispecific T-cell Engagers (BiTE), including GPC3/CD3, an aptamer TLS11a/CD3 and EpCAM/CD3, were recently reported to efficiently eliminate HCC cells. It is known that immune checkpoint proteins programmed death-1 (PD-1) binding by programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) activates immune checkpoints of T cells. Anti-PD-1 antibody was reported to suppress HCC progression. Furthermore, GPC3-based HCC immunotherapy has been shown to be a curative approach to prolong the survival time of patients with HCC in clinically trials. Besides, the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitor may inhibit the migration, invasion and angiogenesis of HCC. Here we review the cutting-edge progresses on mechanisms and clinical trials of HCC immunotherapy, which may have significant implication in our understanding of HCC and its immunotherapy.

Heterotypic clustering of circulating tumor cells and circulating cancer-associated fibroblasts facilitates breast cancer metastasis

BACKGROUND

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are recruited to the tumor microenvironment (TME) and are critical drivers of breast cancer (BC) malignancy. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) travel through hematogenous routes to establish metastases. CTCs circulate both individually and, more rarely, in clusters with other cell types. Clusters of CTCs have higher metastatic potential than single CTCs. Previously, we identified circulating CAFs (cCAFs) in patients with BC and found that while healthy donors had no CTCs or cCAFs, both were present in most Stage IV patients. cCAFs circulate individually, as cCAF-cCAF homotypic clusters, and in heterotypic clusters with CTCs.

METHODS

In this study, we evaluate CTCs, cCAFs, and heterotypic cCAF-CTC clusters in patients with stage I-IV BC. We evaluate the association of heterotypic clusters with BC disease progression and metastasis in a spontaneous mouse model. Using previously established primary BC and CAF cell lines, we examine the metastatic propensity of heterotypic cCAF-CTC clusters in orthotopic and tail vein xenograft mouse models of BC. Using an in vitro clustering assay, we determine factors that may be involved in clustering between CAF and BC cells.

RESULTS

We report that the dissemination of CTCs, cCAFs, and clusters is an early event in BC progression, and we find these clusters in all clinical stages of BC. Furthermore, cCAFs-CTC heterotypic clusters have a higher metastatic potential than homotypic CTC clusters in vivo. We also demonstrate that the adhesion and stemness marker CD44, found on a subset of CTCs and CAF cells, is  involved in heterotypic clustering of these cells.

CONCLUSION

We identify a novel subset of circulating tumor cell clusters that are enriched with stromal CAF cells in BC patient blood and preclinical mouse models of BC metastasis. Our data suggest that clustering of CTCs with cCAFs augments their metastatic potential and that CD44 might be an important mediator of heterotypic clustering of cCAFs and BC cells.

Bispecific T cell engagers and their synergistic tumor immunotherapy with oncolytic viruses

Tumor immunotherapy, especially T cell based therapy, is becoming the main force in clinical tumor therapies. Bispecific T cell engager (BiTE) uses the single chain variable fragments (scFv) of two antibodies to redirect T cells to kill target cells. BiTEs for hematologic tumors has been approved for clinical use, and BiTEs for solid tumors showed therapeutic effects in clinical trials. Oncolytic viruses (OVs) of the adenovirus expressing p53 and herpes simplex virus expressing GM-CSF was approved for clinical use in 2003 and 2015, respectively, while other OVs showed therapeutic effects in clinical trials. However, BiTE and Oncolytic virus (OV) have their own limitations. We propose that OV-BiTE has a synergistic effect on tumor immunotherapy. Feng Yu et al. designed the first OV-BiTE in 2014, which remarkably eradicated tumors in mice. Here we review the latest development of the structure, function, preclinical studies and/or clinical trials of BiTE and OV-BiTE and provide perspective views for optimizing the design of OV-BiTE. There is no doubt that OV-BiTE is becoming an exciting new platform for tumor immunotherapy and will enter clinical trial soon. Exploring the therapeutic effects and safety of OV-BiTE for synergistic tumor immunotherapy will bring new hope to tumor patients.

Markers and Reporters to Reveal the Hierarchy in Heterogeneous Cancer Stem Cells

A subpopulation within cancer, known as cancer stem cells (CSCs), regulates tumor initiation, chemoresistance, and metastasis. At a closer look, CSCs show functional heterogeneity and hierarchical organization. The present review is an attempt to assign marker profiles to define the functional heterogeneity and hierarchical organization of CSCs, based on a series of single-cell analyses. The evidences show that analogous to stem cell hierarchy, self-renewing Quiescent CSCs give rise to the Progenitor CSCs with limited proliferative capacity, and later to a Progenitor-like CSCs, which differentiates to Proliferating non-CSCs. Functionally, the CSCs can be tumor-initiating cells (TICs), drug-resistant CSCs, or metastasis initiating cells (MICs). Although there are certain marker profiles used to identify CSCs of different cancers, molecules like CD44, CD133, ALDH1A1, ABCG2, and pluripotency markers [Octamer binding transcriptional factor 4 (OCT4), SOX2, and NANOG] are used to mark CSCs of a wide range of cancers, ranging from hematological malignancies to solid tumors. Our analysis of the recent reports showed that a combination of these markers can demarcate the heterogeneous CSCs in solid tumors. Reporter constructs are widely used for easy identification and quantification of marker molecules. In this review, we discuss the suitability of reporters for the widely used CSC markers that can define the heterogeneous CSCs. Since the CSC-specific functions of CD44 and CD133 are regulated at the post-translational level, we do not recommend the reporters for these molecules for the detection of CSCs. A promoter-based reporter for ABCG2 may also be not relevant in CSCs, as the expression of the molecule in cancer is mainly regulated by promoter demethylation. In this context, a dual reporter consisting of one of the pluripotency markers and ALDH1A1 will be useful in marking the heterogeneous CSCs. This system can be easily adapted to high-throughput platforms to screen drugs for eliminating CSCs.

The emerging role of RNA N6-methyladenosine methylation in breast cancer

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification is the most prevalent internal mRNA modification and is involved in many biological processes in eukaryotes. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that m6A may play either a promoting or suppressing role in breast cancer, including in tumorigenesis, metastasis and angiogenesis. In this review, we summarize the latest research progress on the biological function and prognostic value of m6A modification in breast cancer, as well as potential related therapeutic strategies.

Understanding the roles of N6-methyladenosine writers, readers and erasers in breast cancer

Breast cancer is believed to be driven by epigenetic regulation of genes implicated in cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation. Recently, aberrant N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) decorations turned up as crucial epigenetic regulator for malignant breast cancer, which may serve as new targets for breast cancer treatment. Here we briefly outline the functions of m⁶A and its regulatory proteins, including m⁶A “writers,” “readers,” and “erasers” on RNA life fate, recapitulate the latest breakthroughs in understanding m⁶A modification and its regulatory proteins, and the underlying molecular mechanisms that contribute to the carcinogenesis and the progression of breast cancer, so as to provide potential epigenetic targets for diagnosis, treatment and prognosis in breast cancer.

Cancer Associated Fibroblasts Promote Renal Cancer Progression Through a TDO/Kyn/AhR Dependent Signaling Pathway

Cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play crucial roles in cancer development, however, the specific mechanisms of CAFs associated renal cancer progression remain poorly understood. Our study observed enriched CAFs in high degree malignant tumor tissues from renal cancer patients. These CAFs isolated from tumor tissues are prone to facilitate drugs resistance and promote tumor progression in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, CAFs up-regulated tryptophan 2, 3-dioxygenase (TDO) expression, resulting in enhanced secretion of kynurenine (Kyn). Kyn produced from CAFs could up-regulated the expression of aromatic hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), eventually resulting in the AKT and STAT3 signaling pathways activation. Inhibition of AKT signal prevented cancer cells proliferation, while inhibition of the STAT3 signal reverted drugs resistance and cancer migration induced by kynurenine. Application of AhR inhibitor DMF could efficiently suppress distant metastasis of renal cancer cells, and improve anticancer effects of sorafenib (Sor)/sunitinib (Sun), which described a promising therapeutic strategy for clinical renal cancer.

Intrinsically disordered features of carbonic anhydrase IX proteoglycan-like domain

hCA IX is a multi-domain protein belonging to the family of hCAs which are ubiquitous zinc enzymes that catalyze the reversible hydration of CO2 to HCO3- and H+. hCA IX is a tumor-associated enzyme with a limited distribution in normal tissues, but over-expressed in many tumors, and is a promising drug target. Although many studies concerning the CA IX catalytic domain were performed, little is known about the proteoglycan-like (PG-like) domain of hCA IX which has been poorly investigated so far. Here we attempt to fill this gap by providing an overview on the functional, structural and therapeutic studies of the PG-like domain of hCA IX which represents a unique feature within the CA family. The main studies and recent advances concerning PG role in modulating hCA IX catalytic activity as well as in tumor spreading and migration are here reported. Special attention has been paid to the newly discovered disordered features of the PG domain which open new perspectives about its molecular mechanisms of action under physiological and pathological conditions, since disorder is likely involved in mediating interactions with partner proteins. The emerged disordered features of PG domain will be explored for putative diagnostic and therapeutic applications involving CA IX targeting in tumors.

Expressions of m6A RNA methylation regulators and their clinical predictive value in cervical squamous cell carcinoma and endometrial adenocarcinoma

The mortality caused by cervical squamous cell carcinoma and endocervical adenocarcinoma (CESC) ranks second among female malignant tumour deaths, but their diagnostic and therapeutic targets are still limited. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most common and extensive modification in mRNA molecules, and its methylation regulators participate in regulating the occurrence and development of many tumours. However, whether m6A RNA methylation regulators can be used as independent prognostic indicators of CESC remains unknown. This study unveiled differential expression of 20 m6A RNA methylation regulators between normal and CESC tumour samples, which RNA sequence data and clinical information were obtained from TCGA database. As a result, five m6A RNA methylation regulators (FTO, HNRNPA2B1, RBM15, IGF2BP1, IGF2BP3) were identified to be significantly linked to CESC tumour status. After Lasso cox regression analysis, six m6A RNA methylation regulators (YTHDC2, YTHDC1, ALKBH5, ZC3H13, RBMX, YTHDF1) were chosen to construct a risk signature. CESC patients were then classified as high-risk and low-risk group based on the median risk score. The overall survival (OS) of the CESC patients in high-risk group was significantly lower than that in low-risk group, and the area under curve (AUC) is 0.718. Moreover, the risk model can be an independent prognosis factors for CESC patients and can predict OS of CESC patients with different clinical factors. In conclusion, m6A RNA methylation regulators are closely correlated with CESC clinical characteristics and the selected six m6A RNA methylation regulators may be useful for CESC patients personalized treatment.

The Breast Cancer Stem Cells Traits and Drug Resistance

Drug resistance is a major challenge in breast cancer (BC) treatment at present. Accumulating studies indicate that breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) are responsible for the BC drugs resistance, causing relapse and metastasis in BC patients. Thus, BCSCs elimination could reverse drug resistance and improve drug efficacy to benefit BC patients. Consequently, mastering the knowledge on the proliferation, resistance mechanisms, and separation of BCSCs in BC therapy is extremely helpful for BCSCs-targeted therapeutic strategies. Herein, we summarize the principal BCSCs surface markers and signaling pathways, and list the BCSCs-related drug resistance mechanisms in chemotherapy (CT), endocrine therapy (ET), and targeted therapy (TT), and display therapeutic strategies for targeting BCSCs to reverse drug resistance in BC. Even more importantly, more attention should be paid to studies on BCSC-targeted strategies to overcome the drug resistant dilemma of clinical therapies in the future.

Prognostic Impact of IGF2BP3 Expression in Patients with Surgically Resected Lung Adenocarcinoma

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) acts as the representative histological subtype regarding lung cancer, and its mortality and morbidity remain high. Therefore, more therapeutic targets are needed. Insulin-like growth factor 2 messenger RNA-binding proteins (IGF2BPs), a class of RNA-binding proteins, including IGF2BP1, IGF2BP2, and IGF2BP3, are considered to be the "reader" of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation and remarkably affects cancer occurrence and development. Studies have shown that IGF2BP3 has prognostic potential in multiple public databases compared with other members of the IGF2BPs family. This research aims to use the expression data of IGF2BP3 in multiple cohorts to explore the expression as well as prognostic significance of IGF2BP3 in LUAD. Based on the six datasets from the Oncomine database, LUAD tissue presented obviously higher IGF2BP3 expression relative to normal tissue. In the three cohorts of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Gene expression profiling interactive analysis, and Gene Expression Omnibus, IGF2BP3 was abnormally highly expressed in LUAD, and it could lead to a weaker prognosis (p < 0.05). The cohort from National Cancer Center of China (NCC) verified the prognostic value of IGF2BP3, and the high IGF2BP3 expression could be remarkably related to gender, tumor length, differentiation, and T stage (p < 0.05). Cox regression analysis of TCGA and NCC cohorts consistently showed that IGF2BP3 expression could serve for independently predicting the prognosis of LUAD patients (p < 0.05). Ten hallmark pathways with significant enrichment were identified. IGF2BP3 is abnormally highly expressed in LUAD tissue, and can lead to worse overall survival. In summary, IGF2BP3 may be an oncogene and potential prognostic biomarker of LUAD.

Gut microbiota homeostasis restoration may become a novel therapy for breast cancer

Breast cancer is the most diagnosed cancer in women. It significantly impairs a patient's physical and mental health. Gut microbiota comprise the bacteria residing in a host's gastrointestinal tract. Through studies over the last decade, we now know that alterations in the composition of the gut microbiome are associated with protection against colonization by pathogens and other diseases, such as diabetes and cancer. This review focuses on how gut microbiota can affect breast cancer development through estrogen activity and discusses the types of bacteria that may be involved in the onset and the progression of breast cancer. We also describe potential therapies to curtail the risk of breast cancer by restoring gut microbiota homeostasis and reducing systemic estrogen levels. This review will further explore the relationship between intestinal microbes and breast cancer and propose a method to treat breast cancer by improving intestinal microbes. We aimed at discovering new methods to prevent or treat BC by changing intestinal microorganisms.

Role of lncRNA LUCAT1 in cancer

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are RNA molecules with a transcript length of more than 200 nt and lack a protein-coding ability. They regulate gene expression by interacting with protein, RNA, and DNA. Their function is closely related to their subcellular localization. In the nucleus, lncRNAs regulate gene expression at the epigenetic and transcriptional levels, and in the cytoplasm, they regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional and translational levels. Abnormalities in lncRNAs have been confirmed to exhibit tumor suppressor or carcinogenic effects and play an important role in the development of tumors. In particular, the lung cancer-related transcript 1 (LUCAT1) located in the antisense strand of the q14.3 region of chromosome 5 was first discovered in smoking-related lung cancer. Increasing evidence have showed that LUCAT1 is involved in breast cancer, ovarian cancer, thyroid cancer, renal cell carcinoma. It is highly expressed in liver cancer and other malignant tumors and has been confirmed to be induce various malignant tumors. It regulates tumor proliferation, invasion, and migration via various mechanisms and is related to the clinicopathological characteristics of tumor patients. Thus, LUCAT1 is a potential prognostic biological marker and therapeutic target for cancer. This article reviews its expression, function, and molecular mechanism in various malignant tumors.

CD44 in Ovarian Cancer Progression and Therapy Resistance-A Critical Role for STAT3

Despite significant progress in cancer therapy over the last decades, ovarian cancer remains the most lethal gynecologic malignancy worldwide with the five-year overall survival rate less than 30% due to frequent disease recurrence and chemoresistance. CD44 is a non-kinase transmembrane receptor that has been linked to cancer metastatic progression, cancer stem cell maintenance, and chemoresistance development via multiple mechanisms across many cancers, including ovarian, and represents a promising therapeutic target for ovarian cancer treatment. Moreover, CD44-mediated signaling interacts with other well-known pro-tumorigenic pathways and oncogenes during cancer development, such as signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). Given that both CD44 and STAT3 are strongly implicated in the metastatic progression and chemoresistance of ovarian tumors, this review summarizes currently available evidence about functional crosstalk between CD44 and STAT3 in human malignancies with an emphasis on ovarian cancer. In addition to the role of tumor cell-intrinsic CD44 and STAT3 interaction in driving cancer progression and metastasis, we discuss how CD44 and STAT3 support the pro-tumorigenic tumor microenvironment and promote tumor angiogenesis, immunosuppression, and cancer metabolic reprogramming in favor of cancer progression. Finally, we review the current state of therapeutic CD44 targeting and propose superior treatment possibilities for ovarian cancer.

Cell-surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans as multifunctional integrators of signaling in cancer

Proteoglycans (PGs) represent a large proportion of the components that constitute the extracellular matrix (ECM). They are a diverse group of glycoproteins characterized by a covalent link to a specific glycosaminoglycan type. As part of the ECM, heparan sulfate (HS)PGs participate in both physiological and pathological processes including cell recruitment during inflammation and the promotion of cell proliferation, adhesion and motility during development, angiogenesis, wound repair and tumor progression. A key function of HSPGs is their ability to modulate the expression and function of cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, morphogens, and adhesion molecules. This is due to their capacity to act as ligands or co-receptors for various signal-transducing receptors, affecting pathways such as FGF, VEGF, chemokines, integrins, Wnt, notch, IL-6/JAK-STAT3, and NF-κB. The activation of those pathways has been implicated in the induction, progression, and malignancy of a tumor. For many years, the study of signaling has allowed for designing specific drugs targeting these pathways for cancer treatment, with very positive results. Likewise, HSPGs have become the subject of cancer research and are increasingly recognized as important therapeutic targets. Although they have been studied in a variety of preclinical and experimental models, their mechanism of action in malignancy still needs to be more clearly defined. In this review, we discuss the role of cell-surface HSPGs as pleiotropic modulators of signaling in cancer and identify them as promising markers and targets for cancer treatment.

Multiomics profile and prognostic gene signature of m6A regulators in uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma

Uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma (UCEC) is the most common type of gynecologic malignancy worldwide. Despite advances in the treatments of UCEC, its incidence and mortality rates are still increasing. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most common form of RNA modification and has attracted increasing interest in cancer pathogenesis and progression. Thus, we aimed to identify the landscape of m6A regulators and build a prognostic gene signature in UCEC. In this study, we first analyzed copy number variations (CNVs), single nucleotide variations (SNVs) and gene expression profiles as well as matched clinical information of UCEC patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Next, we determined that CNVs in m6A regulatory genes had a significant negative impact on patient survival. The mRNA expression levels of a total of 16 m6A regulators were significantly correlated with different CNV patterns. Using univariate Cox regression analysis, IGF2BP1, KIAA1429, IGF2BP3, YTHDF3, and IGF2BP2 were found to be closely associated with UCEC patient survival outcomes. Based on the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and multivariate Cox regression models, we built a 3-gene (IGF2BP3, KIAA1429 and IGF2BP1) signature of m6A regulators with prognostic value in UCEC that could effectively predict patient prognosis (log-rank test p-value < 0.0001). In addition, risk scores were significantly different between patients stratified by tumor stage, SNV, and CNV. Multivariate Cox regression analysis suggested that risk score might be an independent prognostic indicator for the overall survival of patients with UCEC (p-value < 0.05). Gene enrichment analysis indicated that high IGF2BP1 gene expression is associated with cytoplasmic stress granules. KIAA1429 gene expression is associated with cellular nucleic acid metabolism. The expression of the IGF2BP3 gene is associated with RNA binding processes. In conclusion, we determined that genetic alterations in m6A regulatory genes could be effective and reliable biomarkers for UCEC prognosis prediction.

The role of CD44 in pathological angiogenesis

Angiogenesis is required for normal development and occurs as a pathological step in a variety of disease settings, such as cancer, ocular diseases, and ischemia. Recent studies have revealed the role of CD44, a widely expressed cell surface adhesion molecule, in promoting pathological angiogenesis and the development of its associated diseases through its regulation of diverse function of endothelial cells, such as proliferation, migration, adhesion, invasion, and communication with the microenvironment. Conversely, the absence of CD44 expression or inhibition of its function impairs pathological angiogenesis and disease progression. Here, we summarize the current understanding of the roles of CD44 in pathological angiogenesis and the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms.

Dendritic cell biology and its role in tumor immunotherapy

As crucial antigen presenting cells, dendritic cells (DCs) play a vital role in tumor immunotherapy. Taking into account the many recent advances in DC biology, we discuss how DCs (1) recognize pathogenic antigens with pattern recognition receptors through specific phagocytosis and through non-specific micropinocytosis, (2) process antigens into small peptides with proper sizes and sequences, and (3) present MHC-peptides to CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells to initiate immune responses against invading microbes and aberrant host cells. During anti-tumor immune responses, DC-derived exosomes were discovered to participate in antigen presentation. T cell microvillar dynamics and TCR conformational changes were demonstrated upon DC antigen presentation. Caspase-11-driven hyperactive DCs were recently reported to convert effectors into memory T cells. DCs were also reported to crosstalk with NK cells. Additionally, DCs are the most important sentinel cells for immune surveillance in the tumor microenvironment. Alongside DC biology, we review the latest developments for DC-based tumor immunotherapy in preclinical studies and clinical trials. Personalized DC vaccine-induced T cell immunity, which targets tumor-specific antigens, has been demonstrated to be a promising form of tumor immunotherapy in patients with melanoma. Importantly, allogeneic-IgG-loaded and HLA-restricted neoantigen DC vaccines were discovered to have robust anti-tumor effects in mice. Our comprehensive review of DC biology and its role in tumor immunotherapy aids in the understanding of DCs as the mentors of T cells and as novel tumor immunotherapy cells with immense potential.

Dendritic cell biology and its role in tumor immunotherapy

As crucial antigen presenting cells, dendritic cells (DCs) play a vital role in tumor immunotherapy. Taking into account the many recent advances in DC biology, we discuss how DCs (1) recognize pathogenic antigens with pattern recognition receptors through specific phagocytosis and through non-specific micropinocytosis, (2) process antigens into small peptides with proper sizes and sequences, and (3) present MHC-peptides to CD4+ and CD8+ T cells to initiate immune responses against invading microbes and aberrant host cells. During anti-tumor immune responses, DC-derived exosomes were discovered to participate in antigen presentation. T cell microvillar dynamics and TCR conformational changes were demonstrated upon DC antigen presentation. Caspase-11-driven hyperactive DCs were recently reported to convert effectors into memory T cells. DCs were also reported to crosstalk with NK cells. Additionally, DCs are the most important sentinel cells for immune surveillance in the tumor microenvironment. Alongside DC biology, we review the latest developments for DC-based tumor immunotherapy in preclinical studies and clinical trials. Personalized DC vaccine-induced T cell immunity, which targets tumor-specific antigens, has been demonstrated to be a promising form of tumor immunotherapy in patients with melanoma. Importantly, allogeneic-IgG-loaded and HLA-restricted neoantigen DC vaccines were discovered to have robust anti-tumor effects in mice. Our comprehensive review of DC biology and its role in tumor immunotherapy aids in the understanding of DCs as the mentors of T cells and as novel tumor immunotherapy cells with immense potential.

The Latest Battles Between EGFR Monoclonal Antibodies and Resistant Tumor Cells

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a tyrosine kinase receptor involved in homeostatic regulation of normal cells and carcinogenesis of epithelial malignancies. With rapid development of the precision medicine era, a series of new therapies targeting EGFR are underway. Four EGFR monoclonal antibody drugs (cetuximab, panitumumab, nimotuzumab, and necitumumab) are already on the market, and a dozen other EGFR monoclonal antibodies are in clinical trials. Here, we comprehensively review the newly identified biological properties and anti-tumor mechanisms of EGFR monoclonal antibodies. We summarize recently completed and ongoing clinical trials of the classic and new EGFR monoclonal antibodies. More importantly, according to our new standard, we re-classify the complex evolving tumor cell resistance mechanisms, including those involving exosomes, non-coding RNA and the tumor microenvironment, against EGFR monoclonal antibodies. Finally, we analyzed the limitations of EGFR monoclonal antibody therapy, and discussed the current strategies overcoming EGFR related drug resistance. This review will help us better understand the latest battles between EGFR monoclonal antibodies and resistant tumor cells, and the future directions to develop anti-tumor EGFR monoclonal antibodies with durable effects.

Novel transcription regulatory sequences and factors of the immune evasion protein ICP47 (US12) of herpes simplex viruses

BACKGROUND

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) can cause encephalitis. Its infected cell polypeptide 47 (ICP47), encoded by immediate-early gene US12, promotes immune escape. ICP47 was modified in the clinically approved oncolytic HSV (oHSV) T-Vec. However, transcription regulatory sequence (TRS) and transcription regulatory factor (TRF) of HSV US12 are seldom reported.

METHODS

Previously, our laboratory isolated a new HSV strain named HSV-1-LXMW from a male patient with oral herpes in Beijing, China. Firstly, the genetic tree was used to analyze its genetic relationship. The US12 TRS and TRF in HSV-1-LXMW were found by using predictive software. Secondly, the further verification by the multi-sequence comparative analysis shown that the upstream DNA sequence of HSV US12 gene contained the conserved region. Finally, the results of literature search shown that the expression of transcription factors was related to the tissue affinity of HSV-1 and HSV-2, so as to increase the new understanding of the transcriptional regulation of HSV biology and oncolytic virus (OVs) therapy.

RESULTS

Here we reported the transcriptional regulation region sequence of our new HSV-1-LXMW, and its close relationship with HSV-1-CR38 and HSV-1-17. Importantly we identified eight different kinds of novel TRSs and TRFs of HSV US12 for the first time, and found they are conserved among HSV-1 (c-Rel, Elk-1, Pax-4), HSV-2 (Oct-1, CF2-II, E74A, StuAp) or both HSVs (HNF-4). The TRFs c-Rel and Oct-1 are biologically functional respectively in immune escape and viral replication during HSV infection.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings have important implication to HSV biology, infection, immunity and oHSVs.

Cancer associated fibroblasts: role in breast cancer and potential as therapeutic targets

Introduction: Cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the largest population of stromal cells in breast tumors. Emerging evidence has suggested that CAFs are important players not only in fostering tumor growth and spread but also in altering the tumor response to therapeutic agents. On the basis of these observations, huge efforts have been made to exploit CAFs as potential targets for breast cancer therapy.Areas covered: The current understanding of the hallmarks and biology of CAFs, their multilayered interplay with various cell populations of breast tumor microenvironment toward cancer initiation, progression, metastasis and resistance to anticancer therapies are discussed. In addition, a comprehensive overview of the CAFs-based molecular druggable targets in breast tumors is provided. The most relevant literature, in particular the studies retrieved in Medline in the last 10 years, served for this purpose.Expert opinion: The interest on CAFs as a target to fight breast cancer has becoming a hot topic for drug discovery. Indeed, several CAFs-targeted approaches are emerging as appealing therapeutic strategies in breast cancer. At pre-clinical level, this research field is speedily advancing toward the assessment of successful tactics targeting CAFs in breast cancer. Therefore, anti-CAFs therapies may display an intriguing potential to be exploited in clinical studies.

The Oncogenic Functions of Insulin-like Growth Factor 2 mRNA-Binding Protein 3 in Human Carcinomas

IGF2BP3 (also known as IMP3, KOC), a member of the insulin-like growth factor mRNA-binding protein family (IMPs), has been a research target in recent studies of promoting embryo development and exacerbating cancer. IGF2BP3 is ubiquitously expressed in early embryogenesis stages but limited in postembryonic stages, which is important in many physiological aspects such as stem cell renewal, morphological development and metabolism. A large number of studies show that IGF2BP3 interacts with many kinds of non-coding RNAs and proteins to promote cancer cell proliferation and metastasis and inhibit cancer cell apoptosis. As IGF2BP3 is highly expressed in advanced cancers and associated with poor overall survival rates of patients, it may be a potential molecular marker in cancer diagnosis for the detection of cancerous tissues and an indicator of cancer stages. Therefore, anti-IGF2BP3 drugs or monoclonal antibodies are expected as new therapeutic methods in cancer treatment. This review summarizes recent findings among IGF2BP3, RNA and proteins in cancer processes, with a focus on its cancer-promoting mechanisms and potential application as a new biomarker for cancer diagnosis and treatment.

IGF2BP3 From Physiology to Cancer: Novel Discoveries, Unsolved Issues, and Future Perspectives

RNA network control is a key aspect of proper cellular homeostasis. In this context, RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) play a major role as regulators of the RNA life cycle due to their capability to bind to RNA sequences and precisely direct nuclear export, translation/degradation rates, and the intracellular localization of their target transcripts. Alterations in RBP expression or functions result in aberrant RNA translation and may drive the emergence and progression of several pathological conditions, including cancer. Among the RBPs, insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA-binding protein 3 (IGF2BP3) is of particular interest in tumorigenesis and tumor progression. This review highlights the molecular mechanisms underlying the oncogenic functions of IGF2BP3, summarizes the therapeutic potential related to its inhibition and notes the fundamental issues that remain unanswered. To fully exploit IGF2BP3 for tumor diagnosis and therapy, it is crucial to dissect the mechanisms governing IGF2BP3 re-expression and to elucidate the complex interactions between IGF2BP3 and its target mRNAs as normal cells become tumor cells.

Identification of Putative UL54 (ICP27) Transcription Regulatory Sequences Binding to Oct-1, v-Myb, Pax-6 and Hairy in Herpes Simplex Viruses

An oncolytic herpes simplex virus (oHSV) has proven amenable in oncolytic virotherapy and was approved to treat melanoma. The immediate-early (IE) protein ICP27 encoded by gene UL54 is essential for HSV infection. Post-transcriptional modification of UL54 would increase tumor targeting of oHSVs. However, UL54 gene transcription regulatory sequences and factors were not reported yet. Here we isolated a new strain LXMW of type 1 HSV (HSV-1-LXMW) in China and found it's closely related to HSV-1 strains Patton and H129 in the US by the first and next generation DNA sequencing viral DNA phylogenetic analysis. Using a weight matrix-based program Match, we found the UL54 transcription regulatory sequences binding to the transcription factors Oct-1, v-Myb and Pax-6 in HSV-1-LXMW, while the sequences binding to Oct-1 and Hairy in a HSV-2 strain. Further validation showed that HSV-1 and HSV-2 shared the common sequence binding to Oct-1, but had unique sequences to bind v-Myb and Pax-6, or Hairy, respectively, by DNA sequence alignment of total 11 HSV strains. The published results howed that the expression of transcription factors is consistent with the tissue tropism of HSV-1 and HSV-2. In the current article a new HSV-1 strain LXMW was isolated and its putative HSV UL54 transcription regulatory sequences and factors were identified for the first time. Our findings highlight the new understanding of the principles of transcriptional regulation in HSV biology and oncolytic virotherapy.

Oncolytic herpes simplex virus tumor targeting and neutralization escape by engineering viral envelope glycoproteins

Oncolytic herpes simplex viruses (oHSVs) have been approved for clinical usage and become more and more popular for tumor virotherapy. However, there are still many issues for the oHSVs used in clinics and clinical trials. The main issues are the limited anti-tumor effects, intratumor injection, and some side effects. To overcome such challenges, here we review the genetic engineering of the envelope glycoproteins for oHSVs to target tumors specifically, and at the same time we summarize the many neutralization antibodies against the envelope glycoproteins and align the neutralization epitopes with functional domains of the respective glycoproteins for future identification of new functions of the glycoproteins and future engineering of the epitopes to escape from host neutralization.

The biology and role of CD44 in cancer progression: therapeutic implications

CD44, a non-kinase transmembrane glycoprotein, is overexpressed in several cell types including cancer stem cells and frequently shows alternative spliced variants that are thought to play a role in cancer development and progression. Hyaluronan, the main ligand for CD44, binds to and activates CD44 resulting in activation of cell signaling pathways that induces cell proliferation, increases cell survival, modulates cytoskeletal changes, and enhances cellular motility. The different functional roles of CD44 standard (CD44s) and specific CD44 variant (CD44v) isoforms are not fully understood. CD44v contain additional peptide motifs that can interact with and sequester growth factors and cytokines at the cell surface thereby functioning as coreceptors to facilitate cell signaling. Moreover, CD44v were expressed in metastasized tumors, whereas switching between CD44v and CD44s may play a role in regulating epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and in the adaptive plasticity of cancer cells. Here, we review current data on the structural and functional properties of CD44, the known roles for CD44 in tumorigencity, the regulation of CD44 expression, and the potential for targeting CD44 for cancer therapy.

Inhibition of YAP ameliorates choroidal neovascularization via inhibiting endothelial cell proliferation

Purpose

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of central visual loss among patients over the age of 55 years worldwide. Neovascular-type AMD (nAMD) accounts for approximately 10% of patients with AMD and is characterized by choroidal neovascularization (CNV). The proliferation of choroidal endothelial cells (CECs) is one important step in the formation of new vessels. Transcriptional coactivator Yes-associated protein (YAP) can promote the proliferation of multiple cancer cells, corneal endothelial cells, and vascular smooth muscle cells, which participate in angiogenesis. This study intends to reveal the expression and functions of YAP during the CNV process.

Methods

In the study, a mouse CNV model was generated by laser photocoagulation. YAP expression was detected with western blotting and immunohistochemistry. YAP siRNA and ranibizumab, a VEGF monoclonal antibody, were injected intravitreally in CNV mice. The YAP and VEGF expression levels after injection were detected with western blotting. The incidence and leakage area of CNV were measured with fundus fluorescein angiography, choroidal flat mounting, and hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining. Immunofluorescent double staining was used to detect YAP cellular localization with CD31 (an endothelial cell marker) antibody. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression in CNV mice without or with YAP siRNA intravitreal injection and the colocalization of PCNA and CD31 were measured with western blotting and immunofluorescent double staining, respectively.

Results

YAP expression increased following laser exposure, in accordance with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression. YAP siRNA and ranibizumab decreased VEGF expression and the incidence and leakage area of CNV. YAP was localized in the vascular endothelium within the CNV site. Additionally, after laser exposure, YAP siRNA inhibited the increased expression of PCNA, which was colocalized with endothelial cells.

Conclusions

This study showed that YAP upregulation promoted CNV formation by upregulating the proliferation of endothelial cells, providing evidence for the molecular mechanisms of CNV and suggesting a novel molecular target for nAMD treatment.