Fitness, physical activity, working memory, and neuroelectric activity in children with overweight/obesity

"Mind-Muscle Connections": Differential Associations Between Handgrip and Upper Body Strength With Cognitive Function in Young and Middle-Aged Adults

The relationship between muscle strength and cognition is widely studied in older adults; however, understanding this association at younger ages may help detect markers of early cognitive changes and inform future interventions. Accordingly, we aimed to identify relationships between handgrip, whole-body, upper body, and lower body strength and cognitive functions. A total of 112 adults (aged 18-50 years) completed comprehensive measures of muscle strength, aerobic capacity, body composition, and cognitive function. Hierarchical linear regressions revealed that individuals with stronger handgrip had better mental rotation performance (standardized β = 0.39); those with greater upper body strength had superior recognition (standardized β = 0.52) and pattern separation abilities (standardized β = 0.39), but whole- and lower body strength were not associated. Results demonstrate the unique relationship between upper body strength and aspects of cognitive function, in addition to differential associations of upper body and handgrip strength with encoding, retrieval, and spatial skills. The current findings establish an association between strength and cognitive function earlier than previously thought.

Associations of physical activity and sedentary time with cognitive skills in preschoolers: a longitudinal study from preschool to first grade of school

BACKROUND

Low physical activity and high sedentary behaviour is a concern already during preschool period with potential impacts on children's future cognitive health in school. However, longitudinal data regarding the associations of physical activity, sedentary time and cognition at young age are limited, thus the aim of this study was to investigate whether objectively monitored moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary time at preschool age are related to cognitive skills in the first grade of school among boys and girls.

METHODS

Participants were boys (n = 50, aged 6.6 ± 0.5 years) and girls (n = 41, aged 6.5 ± 0.5 years) from thirteen kindergartens and the same children after entering first grade of school. MVPA and sedentary time were measured by means of accelerometer. Modified Boehm-3 test was used to assess cognitive skills.

RESULTS

MVPA in preschool was unrelated to perceptual, conceptual or verbal skills in school in boys and girls. In boys, higher sedentary time in preschool was associated with higher conceptual skills (β = 0.461, p = 0.040) in school after adjustment for age, baseline conceptual skills, accelerometer wear time and parental education.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, higher sedentariness in preschool is associated with higher conceptual skills in grade one among boys but not in girls. MVPA in preschool is unrelated to cognitive skills in school among boys and girls. The results indicate that perceptual, conceptual and verbal skills in first grade of school are not affected by MVPA level in preschool neither among boys, nor girls. Regarding conceptual skills in school, boys might benefit from sedentary activities during preschool period.

The Youth Fitness International Test (YFIT) battery for monitoring and surveillance among children and adolescents: A modified Delphi consensus project with 169 experts from 50 countries and territories

BACKGROUND

Physical fitness in childhood and adolescence is associated with a variety of health outcomes and is a powerful marker of current and future health. However, inconsistencies in tests and protocols limit international monitoring and surveillance. The objective of the study was to seek international consensus on a proposed, evidence-informed, Youth Fitness International Test (YFIT) battery and protocols for health monitoring and surveillance in children and adolescents aged 6-18 years.

METHODS

We conducted an international modified Delphi study to evaluate the level of agreement with a proposed, evidence-based, YFIT of core health-related fitness tests and protocols to be used worldwide in 6- to 18-year-olds. This proposal was based on previous European and North American projects that systematically reviewed the existing evidence to identify the most valid, reliable, health-related, safe, and feasible fitness tests to be used in children and adolescents aged 6-18 years. We designed a single-panel modified Delphi study and invited 216 experts from all around the world to answer this Delphi survey, of whom one-third are from low-to-middle income countries and one-third are women. Four experts were involved in the piloting of the survey and did not participate in the main Delphi study to avoid bias. We pre-defined an agreement of ≥80% among the expert participants to achieve consensus.

RESULTS

We obtained a high response rate (78%) with a total of 169 fitness experts from 50 countries and territories, including 63 women and 61 experts from low- or middle-income countries/territories. Consensus (>85% agreement) was achieved for all proposed tests and protocols, supporting the YFIT battery, which includes weight and height (to compute body mass index as a proxy of body size/composition), the 20-m shuttle run (cardiorespiratory fitness), handgrip strength, and standing long jump (muscular fitness).

CONCLUSION

This study contributes to standardizing fitness tests and protocols used for research, monitoring, and surveillance across the world, which will allow for future data pooling and the development of international and regional sex- and age-specific reference values, health-related cut-points, and a global picture of fitness among children and adolescents.

The multiple mediation impact of adolescents' physical fitness and cognitive perceptions on their objective measures - The Cogni-Action Project

OBJECTIVE

To establish whether physical fitness and cognitive self-perceptions act as mediators in the link between global fitness and cognitive performance measured objectively in adolescents. We also compared differences across sex.

METHODS

A total of 1296 adolescents (50 % girls) from grades 5 to 8 (ages 10-14) participated in this cross-sectional study. The ALPHA-fitness test battery assessed physical fitness, comprising cardiorespiratory, speed-agility, and muscular fitness components. We used the 1-5-point International Fitness Scale for physical fitness self-perception, and the 1-10 scale for cognitive performance self-perception. Objective cognitive performance was assessed using a neurocognitive battery consisting of eight tasks. Using principal component analysis, these tasks were grouped into three domains: attention, working memory, and problem solving. We examined three serial mediation models adjusted for sex, standardized body mass index, maturation, and school vulnerability index.

RESULTS

Physical fitness and cognitive self-perceptions mediated the effects on attention (B = .0027, CI = .0011 to .0047), memory (B = .0025; CI = .0003 to .0055 and B = .0035; CI = .0009 to .0063), and problem-solving (B = -.0137; CI = -.0231 to -.0052 and B = .0072; CI = .0043 to .0106). By sex, boys showed mediation in all domains, while girls only showed mediation in problem-solving.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents' perceptions play a crucial and positive mediating role in linking objective measures of physical fitness to cognitive performance outcomes, particularly when self-perceptions of physical fitness and cognition are considered together. Therefore, educating families and school/health environments about the importance of adolescent perceptions, while fostering self-awareness and reinforcing their capabilities, is essential.

Effects of active breaks on educational achievement in children with and without ADHD: study protocol and rationale of the Break4Brain project

The Break4Brain project aims to elucidate the effects of both acute and chronic physical activity (PA) on educational achievement in children with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). This study will be conducted in two phases: a cross-over design followed by a hybrid type 1 implementation-effectiveness trial, which includes both a cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT) and a qualitative study. In phase I, 60 children aged 10-12, with 30 each from ADHD and non-ADHD groups, will participate in a laboratory-based study over 4 days within 1 month. They will participate in three counterbalanced experimental conditions: (i) PA with cognitive engagement, (ii) PA without cognitive engagement, and (iii) a cognitively engaging control. This phase will assess acute changes in brain function, academic performance, working memory, inhibitory control, and sustained attention. Phase II will involve 600 children aged 10-12, randomly assigned to either a video-based PA program or a control group (300 children per group) in an 8-week cluster RCT. This phase will also incorporate a qualitative approach to explore the implementation context through pre- and post-intervention semi-structured interviews with teachers and school staff, and questionnaires for students. The outcomes of interest in this phase will include working memory, cognitive flexibility, selective attention, and academic performance. For the cross-over study, we hypothesize that PA conditions will enhance the studied outcomes compared to the control condition. In the RCT, we anticipate that the 8-week active breaks program will result in significant improvements in the selected outcomes compared to the control group. This study is expected to make pioneering contributions by including novel variables and focusing on the ADHD population. Furthermore, if the cluster RCT proves effective, it could offer a practical and cost-effective resource for integrating active breaks into daily school routines.

The mitochondrial quality control system: a new target for exercise therapeutic intervention in the treatment of brain insulin resistance-induced neurodegeneration in obesity

Obesity is a major global health concern because of its strong association with metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases such as diabetes, dementia, and Alzheimer's disease. Unfortunately, brain insulin resistance in obesity is likely to lead to neuroplasticity deficits. Since the evidence shows that insulin resistance in brain regions abundant in insulin receptors significantly alters mitochondrial efficiency and function, strategies targeting the mitochondrial quality control system may be of therapeutic and practical value in obesity-induced cognitive decline. Exercise is considered as a powerful stimulant of mitochondria that improves insulin sensitivity and enhances neuroplasticity. It has great potential as a non-pharmacological intervention against the onset and progression of obesity associated neurodegeneration. Here, we integrate the current knowledge of the mechanisms of neurodegenration in obesity and focus on brain insulin resistance to explain the relationship between the impairment of neuronal plasticity and mitochondrial dysfunction. This knowledge was synthesised to explore the exercise paradigm as a feasible intervention for obese neurodegenration in terms of improving brain insulin signals and regulating the mitochondrial quality control system.

The relationship of aerobic fitness with verbal and spatial working memory: An ERP study

Working memory (WM) plays an important role in daily life and is known to correlated with aerobic fitness. However, whether the relationship between aerobic fitness and WM is dependent on the stimulus modality or is associated with one or multiple subprocesses involved in WM remains unknown. Accordingly, this study utilized event-related potentials (ERPs) to comprehensively examine the encoding, preparation, and retrieval processes during verbal and spatial WM performance. Eighty-eight young adults aged 18-30years were recruited to participate in two laboratory visits on separate days. On day 1, aerobic fitness was assessed by maximum oxygen consumption (V˙O2max) during a treadmill-based graded exercise test. On day 2, participants completed verbal and spatial WM tasks while P2, contingent negative voltage (CNV), and P3 components of ERP were recorded during the encoding, preparatory, and retrieval stages of WM, respectively. Results of hierarchical regression analysis showed that V˙O2max was positively correlated with response accuracy during the high-demanding condition of spatial WM after controlling for age, sex, and self-reported physical activity. Additionally, a higher level of V˙O2max was associated with larger terminal CNV amplitude at the Cz electrode during the high-demanding condition of spatial WM. These findings suggest that aerobic fitness may have selective beneficial associations with the motor preparatory process and subsequent task performance requiring a greater amount of spatial information but not the encoding and retrieval stages nor the verbal modality of WM.

Size or Strength? how components of muscle relate to behavioral and neuroelectric measures of executive function independent of aerobic fitness

While previous research has linked cognitive function with resistance exercise, the nuanced links between muscle strength, mass, and neuroelectric function are less understood. Therefore, this study investigated the association of muscle strength and mass with inhibitory control (IC), working memory (WM), and related neuroelectric activity. A total of 123 18-50-year-old adults completed maximal aerobic capacity and strength tests, a body composition scan, and IC and WM tasks while the N2 and P3 components of event-related potentials were recorded. Bivariate correlations revealed aerobic fitness, strength, and mass were associated with behavioral and neuroelectric outcomes. After accounting for age, sex, and aerobic fitness, strength was associated with intra-individual response time variability, accuracy, and P3 latency during WM. Muscle mass was associated with N2 latency during IC. While relationships with behavioral outcomes did not persist after controlling for the opposite muscle outcome, greater strength and mass were related to shorter P3 latency during WM and shorter N2 latency during IC, respectively. These results provide initial evidence that muscle outcomes are associated with executive function and neuroelectric processing speed, suggesting distinct contributions of strength and mass to cognition. This work highlights the significance of maintaining muscle strength and mass alongside aerobic fitness for optimal cognitive health.

Physical fitness is related to concentration performance in adolescents

The aim of this study was to test the relationship between physical fitness and attention in a sample of adolescents. The hypothesis was that the overall fitness as well as its single components (speed, endurance, strength, coordination, and flexibility) would be positively related to participants' performance in a test of attention. Participants were adolescent students (N = 140) aged 15 to 18 years. Physical fitness was measured with the German Motor Test. Attention was assessed with the d2-Test of Attention. Overall, physical fitness explained 26% of the variance in the attentional test performance. Endurance, strength, coordination, and flexibility were all positively linked to participants' attention, whereas speed was unrelated to attention. Endurance and flexibility better predicted how fast participants processed the test items, while strength and coordination better predicted the accuracy with which the participants detected the targets. Better physical fitness seems to be an advantage for adolescents' cognitive performance.

The effects of an exercise intervention on neuroelectric activity and executive function in children with overweight/obesity: The ActiveBrains randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether a 20-week aerobic and resistance exercise program induces changes in brain current density underlying working memory and inhibitory control in children with overweight/obesity.

METHODS

A total of 67 children (10.00 ± 1.10 years) were randomized into an exercise or control group. Electroencephalography (EEG)-based current density (μA/mm2 ) was estimated using standardized low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA) during a working memory task (Delayed non-matched-to-sample task, DNMS) and inhibitory control task (Modified flanker task, MFT). In DNMS, participants had to memorize four stimuli (Pokemons) and then select between two of them, one of which had not been previously shown. In MFT, participants had to indicate whether the centered cow (i.e., target) of five faced the right or left.

RESULTS

The exercise group had significantly greater increases in brain activation in comparison with the control group during the encoding phase of DNMS, particularly during retention of second stimuli in temporal and frontal areas (peak t = from 3.4 to 3.8, cluster size [k] = from 11 to 39), during the retention of the third stimuli in frontal areas (peak t = from 3.7 to 3.9, k = from 15 to 26), and during the retention of the fourth stimuli in temporal and occipital areas (peak t = from 2.7 to 4.3, k = from 13 to 101). In MFT, the exercise group presented a lower current density change in the middle frontal gyrus (peak t = -4.1, k = 5). No significant change was observed between groups for behavioral performance (p ≥ 0.05).

CONCLUSION

A 20-week exercise program modulates brain activity which might provide a positive influence on working memory and inhibitory control in children with overweight/obesity.

The complex associations between adiposity, fitness, mental wellbeing and neurocognitive function after exercise: A randomized crossover trial in preadolescent children

The aim of the present study was to examine the associations of adiposity and fitness on the preadolescent brain's response to acute exercise. In a sample of 58 children (ages 8-10; 19 females), demographic measures of age, sex, IQ, puberty, and socioeconomic status were considered. Children participated in a randomized crossover study, whereby they completed two different interventions; seated rest or treadmill walking, counterbalanced across participants. Associations between adiposity measures (standardized body mass index [BMI-Z], whole body percent fat [%Fat], visceral adipose tissue [VAT]), cardiorespiratory fitness measures (VO2max and Fat-Free VO2) were assessed on self-reported measures of mental wellbeing, and cognitive performance (response accuracy, reaction time) and neuroelectric (P3 amplitude and latency) indices of a Go/NoGo task following both exercise and rest interventions. Higher adiposity (whole-body percent fat, BMI-Z) was associated with higher trait anxiety (P's≤0.05) and disordered eating (P's≤0.05) scores. Higher fitness (VO2max) was associated with lower childhood depression scores (P=0.02). Regression analyses yielded specific post-exercise neurocognitive associations with adiposity-related (VAT, BMI-Z), and fitness-related (FF-VO2) outcomes, after controlling for post-rest neurocognitive outcomes. VAT was positively associated with post-exercise P3 ERP Latency for the Go task (P≤0.001); BMI-Z was negatively associated with P3 ERP amplitudes for the Go task (P's≤0.005); FF-VO2 was negatively associated with P3 ERP latency for the Go/NoGo task (P's≤0.05), and positively associated with NoGo task accuracy (P≤0.001). Overall, adiposity and fat-free fitness measures yield sensitive and differential associations with neurocognitive performance after exercise and after rest interventions.

Sex moderates the associations between physical activity intensity and attentional control in older adolescents

INTRODUCTION

The relationship between physical activity (PA) intensity and executive functions in older adolescents remains poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the associations between PA intensity, volume, attentional control, and working memory and the moderating effects of sex in older adolescents.

METHOD

We analyzed baseline data from 418 participants (211 females, Mage  = 16.5 ± 0.40 years) from the Burn 2 Learn trial. Adolescents wore GT9X Link accelerometers on a non-dominant wrist for 7 days, 24-h·d-1 . PA intensity was expressed as intensity gradient (IG) and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA, Hildebrand cut-points); PA volume was expressed as average acceleration (AvACC). Attentional control was measured with a standard deviation (SDRT) and a coefficient of variation (CVRT) of the reaction time on the incongruent trials of a flanker task. Working memory was expressed as a d prime (a signal discrimination index) on the 2-back task. The moderating effects of sex on the PA-executive functions associations, adjusting for age, BMI z-score, and cardiorespiratory fitness, were tested using multilevel random intercept models.

RESULTS

After controlling for AvACC, sex moderated the relationships between IG and incongruent SDRT (B = 0.53, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.94) and CVRT (B = 0.63, 95% CI: 0.22, 1.05; ps ≤ 0.002). Only girls with higher IG showed smaller incongruent SDRT and CVRT (Bs ≤ -0.26, ps ≤ 0.01). IG was not related to working memory. AvACC and MVPA were not associated with attentional control or working memory.

CONCLUSION

Our findings reveal a novel association between higher-intensity PA and superior attentional control among adolescent girls.

European fitness landscape for children and adolescents: updated reference values, fitness maps and country rankings based on nearly 8 million test results from 34 countries gathered by the FitBack network

OBJECTIVES

(1) To develop reference values for health-related fitness in European children and adolescents aged 6-18 years that are the foundation for the web-based, open-access and multilanguage fitness platform (FitBack); (2) to provide comparisons across European countries.

METHODS

This study builds on a previous large fitness reference study in European youth by (1) widening the age demographic, (2) identifying the most recent and representative country-level data and (3) including national data from existing fitness surveillance and monitoring systems. We used the Assessing Levels of PHysical Activity and fitness at population level (ALPHA) test battery as it comprises tests with the highest test-retest reliability, criterion/construct validity and health-related predictive validity: the 20 m shuttle run (cardiorespiratory fitness); handgrip strength and standing long jump (muscular strength); and body height, body mass, body mass index and waist circumference (anthropometry). Percentile values were obtained using the generalised additive models for location, scale and shape method.

RESULTS

A total of 7 966 693 test results from 34 countries (106 datasets) were used to develop sex-specific and age-specific percentile values. In addition, country-level rankings based on mean percentiles are provided for each fitness test, as well as an overall fitness ranking. Finally, an interactive fitness platform, including individual and group reporting and European fitness maps, is provided and freely available online (www.fitbackeurope.eu).

CONCLUSION

This study discusses the major implications of fitness assessment in youth from health, educational and sport perspectives, and how the FitBack reference values and interactive web-based platform contribute to it. Fitness testing can be conducted in school and/or sport settings, and the interpreted results be integrated in the healthcare systems across Europe.

The unique contribution of motor ability to visuospatial working memory in school-age children: Evidence from event-related potentials

This study investigated the unique contribution of motor ability to visuospatial working memory (VSWM) and neuroelectric activity in school-age children. Seventy-six children aged 8.7 ± 1.1 years participated in this cross-sectional study. We assessed aerobic fitness using the 20-m endurance shuttle run test, muscular fitness (endurance, power) using a standard test battery, and motor ability (manual dexterity, ball skills, and static and dynamic balance) using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children. A modified delayed match-to-sample test was used to assess VSWM and the P3 component of event-related potentials. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that greater aerobic fitness was associated with smaller coefficient of variation of reaction time (p = .008), greater muscular fitness was associated with higher response accuracy (p = .022), greater motor ability was associated with higher response accuracy (p < .001) and increased P3 mean amplitude (p < .001) after controlling for age. Furthermore, the positive associations of motor ability with response accuracy (p = .001) were independent of muscular fitness. The findings from this study provide new insight into the differential associations between health-related fitness domains and VSWM, highlighting the influence of motor ability on brain health and cognitive development during childhood.

Association between cardiorrespiratory fitness and cognitive control: is somatic maturity an important mediator?

BACKGROUND

Recently some articles presented information related to the possible effect of maturity over the cognitive control and cardiorespiratory fitness, however little is known about the real effects of maturity in the relation of these variables. In this sense, the purpose of this study was to examine the potential mediating role of somatic maturity on the association between cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and cognitive control.

METHODS

This three-year longitudinal research comprises two data collection groups: a baseline conducted in 2016 with 394 adolescents (aged 11.7 ± 0.6 years) and a follow-up in 2019 with 134 adolescents (aged 14.9 ± 0.7 years). Anthropometry data, 20-m shuttle run test and peak height velocity (PHV) to determine the maximum oxygen uptake (VO_2max) and somatic maturity, respectively, were collected at both sampling times. In parallel, the Sociodemographic and cognitive control function variables were included in the follow-up to evaluate the inhibitory control (by the Stroop test) and the visuo-spatial working memory (by the Corsi block-tapping test). Associations between CRF and cognitive functions were computed by multiple linear regression, with mediation as a function of PHV.

RESULTS

CRF exhibited transversal associations with reaction time in congruent (β = -0.004; p = 0.001) and incongruent (β = -0.005; p = 0.004) stimulus-responses. Meanwhile, the variation in VO_2max over the three year-study had a significant impact on the reaction time of congruent (β = -0.006; p = 0.001) and incongruent (β = -0.006; p = 0.012) responses at follow-up. However, PHV did not show a significant association with the cognitive functions, indicating no mediating role.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the associations between CRF and the cognitive functions exhibited great transversal and longitudinal impacts, somatic maturity did not affect the cognitive control functions, associating exclusively with CRF.

The Developing Brain: Considering the Multifactorial Effects of Obesity, Physical Activity & Mental Wellbeing in Childhood and Adolescence

Obesity during childhood has been associated with many important physiological and neurological health considerations. Specifically concerning are the associations between youth obesity and declines in mental health, as shown with increasing rates of adolescent depression and anxiety worldwide. The emergence of mental health disorders commonly arises during adolescent development, and approximately half the global population satisfy the criteria for at least one psychiatric disorder in their lifetime, suggesting a need for early intervention. Adolescence is critical time whereby brain structure and functions are not only negatively associated with obesity and declines in mental health, while also coinciding with significant declines in rates of physical activity among individuals in this age group. Physical activity is thus a prime candidate to address the intersection of obesity and mental health crises occurring globally. This review addresses the important considerations between physiological health (obesity, aerobic fitness, physical activity), brain health (structure and function), and mental wellbeing symptomology. Lastly, we pose a theoretical framework which asks important questions regarding the influence of physiological health on the association between brain health and the development of depression and anxiety symptoms in adolescence. Specifically, we hypothesize that obesity is a mediating risk factor on the associations between brain health and psychopathology, whereas physical activity is a mediating protective factor. We conclude with recommendations for promoting physical activity and reducing sedentary time.

Motor skills and cognitive benefits in children and adolescents: Relationship, mechanism and perspectives

OBJECTIVE

There is a strong interaction between motor skills and cognitive benefits for children and young people. The aim of this paper is to explore the relationship between motor skill types and their development and the cognitive benefits of children and adolescents. In turn, on this basis, it proposes pathways and mechanisms by which motor skills improve cognition, and provide a basis for subsequent teaching of skills that follow the laws of brain cognitive development.

METHODS

This paper summarizes the research on the relationship between different types of motor skills and their development and cognitive benefits of children and adolescents. Based on these relationships, pathways, and mechanisms for motor skills to improve cognition are tentatively proposed.

RESULTS

There is an overall pattern of "open > closed, strategy > interception, sequence > continuous" between motor skill types and the cognitive benefits of children and adolescents. Long-term motor skill learning practice is accompanied by increased cognitive benefits as skill proficiency increases. The dynamic interaction between motor skills and physical activity exposes children and adolescents to environmental stimuli and interpersonal interactions of varying complexity, promoting the development of agility, coordination and cardiorespiratory fitness, enhancing their motor experience, which in turn improves brain structure and functional activity.

CONCLUSION

Motor skills training promote cognitive efficiency in children and adolescents. Motor skill interventions that are open-ended, strategic and sequential in nature are more effective. Environmental stimuli, interpersonal interaction, agility, coordination, and cardiorespiratory fitness can be considered as skill attribute moderators of motor skills to improve cognition.

Physical activity and exercise alter cognitive abilities, and brain structure and activity in obese children

The prevalence of childhood obesity is increasing to such an extent that it has become a major global public health problem in the 21st century. Obesity alters children’s brain structure and activity and impairs their cognitive abilities. On the basis of these findings, it is necessary for educational and healthcare institutions to combat childhood obesity through preventive and therapeutic strategies. In general, exercise and physical activity are considered common but effective methods for improving physical, psychological, and brain health across the life span. Therefore, this review article mainly focuses on existing neuroimaging studies that have used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)to assess children’s brain anatomy and neural activity. We intended to explore the roles of physical activity and exercise in modulating the associations among childhood obesity, cognitive abilities, and the structure and activity of the brain.

The associations between specific-type sedentary behaviors and cognitive flexibility in adolescents

Background: The prevalence of sedentary behavior in adolescents has aroused social attention. The association between sedentary behavior and cognitive flexibility remains unclear, and it may vary depending on the type of sedentary behavior. This study aimed to investigate the associations between specific-type sedentary behaviors and cognitive flexibility in adolescents.

Method: A total of 700 Chinese adolescents aged 10–15 years were recruited. The self-report questionnaire was used to assess total sedentary time, recreational screen-based sedentary time, and educational sedentary time. The More-odd shifting task was used to assess cognitive flexibility.

Results: The correlation analysis showed that recreational screen-based sedentary time was negatively correlated with cognitive flexibility, whereas educational sedentary time was positively correlated with cognitive flexibility. The regression analysis also further revealed that a significantly negative association between recreational screen-based sedentary time and cognitive flexibility, while a significantly positive association existed between educational sedentary time and cognitive flexibility.

Conclusion: The findings shown that the association between recreational screen-based sedentary behavior and cognitive flexibility differs from educational sedentary behavior in adolescents, providing new ideas for a more comprehensive understanding of the association between sedentary behavior and cognitive flexibility in adolescents.

The relationship of muscular endurance and coordination and dexterity with behavioral and neuroelectric indices of attention in preschool children

This study investigated the associations of non-aerobic fitness (NAF) and motor competence (MC) with attention in 4–6 year-old preschoolers. The allocation of attentional resources and speed of stimulus categorization were examined using the amplitude and latency of P3 of event-related potentials respectively, while cortical activation related to general attention and task-specific discriminative processes were examined using event-related desynchronization (ERD) at lower (8–10 Hz) and upper (10–12 Hz) alpha frequencies, respectively. Seventy-six preschoolers completed NAF (muscular power, muscular endurance, flexibility, balance) and MC (coordination and dexterity, ball skills, agility and balance) test batteries. Electroencephalogram was recorded while participants performed an auditory oddball task. After controlling for age and MC, muscular endurance was positively related to P3 amplitude. MC and its coordination and dexterity sub-component were positively related to task performance, with higher levels of coordination and dexterity showing an additional association with greater upper alpha ERD between 700 and 1000 ms following stimulus onset after controlling for age and NAF. These findings suggest relationships of NAF and MC with early childhood neurocognitive function. Specifically, muscular endurance is related to the neuroinhibition in facilitating effective allocation of attentional resources to stimulus evaluation while coordination and dexterity are related to cortical activation underlying strategic attentional preparation for subsequent stimulus evaluation.

Is Sedentary Behavior Associated With Executive Function in Children and Adolescents? A Systematic Review

Background

Prolonged time on sedentary behavior, especially screen-based sitting time, is associated with unfavorable health indicators in children and adolescents. However, the effects of sedentary behavior on cognitive function remain to be elucidated.

Objective

The purpose of this systematic review was to synthesize the evidence on the associations of sedentary behavior with executive function in children and adolescents.

Methods

Four electronic databases (i.e., PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus) were searched for studies examining the associations between sedentary behavior and executive function in children and adolescents. Study quality was assessed by the NIH Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies.

Results

A total of 1,151 records were initially identified through database searches and other searches. Twelve cross-sectional and four longitudinal studies met the inclusion criteria. Of the 16 studies, seven studies found significant negative associations between sedentary behavior and executive function, and two studies presented positive associations. Eight studies measured sedentary time using accelerometers and showed varied associations between objectively measured sedentary time and executive function. Nine studies measured screen-based sedentary behavior, of which five studies found negative associations of sedentary time with executive function.

Conclusion

The available evidence on the associations between sedentary behavior and executive function is not conclusive in children and adolescents. However, screen-based sedentary behavior may be negatively associated with executive function.

A Study of Response Inhibition in Overweight/Obesity People Based on Event-Related Potential

Objective

To investigate the characteristics of response inhibition of overweight/obese people, using behavior experiments combine with neural electrophysiological technology and discussing the difference in impulse level between obesity/overweight and normal-weight people through EEG data, questionnaire, and behavior experiment.

Method

(1) All participants completed the Go/Nogo task; meanwhile, behavior data and 64 channel EEG data were recorded. (2) Participants completed the Stop-Signal task and behavior date was recorded.

Results

(1) During Go/Nogo task, no significant differences were found in reaction time, omission errors of the Go task between the two groups, while commission errors of the Nogo task of the control group were significantly greater than the overweight/obesity group. (2) About SSRT during the Stop-Signal Task, the interaction of stimulus type (high-calorie food picture, low-calorie food picture) and group (control group, overweight/obesity group) was significant (p = 0.008). (3) No significant differences were found between the two groups in amplitude and latency of N2. About the amplitude of P3, the interaction of task type (Go task, Nogo task), electrode point (Cz, CPz, Pz), and groups were significant (p = 0.041), the control group P3 amplitude was significantly greater than overweight/obesity group during the Nogo task. Regarding about latency of P3, the interaction of group and electrode point were not significant (p = 0.582), but the main effect of task type was significant (p = 0.002).

Conclusion

(1) In terms of behavioral outcomes, overweight-obese subjects had lower dominant response inhibition and response cessation compared to normal-weight subjects. (2) In terms of EEG results, overweight-obese subjects showed no difference in processing speed and level of conflict monitoring for early inhibitory processing compared to normal-weight subjects, but there was a deficit in behavioral control for late inhibitory processing.

Physical Illiteracy and Obesity Barrier: How Physical Education Can Overpass Potential Adverse Effects? A Narrative Review

Environments lacking in stimuli together with ineffective physical education programs can lead to motor illiteracy, causing several adverse effects that could be worsened by unhealthy weight conditions (e.g., obesity). Obesity can be seen as an actual barrier for children and adolescents, especially for affective, behavioral, physical, and cognitive domains. In this context, condensing what the literature proposes could be useful in order to improve the understanding of the best intervention strategies (i.e., proper physical education programs) to manage the adverse effects of motor illiteracy in relation to the obesity barrier. The purpose of this narrative review is to improve the understanding on how physical education programs can counteract the adverse effects of physical illiteracy and obesity barrier across childhood and adolescence. Proper physical education programs should develop motor competence by fostering an individual’s awareness, self-perception, autonomous motivation, and muscular fitness on a realistic scenario (functional task difficulty related to his/her possibilities) in the attempt to counteract the adverse effects of the obesity barrier. Such programs should be designed without overlooking a proper multi teaching style approach.

The Role of Chronic Physical Activity in Alleviating the Detrimental Relationship of Childhood Obesity on Brain and Cognition

Childhood obesity and its negative relation with children’s brain health has become a growing health concern. Over the last decade, literature has indicated that physical activity attenuates cognitive impairment associated with obesity and excess adiposity in children. However, there is no comprehensive review that considers the extent to which these factors affect different domains of cognition. This narrative review comprehensively summarizes behavioral, neuroimaging, and neuroelectric findings associated with chronic physical activity and fitness on brain and cognition in childhood obesity. Based on the literature reviewed, increased adiposity has a demonstrated relationship with neurocognitive health via mechanisms triggered by central inflammation and insulin resistance, with the most pronounced decrements observed for cognitive domains that are prefrontal- and hippocampal-dependent. Fortunately, physical activity, especially interventions enhancing aerobic fitness and motor coordination, have demonstrated efficacy for attenuating the negative effects of obesity across different subdomains of structural and functional brain imaging, cognition, and multiple academic outcomes in children with overweight or obesity. Such mitigating effects may be accounted for by attenuated central inflammation, improved insulin sensitivity, and increased expression of neurotrophic factors. Lastly, individual differences appear to play a role in this relationship, as the manipulation of physical activity characteristics, the employment of a wide array of cognitive and academic measures, the inclusion of different adiposity measures that are sensitive to neurocognitive function, and the utilization of an inter-disciplinary approach have been found to influence the relationship between physical activity and excess adiposity on brain and cognition.

Physical exercise consequences on memory in obesity: A systematic review

Obesity is associated with changes in memory. Thus, the aim of this systematic review was to investigate the physical exercise consequences on memory in obesity. A search was carried out in the PubMed, Lilacs, and Scielo databases with the following descriptors: "physical exercise," "memory," and "obesity." A total of 16 studies were analyzed in this review. Low, moderate, and high intensity exercise training showed positive effects on memory in patients with obesity (100%). The animal models of obesity used in their physical exercise protocols: treadmill (72.7%) or wheel running (27.3%). Most of the animal studies (81.8%) revealed positive effects of the physical exercise protocol on memory in obesity. Mouse was the most commonly used animal (54.5%), and a 60% high-fat diet (HFD) was the most commonly method used to induce obesity (82%). We did not identify any knockout model of obesity that was used to evaluate memory and used physical exercise as the main intervention. Thus, exercise training, independently if it is resistance or endurance training, seems to be an excellent intervention to prevent and inhibit cognitive impairment and memory loss on obese patients and animal models of obesity.

Could Physical Fitness Be Considered as a Protective Social Factor Associated with Bridging the Cognitive Gap Related to School Vulnerability in Adolescents? The Cogni-Action Project

The first aim was to compare differences between school vulnerability groups, fitness levels, and their combination in adolescent cognitive performance. The second aim was to determine the mediation role of fitness in the association between school vulnerability and cognitive performance. A total of 912 Chilean adolescents aged 10–14 years participated in this study. The school vulnerability index (SVI) assigned by the Chilean Government was categorized into high-, mid-, or low-SVI. Adolescents were classified as fit or unfit according to their global fitness z-score computed from their cardiorespiratory (CRF), muscular (MF), and speed/agility fitness (SAF) adjusted for age and sex. A global cognitive score was estimated through eight tasks based on a neurocognitive battery. Covariance and mediation analyses were performed, adjusted for sex, schools, body mass index, and peak high velocity. Independent analyses showed that the higher SVI, the lower the cognitive performance (F_(6,905) = 18.5; p < 0.001). Conversely, fit adolescents presented a higher cognitive performance than their unfit peers (F_(5,906) = 8.93; p < 0.001). The combined analysis found cognitive differences between fit and unfit adolescents in both the high- and mid-SVI levels (Cohen’s d = 0.32). No differences were found between fit participants belonging to higher SVI groups and unfit participants belonging to lower SVI groups. Mediation percentages of 9.0%, 5.6%, 7.1%, and 2.8% were observed for the global fitness score, CRF, MF, and SAF, respectively. The mediation effect was significant between low- with mid-high-SVI levels but not between mid- and high-SVI levels. These findings suggest that an adequate physical fitness level should be deemed a protective social factor associated with bridging the cognitive gap linked to school vulnerability in adolescents. This favourable influence seems to be most significant in adolescents belonging to a more adverse social background.

Examination of Construct Validity and Criterion-Related Validity of the German Motor Test in Egyptian Schoolchildren

Physical fitness is an indicator for children’s public health status. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the construct validity and the criterion-related validity of the German motor test (GMT) in Egyptian schoolchildren. A cross-sectional study was conducted with a total of 931 children aged 6 to 11 years (age: 9.1 ± 1.7 years) with 484 (52%) males and 447 (48%) females in grades one to five in Assiut city. The children’s physical fitness data were collected using GMT. GMT is designed to measure five health-related physical fitness components including speed, strength, coordination, endurance, and flexibility of children aged 6 to 18 years. The anthropometric data were collected based on three indicators: body height, body weight, and BMI. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted with IBM SPSS AMOS 26.0 using full-information maximum likelihood. The results indicated an adequate fit (χ² = 112.3, df = 20; p < 0.01; CFI = 0.956; RMSEA = 0.07). The χ²-statistic showed significant results, and the values for CFI and RMSEA showed a good fit. All loadings of the manifest variables on the first-order latent factors as well as loadings of the first-order latent factors on the second-order superordinate factor were significant. The results also showed strong construct validity in the components of conditioning abilities and moderate construct validity in the components of coordinative abilities. GMT proved to be a valid method and could be widely used on large-scale studies for health-related fitness monitoring in the Egyptian population.

Physical Fitness Plays a Crucial Mediator Role in Relationships Among Personal, Social, and Lifestyle Factors With Adolescents' Cognitive Performance in a Structural Equation Model. The Cogni-Action Project

Background: The beneficial relationship between physical fitness and cognitive performance is affected and modulated by a wide diversity of factors that seem to be more sensitive during the development stage, particularly during early adolescence. This study aimed to examine the role of physical fitness considering the multivariate association between age, health-related quality of life (HRQOL), school vulnerability index (SVI), body mass index z-score (BMIz), physical activity, and sleep problems with the cognitive performance in boys and girls. Method: Participants were 1,196 adolescents aged 10-14 years (50.7% of boys) from Chile. Three physical fitness components and eight cognitive tasks were measured. BMIz was determined using growth references by age and sex, whereas questionaries were used to assess sleep problems, physical activity, and HRQOL. SVI was established according to the score given by the Chilean Government to educational establishments. We performed a structural equation model (SEM) to test multivariate associations among study' variables by sex. Results: Fitness was positively associated with boys' and girls' cognitive performance (β = 0.23 and β = 0.17; p = 0.001, respectively). Moreover, fitness presented a significant mediator role in the relationships between BMIz, SVI, and physical activity with cognitive performance (indirect effect). Additionally, SVI showed a negative association both direct and indirect effect in all three fitness components and all cognitive tasks, being this relationship stronger in girls than in boys. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that physical fitness and all its components play a crucial mediator role in the associations between several factors associated with adolescents' cognitive performance. Thereby, educational and health strategies should prioritise improving physical fitness through physical activity. They also should address other factors such as school vulnerability, obesity, and the early gender gap in a comprehensive approach boosting cognitive performance among early adolescents. Trial registration: Research Registry (ID: researchregistry5791).

Association between Creativity and Memory with Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Lifestyle among Chilean Schoolchildren

The objective was to investigate the association between creativity and memory with cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF; i.e., CFR classification and V˙O_2max); lifestyle parameters (i.e., physical activity (PA), sleep duration, screen time (ST), and food habits); and anthropometric measures (i.e., body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC)) among Chilean schoolchildren. A total of 248 schoolchildren (137 boys, 111 girls, 11.80 ± 1.17 and 11.58 ± 1.09 years, respectively) participated in the cross-sectional study. Creativity, memory, concentration, and selective attention and lifestyle (PA, ST, sleep duration, and Mediterranean diet (MD) adherence) were measured using a standard questionnaire. CRF (measured by the 20 m shuttle run test and expressed as maximum oxygen consumption (V˙O_2max) and anthropometric measures (BMI and WC) were also included. Creativity showed a positive association with V˙O_2max (mL/kg/min) (β; 0.209, 95% CI; 0.02-0.40, p = p < 0.05) and MD Adherence (score) (β; 0.206, 95% CI; 0.01; 0.74, p = p < 0.05). Long-term memory reported a positive association with CRF (β; 1.076, 95% CI; 0.02-2.13, p = p < 0.05). An increase in CRF levels, together with healthy food habits and normal nutritional status, should be a target for community- and school-based interventions to promote cognitive development in creativity and memory among schoolchildren.

Maternal Education and Academic Achievement in Schoolchildren: The Role of Cardiorespiratory Fitness

OBJECTIVES

To examine the relationship between maternal education, cardiorespiratory fitness, and academic achievement in schoolchildren, specifically whether the association between maternal education and academic achievement is mediated by cardiorespiratory fitness.

STUDY DESIGN

This is a secondary analysis of a cross-sectional study including 478 Spanish schoolchildren aged 8-11 years. ANOVA was used to test differences in cardiorespiratory fitness by maternal education level. ANCOVA was used to test the differences in academic achievement by the educational level of mothers and the cardiorespiratory fitness of children, controlling for each other. A mediation analysis was used to test if the relationship between maternal education and academic achievement was explained by cardiorespiratory fitness.

RESULTS

A higher level of maternal education was associated with a higher cardiorespiratory fitness level and academic achievement in children; moreover, the cardiorespiratory fitness level in children was associated with better academic achievement (P < .05). Finally, cardiorespiratory fitness acted as a partial mediator of the relationship between maternal education and academic achievement in boys (z = 1.81; P = .03) but not in girls (z = 0.86; P = .19), explaining 6.54% of this relationship for the total sample and 6.67% for boys.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that the benefits of maternal education on academic achievement are partially explained by the mediating role of cardiorespiratory fitness.

Development of cardiorespiratory fitness standards for working memory using receiver operating curves in 15-year-old adolescents

BACKGROUND

Working memory performance is associated with better academic achievements in children and adolescents, and it is positively related to CRF. However, what level of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) discriminates higher working memory performance is not known. The purpose of this study was to identify CRF thresholds linked to working memory in adolescents.

METHODS

Data of 141 adolescents (53.2 % girls) were collected (14.9 years) from a cross-sectional study during the year 2019. CRF was assessed by the 20-m shuttle run test, and maximal oxygen uptake was calculated using the Mahar´s equation. Working memory was evaluated by the Corsi blocks test and performance was classified by percentiles. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was used to identify CRF thresholds.

RESULTS

The ROC analysis indicated that CRF could be used to discriminate working memory in adolescents. CRF thresholds of ≥45.03 ml.kg- 1.min- 1for boys and ≥36.63 ml.kg- 1.min- 1for girls were found to be indicative of "normal" working memory performance.

CONCLUSIONS

CRF could discriminate low and normal working memory performance in 14-16- year-old adolescents. These thresholds could allow for earlier identification and intervention of low working memory performance using CRF.

GRANADA consensus on analytical approaches to assess associations with accelerometer-determined physical behaviours (physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep) in epidemiological studies

The inter-relationship between physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep (collectively defined as physical behaviours) is of interest to researchers from different fields. Each of these physical behaviours has been investigated in epidemiological studies, yet their codependency and interactions need to be further explored and accounted for in data analysis. Modern accelerometers capture continuous movement through the day, which presents the challenge of how to best use the richness of these data. In recent years, analytical approaches first applied in other scientific fields have been applied to physical behaviour epidemiology (eg, isotemporal substitution models, compositional data analysis, multivariate pattern analysis, functional data analysis and machine learning). A comprehensive description, discussion, and consensus on the strengths and limitations of these analytical approaches will help researchers decide which approach to use in different situations. In this context, a scientific workshop and meeting were held in Granada to discuss: (1) analytical approaches currently used in the scientific literature on physical behaviour, highlighting strengths and limitations, providing practical recommendations on their use and including a decision tree for assisting researchers’ decision-making; and (2) current gaps and future research directions around the analysis and use of accelerometer data. Advances in analytical approaches to accelerometer-determined physical behaviours in epidemiological studies are expected to influence the interpretation of current and future evidence, and ultimately impact on future physical behaviour guidelines.

Physical fitness and its association with cognitive performance in Chilean schoolchildren: The Cogni-Action Project

This study aimed to establish the association and differences in a diversity of cognitive domains according to cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), muscular fitness (MF), and speed-agility fitness (S-AF) level in a large sample of Chilean schoolchildren. 1171 Chilean schoolchildren aged 10-14 years participated. CRF, MF, and S-AF were assessed through the ALPHA-fitness test battery. Cognition was evaluated through the NeuroCognitive Performance Test, which involved eight tests related to four main domains: cognitive flexibility (CF), working memory (WM), inhibitory control (IC), and intelligence (IN). Both global (multivariate) and individual (univariate) analyses were performed to determine the differences in cognitive functioning according to low-, middle-, and high-fitness level. The global analyses showed a significant main effect for CRF, F_(16,940)  = 3.08, p ≤ .001 and MF groups, F_(16,953)  = 2.30, p = .002, but not for S-AF, F_(16,948)  = 1.37, p = .105. CRF shows a significant main effect in seven of eight tests, involving CF, WM, IC, and IN domains, whereas MF shows a significant main effect in five of eight tests without association with IN. SA-F shows a significant main effect only with IC. Statistical differences were found between the low- and middle/high-fitness groups but not between the middle- and high-fitness groups. At a global level, both CRF and MF seem to be associated with a higher cognitive profile in scholars; however, at an individual level, all fitness components show a favorable relationship to some cognitive domine. Then, future cognitive developing strategies should consider all fitness components, prioritizing those low-fitness schoolchildren.

Associations of sleep with gray matter volume and their implications for academic achievement, executive function and intelligence in children with overweight/obesity

BACKGROUND

Children with overweight/obesity have poorer sleep and smaller gray matter volume (GMV) than normal-weight children. No studies have investigated the associations of objectively-assessed sleep and GMV in children with overweight/obesity, or their implications for academic and cognitive outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

To explore the associations of sleep behaviors with GMV in the whole brain and particularly the hippocampus as a region of interest independent of sedentary time (SED) and physical activity; and to assess whether GMV in the associated regions was related to academic achievement, executive function and intelligence quotient (IQ).

METHODS

Ninety-six children with overweight/obesity (10 ± 1 year) were included. Sleep behaviors were assessed with accelerometers. GMV was acquired by magnetic resonance imaging. Academic achievement, executive function and IQ were assessed with separate tests. Analyses were adjusted for sex, peak height velocity and parent education as well as SED and physical activity.

RESULTS

Earlier wake time, less time in bed, wakening after sleep onset (WASO) and WASO occurrences were associated with higher GMV in eight cortical brain regions (k:56-448, P's < .001). Longer total sleep time, higher sleep efficiency and less WASO time were associated with higher GMV in the right hippocampus (β:0.187-0.220, P's < .05). The inferior temporal, fusiform, supramarginal, and postcentral gyri, the superior parietal cortex, precuneus and hippocampus associated with academic achievement and/or IQ. Associations remained after adjustments for SED and physical activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Sleep behaviors are associated with GMV in multiple cortical regions including the right hippocampus in children with overweight/obesity, which in turn, were associated with academic achievement and IQ.

Cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness associations with older adolescent cognitive control

BACKGROUND

Participation in physical activity supports greater cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), a correlate of cognitive control. However, the relationship between muscular fitness (MF) and cognitive control is less clear. The present study investigated the differential relationship of CRF and MF with cognitive control in older adolescents.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study involved students (15-17 years old, n = 541, 43% female) from 20 secondary schools who completed tests of inhibition (modified flanker task), working memory (n-back task), CRF (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run), and MF (standing long jump and push-up test). Multilevel analyses tested the association between CRF or MF and cognitive outcomes while accounting for the influence of the other fitness variable and relevant demographic factors.

RESULTS

CRF predicted response accuracy during incongruent flanker trials, the condition requiring greater inhibition. For the working memory task, CRF predicted greater target accuracy and greater d' scores on the 1-back task, requiring lesser amounts of working memory. In the 2-back task, which requires greater amounts of working memory, CRF also predicted greater target and non-target accuracy and d' scores. Comparatively, MF did not predict any cognitive outcomes after adjustment for CRF.

CONCLUSION

CRF was selectively related to better performance during task conditions that require greater amounts of inhibition and working memory. This finding suggests that CRF, but not MF, may benefit cognitive control in older adolescents. This selective influence of CRF on older adolescents' cognition highlights the value of aerobic physical activity.

Two Months of Using Global Recommendations for Physical Activity Had No Impact on Cognitive or Motor Functions in Overweight and Obese Middle-Aged Women

BACKGROUND

The effect of globally recommended levels of physical activity on cognition and motor behavior is not completely understood. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to assess the effect of 300 minutes per week of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on cognitive and motor performance among overweight and obese working-age women.

METHODS

Overweight and obese participants aged 38-56 years were randomized to either a control or an experimental group performing aerobic exercise at 50% to 60% of the peak oxygen consumption for a 2-month period. Changes in aerobic fitness, cardiac autonomic function, brain-derived neurotropic factor levels, and cognitive and motor performance were assessed.

RESULTS

Although aerobic exercise reduced body weight (P < .05) and improved peak oxygen consumption (P < .05), the brain-derived neurotropic factor levels and cognitive and motor performance remained unchanged. Heart rate and blood pressure decreased (P < .05), whereas heart rate variability indices were not affected. No significant correlations between changes in heart rate variability indices and cognition were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Two months of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise decreased sympathetic activity and improved cardiovascular fitness but had no impact on cognition or motor control among these middle-aged, overweight, and obese women.

Physical fitness, hippocampal functional connectivity and academic performance in children with overweight/obesity: The ActiveBrains project

OBJECTIVES

Physical fitness is a modifiable factor associated with enhanced brain health during childhood. To our knowledge, the present study is the first to examine: (i) whether physical fitness components (i.e., cardiorespiratory, motor and muscular fitness) are associated with resting state functional connectivity of hippocampal seeds to different cortical regions in children with overweight/obesity, and (ii) whether resting state hippocampal functional connectivity is coupled with better academic performance.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, a total of 99 children with overweight/obesity aged 8-11 years were recruited from Granada, Spain (November 2014 to February 2016). The physical fitness components were assessed following the ALPHA health-related fitness test battery. T1-weighted and resting-state fMRI images were acquired with a 3.0 Tesla Siemens Magnetom Tim Trio system. Academic performance was assessed by the Woodcock-Muñoz standardized test. Hippocampal seed-based procedures with post-hoc regression analyses were performed.

RESULTS

In the fully adjusted models, cardiorespiratory fitness was independently associated with greater hippocampal connectivity between anterior hippocampus and frontal regions (β ranging from 0.423 to 0.424, p < 0.001). Motor fitness was independently associated with diminished hippocampal connectivity between posterior hippocampus and frontal regions (β ranging from -0.583 to -0.694, p < 0.001). However, muscular fitness was not independently associated with hippocampal functional connectivity. Positive resting state hippocampal functional connectivity was related to better written expression (β ranging from 0.209 to 0.245; p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Physical fitness components may associate with functional connectivity between hippocampal subregions and frontal regions, independent of hippocampal volume, in children with overweight/obesity. Particularly, cardiorespiratory fitness may enhance anterior hippocampal functional connectivity and motor fitness may diminish posterior hippocampal functional connectivity. In addition, resting state hippocampal functional connectivity may relate to better written expression.

Physical fitness and brain source localization during a working memory task in children with overweight/obesity: The ActiveBrains project

The present study aims (i) to examine the association of physical fitness components (i.e., cardiorespiratory fitness, speed-agility, and muscular fitness) with brain current source density during working memory; and (ii) to examine whether fitness-related current density was associated to working memory performance and academic achievement. Eighty-five children with overweight/obesity aged 8-11 years participated in this cross-sectional study. Physical fitness components were assessed using the ALPHA test battery. Electroencephalography recordings were performed during a Delayed Non-Match-to-Sample task that assessed working memory. Brain source analysis was carried out using sLORETA to estimate regional current source density differences between high and low (H-L) working memory loads. Academic achievement was measured by the Spanish version of the Woodcock-Johnson III test battery. The main results showed that higher cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with higher H-L current density differences in frontal, limbic, and occipital regions during encoding and maintenance task's phases (β≥0.412, p ≤ 0.019). A limbic area was further related to better working memory performance (β=0.267, p = 0.005). During retrieval, higher cardiorespiratory fitness was also associated with higher current density in temporal regions (β=0.265, p = 0.013), whereas lower muscular fitness was associated with higher current density in frontal regions (β=-0.261, p = 0.016). Our results suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness, but not speed-agility nor muscular fitness, is positively associated with brain current source density during working memory processes in children with overweight/obesity. Fitness-related current density differences in limbic regions were associated with better working memory.

Association Between Physical Fitness and Anxiety in Children: A Moderated Mediation Model of Agility and Resilience

Background: Anxiety is one of the most prevalent mental health problems in children. Although physical fitness as a predictor of mental health, the mechanisms underlying any association between physical fitness and anxiety in children have been understudied. Thus, the aim of the present study was to determine whether an association exists between physical fitness and anxiety and to explore the roles of agility and resilience in such an association. Methods: This cross-sectional study investigated 269 children aged 7 to 12 years from three public primary schools in Shanghai (China). Physical fitness and agility were objectively measured, and resilience and anxiety were assessed using self-reported questionnaires. The moderated mediation model was examined using the SPSS PROCESS macro, in which the moderator variable was agility, and the mediator variable was resilience. Results: Physical fitness was inversely associated with anxiety. Resilience partially and indirectly mediated this association, and agility moderated the association between physical fitness and resilience. Physical fitness had a greater impact on resilience in children with higher agility levels. Conclusions: Agility moderated the mediation of resilience on the indirect, inverse association between physical fitness and anxiety; thus, incorporating methods to develop agility and resilience may lead to better outcomes for physical fitness programs designed to prevent or alleviate anxiety in children.

Negative feelings and behaviour are associated with low nutritional level, unhealthy lifestyle, and cardiometabolic risk factors in Chilean schoolchildren

Introduction

Background: feelings and behaviours are an important tool that should be considered to prevent early unhealthy lifestyles. Objective: the objective was to determine the association between feelings (i.e., sadness, loneliness, and school behaviour) with lifestyle (i.e., physical activity patterns and nutritional level), and as secondary endpoint to determine the relationship between health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and lifestyle with obesity and cardiometabolic risk (CMR) factors in Latin American schoolchildren. Methods: this cross-sectional study included a sample of 634 schoolchildren (girls, n = 282, 11.86 ± 0.82 years, and boys, n = 352, 12.02 ± 0.87 years) from publics schools in Chile. Body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist-to-height ratio (WtHR), body fat (BF), lifestyle, nutritional level, HRQoL, and CMR (i.e., WtHR > 0.5) were evaluated. Results: schoolchildren who have felt sadness and loneliness presented an association with low nutritional level (OR: 4.26, 95 % CI: 2.0-9.0, p < 0.001, and OR: 4.47, 95 % CI: 2.5-7.9, p < 0.001, respectively), bad lifestyle (OR: 2.14, 95 % CI: 1.0-4.54, p = 0.048, and OR: 1.78, 95 % CI: 1.01-3.1, p = 0.045, respectively), and obesity (OR: 2.0, 95 % CI; 0.89-4.54, p = 0.09, and OR: 2.05, 95 % CI; 1.04-4.0, p = 0.037, respectively). Schoolchildren who have had enough time for themselves reported an association with bad lifestyle (OR: 0.69, 95 % CI: 0.47-1.02, p = 0.06), and those who have could not pay attention presented the highest association with bad lifestyle (OR: 4.64, 95 % CI: 72-12.56, p = 0.002). Conclusion: Latin American schoolchildren who have felt sadness and loneliness reported unhealthy lifestyles (i.e., lower nutritional level, increased screen time, and low physical activity), obesity, and thus a higher CMR burden.

Identification of the brain networks that contribute to the interaction between physical function and working memory: An fMRI investigation with over 1,000 healthy adults

There is a growing consensus regarding the positive relationship between physical function and working memory; however, explanations of task-evoked functional activity regarding this relationship and its differences in physical function domains remain controversial. This study illustrates the cross-sectional relationships between cardiorespiratory fitness, gait speed, hand dexterity, and muscular strength with working memory task (N-back task) performance and the mediating effects of task-evoked functional activity in 1033 adults aged between 22 and 37 years. The results showed that cardiorespiratory fitness and hand dexterity were independently associated with N-back task performance to a greater extent and in contrast to gait speed and muscular strength. These relationships were mediated by task-evoked functional activity in a part of the frontoparietal network (FPN) and default mode network (DMN). Superior cardiorespiratory fitness could contribute to working memory performance by enhancing the compensational role of FPN-related broader region activation. Hand dexterity was associated with moderation of the interaction in terms of task-evoked activation between the FPN and DMN, which in turn, improved N-back task performance. Based on these findings, we conclude that cardiorespiratory fitness and hand dexterity have common and unique mechanisms enhancing working memory.

Effects of the Enriched Sports Activities-Program on Executive Functions in Italian Children

Physical activity (PA) during childhood plays an important role in brain development. This role is played in both the structural domain, prefrontal cortex area, and in the functional domain, involving the higher cognitive functions, including the executive functions (EF). Working memory (WM), inhibition, and switching as fundamental EF were investigated in an Italian children sample before and after four months of an Enriched Sports Activities-Program (ESA-Program). EFs were assessed at pre-test and post-test using, respectively, the digit span test, the color word Stroop test, and the trail making test derived from Millisecond Software. The Italian sample was composed of 141 children aged 8.54 years. The intervention group (IG) was composed of 61 children and the control group (CG) of 80 children. Significant differences in WM (p < 0.05) were found in the IG following the ESA-Program intervention. Children's performance improved both in forward digit span (FDS1 mean difference = 0.26; p = 0.04; FDS2 mean difference = 0.21; p = 0.01) and backward digit span (BDS2 mean difference = 0.14; p = 0.02). No significant improvements were observed for inhibition and switching processes (p > 0.05). Since this finding suggests that brain functioning is sensitive to lifestyle factors, such as PA, an essential goal for ESA-Program is to emphasize the importance of PA to enhance cognitive skills in childhood and prevent sedentary life.

Physical activity, aerobic fitness, and brain white matter: Their role for executive functions in adolescence

Physical activity and exercise beneficially link to brain properties and cognitive functions in older adults, but the findings concerning adolescents remain tentative. During adolescence, the brain undergoes significant changes, which are especially pronounced in white matter. Studies provide contradictory evidence regarding the influence of physical activity or aerobic-exercise on executive functions in youth. Little is also known about the link between both fitness and physical activity with the brain's white matter during puberty. We investigated the connection between aerobic fitness and physical activity with the white matter in 59 adolescents. We further determined whether white matter interacts with the connection of fitness or physical activity with core executive functions. Our results show that only the level of aerobic fitness, but not of physical activity relates to white matter. Furthermore, the white matter of the corpus callosum and the right superior corona radiata moderates the links of aerobic fitness and physical activity with working memory. Our results suggest that aerobic fitness and physical activity have an unequal contribution to the white matter properties in adolescents. We propose that the differences in white matter properties could underlie the variations in the relationship between either physical activity or aerobic fitness with working memory.

Acute coordinative exercise ameliorates general and food-cue related cognitive function in obese adolescents

Whether the acute coordinative exercise could affect the inhibitory control and food-cue related attention in obese adolescents remains understudied. Therefore, this study used the Stroop test and the food-cue related Stroop test to explore the impacts of 20 min of acute coordinative exercise on the cognitive tests involving inhibitory control and attentional bias towards food-cue related stimuli, respectively, in obese adolescents. Thirty-eight obese adolescents (mean age = 14.63 ± 0.69 years) were equally divided into exercise and control groups. The cognitive tests (i.e., the Stroop test and the food-cue related Stroop test) and hunger scores were conducted and assessed before and after an intervention. The exercise group had significantly larger negative pre-post response time difference in the congruent (-1.04 ± 0.29 ms) and incongruent (-5.76 ± 1.66 ms) conditions of the Stroop test than the control group (ps < 0.01), and a smaller post-interference (1.13 ± 0.14) than the pre-interference (1.31 ± 0.14, p = 0.04). Moreover, a significantly larger negative pre-post response time difference on the food-cue related Stroop test was observed in the exercise group (-4.42 ± 7.20 ms) than the control group (1.76 ± 8.37 ms, p = 0.02). Collectively, an acute coordinative exercise session could induce superior inhibitory control and less attentional bias towards food-cue related stimuli in obese adolescents.

Early life factors, gray matter brain volume and academic performance in overweight/obese children: The ActiveBrains project

Early life factors may influence brain and academic outcomes later in life, especially during childhood. Here we investigate the associations of early life factors (i.e., birth weight, birth length, and breastfeeding) with gray matter volume, adjusted for body mass index and cardiorespiratory fitness, and ii) we test whether early-life factor-related differences in gray matter volume are associated with academic performance in overweight/obese children. 96 children with overweight/obesity aged 8-11 years participated. Birth weight, birth length and gestational age were collected from birth records, and breastfeeding practices were asked to parents. T1-weighted images were acquired with a 3.0 T Magnetom Tim Trio system. Academic performance was assessed with the Bateria III Woodcock-Muñoz Tests of Achievement. Whole-brain voxel-wise multiple regressions were used to test the associations of each early life factor with gray matter volume. Higher birth weight and birth length were associated with greater gray matter volume in 9 brain regions including the middle frontal gyrus, rectal gyrus, thalamus, putamen, middle temporal gyrus, lingual gyrus, middle occipital gyrus, calcarine cortex and cerebellum bilaterally (β ranging from 0.361 to 0.539, t ranging from 3.46 to 5.62 and cluster size from 82 to 4478 voxels; p < 0.001); and greater duration of any breastfeeding was associated with greater gray matter volume in 3 regions including the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus and rolandic operculum (β ranging from 0.359 to 0.408, t ranging from 4.01 to 4.32 and cluster size from 64 to 171 voxels; p < 0.001). No associations were found for duration of exclusive breastfeeding. Additionally, none of the gray matter regions that were associated with the early life factors were associated with academic performance (all p > 0.05). Our results demonstrate that birth weight, birth length, and breastfeeding are predictive of gray matter volume of numerous brain structures that are involved in higher order cognition and emotion regulation, but how these results relate to measures of academic achievement remain a matter of speculation.

Eight-Section Brocade Exercises Improve the Sleep Quality and Memory Consolidation and Cardiopulmonary Function of Older Adults With Atrial Fibrillation-Associated Stroke

Purpose: Poor sleep quality is harmful for everyone and potentially even more harmful for older adults with atrial fibrillation-associated stroke (AFAS). This study aims to explore the effects of eight-section brocade (ESB) on sleep quality, memory, and cardiopulmonary function in the older adults with AFAS. Methods: Older adults with AFAS and sleep disorders were recruited and divided into the ESB (EG, n = 85) and control groups (CG, general exercise, n = 85). EG patients received 60 min ESB exercises 5 times a week for 12 weeks; CG patients received normal exercise. Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI) scores (poor sleepers ≥8 and normal sleepers < 8), memory for word pairs (poor memory ≤ 7 and normal memory > 7), left ventricular posterior wall (LVPW) thickness, and maximum ventilation (MV, to evaluate cardiopulmonary function) values were measured. The correlation between sleep and memory quality was analyzed using PSQI scores and word pairs via the Pearson correlation coefficients test. Adjusted Cox models were used to explore an interaction between PSQI and ESB exercise. Results: After 12-week exercise intervention, ESB improved sleep quality, latency, duration, disturbance and daytime dysfunction when compared to conventional exercise. In similar cases, the MV values in the EG were also higher than that in the CG (p = 0.009). ESB intervention could not affect the cardiac structure and left ventricular ejection fraction. Compared with the CG, the ESB intervention reduced PSQI scores and increased memorized word pairs (p < 0.001 for poor and normal sleepers in both unadjusted and adjusted analysis, p = 0.012 and 0.003 for poor and normal memory). The test of Pearson correlation coefficients showed that PSQI scores were strongly associated with the number of word pairs in both unadjusted and adjusted analyses (p < 0.0001). Conclusion: Eight-section brocade exercise improved sleep quality and memory consolidation and cardiopulmonary function by reducing PSQI scores, increasing word pairs and MV values in the older adults with AFAS.