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Bacterial Infections and Atherosclerosis – A Mini Review. JOURNAL OF PURE AND APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.22207/jpam.16.3.08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is the most challenging subsets of coronary artery disease in humans, in which risk factors emerge from childhood, and its prevalence increases with age. Experimental research demonstrates that infections due to bacteria stimulate atherogenic events. Atherosclerosis has complex pathophysiology that is linked with several bacterial infections by damaging the inner arterial wall and heart muscles directly and indirectly by provoking a systemic pro-inflammation and acute-phase protein. Repeated bacterial infections trigger an inflammatory cascade that triggers immunological responses that negatively impact cardiovascular biomarkers includes triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein, C-reactive protein, heat shock proteins, cytokines, fibrinogen, and leukocyte count. Herein, we intended to share the role of bacterial infection in atherosclerosis and evaluate existing evidence of animal and human trials on the association between bacterial infections and atherosclerosis on update.
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El Yazouli L, Seghrouchni F, Hejaji H, Bouazza M, Alami AA, Dakka N, Radouani F. Cell-mediated immune response associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in atherosclerotic patients. Microb Pathog 2019; 139:103860. [PMID: 31707079 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2019.103860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chlamydia pneumoniae is an obligate intracellular bacterium that activates cell mediated immune responses; several investigations have demonstrated its strong implication in atherosclerosis. OBJECTIVES The main objective of our study was to explore the cell-mediated immune response to C. pneumoniae infection in patients with atherosclerosis by evaluating CD14, CD8 and CD4 expression. METHODS This investigation involved a total of 27 patients with atherosclerosis and 32 controls, among patients recruited to evaluate the association of C. pneumoniae with atherosclerosis. C. pneumoniae DNA was detected in PBMCs by nested PCR as described in our previous studies. CD4, CD8 and CD14 expression was measured by flow cytometry and data analysis was performed using FlowJo software. RESULTS The results revealed an increase in MFI expression of CD4, CD8 and CD14 in Cpn DNA+ subjects among both patients and healthy subject controls (CD4 Cpn DNA+ = 829.11 vs. CD4 Cpn DNA- = 571.14; CD8 Cpn DNA+ = 1562 vs. CD8 Cpn DNA- = 699; CD14 Cpn DNA+ = 1513.83 vs. CD14 Cpn DNA- = 1170.70), with a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the comparison of CD4, CD8 and CD14 expression between Cpn DNA+ patients and Cpn DNA+ healthy subject controls showed a statistically significant increase in expression in the former group (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION These data provide incentive to further explore the role of C. pneumoniae in stimulating and changing mechanisms of the cell-mediated immune response induced by C. pneumoniae antigens. This may alter immune cell-mediated responses via increased expression of CD4, CD8 and CD14 during inflammation and the development of thrombosis, leading to fatal atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loubna El Yazouli
- Institut Pasteur du Maroc, Chlamydiae and Mycoplasmas Laboratory, Casablanca, 20360, Morocco; Laboratory of Human Pathologies Biology, Genomic Center of Human Pathologies, Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University of Rabat, Morocco
| | - Fouad Seghrouchni
- Cellular Immunology Laboratory, Institut National d'Hygiène, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Hicham Hejaji
- Cardiovascular Surgery Department, Ibn Rochd CHU, Casablanca, Morocco
| | | | | | - Nadia Dakka
- Laboratory of Human Pathologies Biology, Genomic Center of Human Pathologies, Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University of Rabat, Morocco
| | - Fouzia Radouani
- Institut Pasteur du Maroc, Chlamydiae and Mycoplasmas Laboratory, Casablanca, 20360, Morocco.
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Matsuo J, Sakai K, Okubo T, Yamaguchi H. Chlamydia pneumoniaeenhances Interleukin 8 (IL-8) production with reduced azithromycin sensitivity under hypoxia. APMIS 2019; 127:131-138. [DOI: 10.1111/apm.12924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Junji Matsuo
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science; Faculty of Health Sciences; Hokkaido University; Sapporo Japan
| | - Kohei Sakai
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science; Faculty of Health Sciences; Hokkaido University; Sapporo Japan
| | - Torahiko Okubo
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science; Faculty of Health Sciences; Hokkaido University; Sapporo Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Yamaguchi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science; Faculty of Health Sciences; Hokkaido University; Sapporo Japan
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Gomez LM, Anton L, Srinivas SK, Elovitz MA, Parry S. Low-Dose Aspirin May Prevent Trophoblast Dysfunction in Women With Chlamydia Pneumoniae Infection. Reprod Sci 2018; 26:1449-1459. [PMID: 30572799 DOI: 10.1177/1933719118820468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Previously, we demonstrated that live Chlamydia pneumoniae (Cp) impaired extravillous trophoblast (EVT) viability and invasion and that Cp DNA was detected in placentas from cases with preeclampsia. We sought to elucidate whether (1) inactive forms of Cp also affect EVT function; (2) potential therapeutic interventions protect against the effects of Cp; and (3) anti-Cp antibodies are associated with preeclampsia. METHODS Human first-trimester EVTs were infected with ultraviolet light-inactivated Cp. Subgroups of EVTs were pretreated with low-dose acetyl-salicylic acid (ASA), dexamethasone, heparin, and indomethacin. We conducted functional assays after infection with inactivated Cp and measured interleukin 8 (IL8), C-reactive protein (CRP), heat shock protein 60 (HSP60), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) in culture media. We measured anti-Cp IgG serum levels from women who developed preeclampsia (N = 105) and controls (N = 121). RESULTS Inactivated Cp reduced EVT invasion when compared to noninfected cells (P < .00001) without adversely affecting cell viability. Increased levels of IL8, CRP, HSP60, and TNFα were detected in EVTs infected with inactivated Cp compared to noninfected cells (P < .0001). Only pretreatment with low-dose ASA prevented reduced EVT invasion and decreased release of inflammatory mediators (P < .01). Elevated anti-Cp IgG antibodies were more prevalent in serum from cases with preeclampsia compared to controls (67/105 vs 53/121; adjusted P = .013); elevated IgG correlated significantly with elevated serum CRP and elevated soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1-placental growth factor ratio. CONCLUSION Inactivated Cp induces decreased EVT invasion and a proinflammatory response; these effects were abrogated by pretreatment with low-dose ASA. Our results suggest an association between Cp infection, trophoblast dysfunction, and preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis M Gomez
- Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, INOVA Health System, Falls Church, VA, USA
| | - Lauren Anton
- Maternal and Child Health Research Program, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Shindu K Srinivas
- Maternal and Child Health Research Program, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Michal A Elovitz
- Maternal and Child Health Research Program, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Samuel Parry
- Maternal and Child Health Research Program, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Freitas LS, Almeida NCC, Freitas Queiroz MA, Zaninotto MM, Fuzii HT, Ribeiro-Silva A, Vallinoto AC, Ishak MO, Quaresma JA, Ishak R. In situ detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae, C. trachomatis, and cytokines among cardiovascular diseased patients from the Amazon region of Brazil. Infect Drug Resist 2017; 10:109-114. [PMID: 28435302 PMCID: PMC5391863 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s123801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chronic coronary artery disease has been associated, as a consequence of the local inflammatory reaction with previous or persistent infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae, which led to the investigation of the association of cardiovascular disease and previous infection with C. trachomatis and the role of cytokine profile (in situ) markers in the vascular system tissues. Methods Sixty-nine biopsies were collected for immunohistochemical analysis for the presence of IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, IFN-γ, TGF-β, and IL-10, in 16 fragments from atheromatous plaques, 32 aorta fragments, and 21 valve fragments, using a tissue microarray technique for paraffin embedded tissues. Results Most patients undergoing revascularization surgery were men >50 years, while those undergoing valve replacement were mostly women <50 years. TNF-α was the most prevalent marker, detected in 91.7% (55/60) of the samples. The mean percent area stained was greater in patients infected with C. pneumoniae (3.81% vs 1.92%; p=0.0115) and specifically in the aorta (4.83% vs 2.25%; p=0.0025); C. trachomatis infection was higher in valves, and C. pneumoniae in plaques, both without statistical significance. There was no significant difference in the cytokine staining profile between patients previously infected with both species and uninfected patients. Conclusion Although there was no difference in the cytokine profile between patients previously infected with both species of Chlamydia, and uninfected patients, the presence of the bacteria antigens in the three biological specimens indicates it is important to focus on the role of C. trachomatis. It is necessary to improve the understanding of the natural history of chronic coronary artery disease and the clinical history of the patients and cytokine dynamics in cardiac disease in the presence or absence of infectious agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa S Freitas
- Virus Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para
| | | | | | | | - Hellen T Fuzii
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Nucleus of Tropical Medicine, Federal University of Para, Belém
| | - Alfredo Ribeiro-Silva
- Departament of Pathology, Medical School of Ribeirão Preto, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Marluísa Og Ishak
- Virus Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para
| | - Juarez As Quaresma
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Nucleus of Tropical Medicine, Federal University of Para, Belém
| | - Ricardo Ishak
- Virus Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para
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Smith-Norowitz TA, Perlman J, Norowitz YM, Joks R, Durkin HG, Hammerschlag MR, Kohlhoff S. Chlamydia pneumoniae induces interleukin-12 responses in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in asthma and the role of toll like receptor 2 versus 4: a pilot study. Ir J Med Sci 2016; 186:511-517. [PMID: 28035483 DOI: 10.1007/s11845-016-1549-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chlamydia pneumoniae causes respiratory infection in adults and children, and has been associated with asthma exacerbations and induction of Immunoglobulin (Ig) E responses. We previously reported that C. pneumoniae enhances T helper (Th) 2 responses of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from asthmatic patients. It is likely that toll like receptor (TLR)-2 and TLR-4 mediate cytokine responses and host defense against C. pneumoniae. Thus, we sought to determine whether engagement of TLR-2 or TLR-4 may induce IL-12 production in our C. pneumoniae model. METHODS PBMC (1.5 × 106) from asthmatic patients (N = 10) and non-asthmatic controls (N = 5) were infected or mock-infected for 1 h ± C. pneumoniae TW183 at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) = 1 and MOI = 0.1, and cultured for 48 h ± anti- TLR-2 and TLR-4 antibodies (Abs) (1 mg/mL). Interleukin (IL)-12 (48 h p.i.) and total IgE levels (day 10) were measured in supernatants (ELISA). RESULTS High IgE levels were detected in supernatants of C. pneumoniae- infected PBMC from asthmatics on day 10, compared with mock-infected PBMC (p < 0.03). In contrast, IgE was not detected (<0.3 ng/mL) in either C. pneumoniae infected or mock-infected PBMC from non-asthmatics. IL-12 production by C. pneumoniae-infected asthmatic and non-asthmatic PBMC were similar. When anti-TLR4, but not anti-TLR2, was included in culture, IL-12 production by C. pneumoniae- infected asthmatic PBMC decreased. CONCLUSIONS C. pneumoniae infection induces IgE production and modulates IL-12 responses in patients with asthma, which may be caused, in part, by differences in TLR-2 and TLR-4 stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Smith-Norowitz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA.
| | - J Perlman
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
| | - Y M Norowitz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
| | - R Joks
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
| | - H G Durkin
- Department of Pathology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
| | - M R Hammerschlag
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
| | - S Kohlhoff
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
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Pettengill MA, Abdul-Sater A, Coutinho-Silva R, Ojcius DM. Danger signals, inflammasomes, and the intricate intracellular lives of chlamydiae. Biomed J 2016; 39:306-315. [PMID: 27884377 PMCID: PMC6138786 DOI: 10.1016/j.bj.2016.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens, and as such are sensitive to alterations in the cellular physiology of their hosts. Chlamydial infections often cause pathologic consequences due to prolonged localized inflammation. Considerable advances have been made in the last few years regarding our understanding of how two key inflammation-associated signaling pathways influence the biology of Chlamydia infections: inflammation regulating purinergic signaling pathways significantly impact intracellular chlamydial development, and inflammasome activation modulates both chlamydial growth and infection mediated pro-inflammatory cytokine production. We review here elements of both pathways, presenting the latest developments contributing to our understanding of how chlamydial infections are influenced by inflammasomes and purinergic signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ali Abdul-Sater
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Robson Coutinho-Silva
- Laboratory of Immunophysiology, Carlos Chagas Filho Biophysics Institute of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - David M Ojcius
- Laboratory of Immunophysiology, Carlos Chagas Filho Biophysics Institute of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of the Pacific, Arthur Dugoni School of Dentistry, San Francisco, USA.
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Herweg JA, Rudel T. Interaction of Chlamydiae with human macrophages. FEBS J 2015; 283:608-18. [PMID: 26613554 DOI: 10.1111/febs.13609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Revised: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The phylum Chlamydiae contains several members that are well-known human pathogens, like Chlamydia trachomatis and C. pneumoniae. Establishing a chronic bacterial infection requires the active evasion of the host immune response. A major arm of the innate immune defence is constituted by macrophages, which fight infections by removing bacteria and triggering an adaptive immune response. However, some pathogenic Chlamydia infect and survive in macrophages at least for a certain period of time. Therefore, macrophages can serve as vehicles for the dissemination of bacterial infections from the primary infection site via the urogenital or respiratory tract to distant sites in the body. The capacity to infect macrophages seems to depend on the chlamydial strain and the source of macrophages. In vitro infections of macrophages with C. trachomatis, C. psittaci and C. pneumoniae reveal low efficiency of infection and progeny formation, as well as failure to develop mature inclusions. In contrast, the emerging pathogen, Simkania negevensis, actively replicates in macrophages. Here we summarize the current knowledge of the intracellular and molecular key mechanisms of C. trachomatis, C. pneumoniae and S. negevensis infections in human macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jo-Ana Herweg
- Biocenter, Department of Microbiology, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Rudel
- Biocenter, Department of Microbiology, University of Würzburg, Germany
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Synergistic Costimulatory Effect of Chlamydia pneumoniae with Carbon Nanoparticles on NLRP3 Inflammasome-Mediated Interleukin-1β Secretion in Macrophages. Infect Immun 2015; 83:2917-25. [PMID: 25939513 DOI: 10.1128/iai.02968-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The obligate intracellular bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae is not only a causative agent of community-acquired pneumonia but is also associated with a more serious chronic disease, asthma, which might be exacerbated by air pollution containing carbon nanoparticles. Although a detailed mechanism of exacerbation remains unknown, the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is a critical player in the pathogenesis of asthma. C. pneumoniae induces IL-1β in macrophages via NACHT, LRR, and PYD domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation and Toll-like receptor 2/4 (TLR2/4) stimulation. Carbon nanoparticles, such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), can also evoke the NLRP3 inflammasome to trigger IL-1β secretion from lipopolysaccharide-primed macrophages. This study assessed whether costimulation of C. pneumoniae with CNTs synergistically enhanced IL-1β secretion from macrophages, and determined the molecular mechanism involved. Enhanced IL-1β secretion from C. pneumoniae-infected macrophages by CNTs was dose and time dependent. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that C. pneumoniae and CNTs were engulfed concurrently by macrophages. Inhibitors of actin polymerization or caspase-1, a component of the inflammasome, significantly blocked IL-1β secretion. Gene silencing using small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting the NLRP3 gene also abolished IL-1β secretion. Other inhibitors (K(+) efflux inhibitor, cathepsin B inhibitor, and reactive oxygen species-generating inhibitor) also blocked IL-1β secretion. Taken together, these findings demonstrated that CNTs synergistically enhanced IL-1β secretion from C. pneumoniae-infected macrophages via the NLRP3 inflammasome and caspase-1 activation, providing novel insight into our understanding of how C. pneumoniae infection can exacerbate asthma.
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Kumar S, Smith-Norowitz TA, Kohlhoff S, Apfalter P, Roblin P, Kutlin A, Harkema J, Ng SP, Doherty-Lyons S, Zelikoff JT, Hammerschlag MR. Exposure to cigarette smoke and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in mice: Effect on infectious burden, systemic dissemination and cytokine responses: A pilot study. J Immunotoxicol 2015; 13:77-83. [PMID: 25640695 DOI: 10.3109/1547691x.2015.1006346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cigarette smoke exposure has been considered a risk factor for infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae. C. pneumoniae infection is associated with respiratory tract infection and chronic respiratory disease, which is a serious public health concern. To determine whether prior exposure to cigarette smoke worsens C. pneumoniae infection (specifically, increases infectious burden and systemic dissemination) as well as alters cytokine responses in mice, adult female C57BL/6 mice were exposed to either filtered air (FA) or mainstream cigarette smoke (MCS) (15 mg/m(3), total suspended particulates) for 5 days/week for 2 weeks and then infected with C. pneumoniae (10(5) IFU) via intratracheal instillation. Mice were euthanized on Days 7, 14 or 26 post-infection (p.i.). Chlamydial burdens in the lungs and spleen were quantified by quantitative PCR (qPCR) and histologic analyses were performed; cytokine levels (TNFα, IL-4, IFNγ) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and serum were assayed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results indicated that: (1) mice exposed to either FA or MCS had similar chlamydial burdens in the lungs and spleen on Days 14 and 26 p.i.; (2) proximal and distal airway inflammation was observed on Day 14 p.i. in both FA and MCS mice, but persisted in MCS mice until Day 26 p.i.; FA exposed mice demonstrated resolution of distal airway inflammation; and (3) MCS mice displayed higher serum levels of IFNγ and IL-4 on Day 26 p.i. These findings indicate that exposure of mice to MCS (at a concentration equivalent to smoking < 1 pack cigarettes/day) led to greater C. pneumoniae-induced inflammation, as indicated by prolonged inflammatory changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swati Kumar
- a Department of Pediatrics , State University of New York Downstate Medical Center , Brooklyn , NY , USA
| | - Tamar A Smith-Norowitz
- a Department of Pediatrics , State University of New York Downstate Medical Center , Brooklyn , NY , USA
| | - Stephan Kohlhoff
- a Department of Pediatrics , State University of New York Downstate Medical Center , Brooklyn , NY , USA
| | - Petra Apfalter
- a Department of Pediatrics , State University of New York Downstate Medical Center , Brooklyn , NY , USA
| | - Patricia Roblin
- a Department of Pediatrics , State University of New York Downstate Medical Center , Brooklyn , NY , USA
| | - Andrei Kutlin
- a Department of Pediatrics , State University of New York Downstate Medical Center , Brooklyn , NY , USA
| | - Jack Harkema
- b Center for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University , East Lansing , MI , USA
| | - Sheung P Ng
- c DuPont Stine Haskell Research Center , Newark , DE , USA , and
| | - Shannon Doherty-Lyons
- d Department of Environmental Medicine , New York University School of Medicine , Tuxedo , NY , USA
| | - Judith T Zelikoff
- d Department of Environmental Medicine , New York University School of Medicine , Tuxedo , NY , USA
| | - Margaret R Hammerschlag
- a Department of Pediatrics , State University of New York Downstate Medical Center , Brooklyn , NY , USA
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Buchacher T, Wiesinger-Mayr H, Vierlinger K, Rüger BM, Stanek G, Fischer MB, Weber V. Human blood monocytes support persistence, but not replication of the intracellular pathogen C. pneumoniae. BMC Immunol 2014; 15:60. [PMID: 25488836 PMCID: PMC4268907 DOI: 10.1186/s12865-014-0060-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Intracellular pathogens have devised various mechanisms to subvert the host immune response in order to survive and replicate in host cells. Here, we studied the infection of human blood monocytes with the intracellular pathogen C. pneumoniae and the effect on cytokine and chemokine profiles in comparison to stimulation with LPS. Results Monocytes purified from peripheral blood mononuclear cells by negative depletion were infected with C. pneumoniae. While immunofluorescence confirmed the presence of chlamydial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the cytoplasm of infected monocytes, real-time PCR did not provide evidence for replication of the intracellular pathogen. Complementary to PCR, C. pneumoniae infection was confirmed by an oligonucleotide DNA microarray for the detection of intracellular pathogens. Raman microspectroscopy revealed different molecular fingerprints for infected and non-infected monocytes, which were mainly due to changes in lipid and fatty acid content. Stimulation of monocytes with C. pneumoniae or with LPS induced similar profiles of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-6, but higher levels of IL-1β, IL-12p40 and IL-12p70 for C. pneumoniae which were statistically significant. C. pneumoniae also induced release of the chemokines MCP-1, MIP-1α and MIP-1β, and CXCL-8, which correlated with TNF-α secretion. Conclusion Infection of human blood monocytes with intracellular pathogens triggers altered cytokine and chemokine pattern as compared to stimulation with extracellular ligands such as LPS. Complementing conventional methods, an oligonucleotide DNA microarray for the detection of intracellular pathogens as well as Raman microspectroscopy provide useful tools to trace monocyte infection. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12865-014-0060-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Buchacher
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Innovative Therapy Approaches in Sepsis, Danube University Krems, Krems, Austria.
| | | | | | - Beate M Rüger
- Department of Blood Group Serology and Transfusion Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Gerold Stanek
- Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Michael B Fischer
- Department of Blood Group Serology and Transfusion Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria. .,Department for Health Sciences and Biomedicine, Danube University Krems, Krems, Austria.
| | - Viktoria Weber
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Innovative Therapy Approaches in Sepsis, Danube University Krems, Krems, Austria. .,Department for Health Sciences and Biomedicine, Danube University Krems, Krems, Austria.
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Laek B, Szklo M, McClelland RL, Ding J, Tsai MY, Bluemke DA, Tracy R, Matsushita K. The prospective association of Chlamydia pneumoniae and four other pathogens with development of coronary artery calcium: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA). Atherosclerosis 2013; 230:268-74. [PMID: 24075755 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2013.07.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Revised: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Previous basic and cross-sectional studies obtained conflicting results regarding the association of pathogens with coronary artery calcium (CAC). The aim of this study is to prospectively evaluate this association in a population-based cohort. METHODS We examined 5744 individuals aged 45-84 years at baseline (2000-02) who underwent repeated CAC assessment on average 2.4 years later (a half at visit 2 [2002-04] and the other half at visit 3 [2004-05]). CAC incidence was defined as newly detectable CAC at follow-up (475 cases of 2942 participants). CAC progression was defined as annualized change in CAC Agatston score ≥10 units/year if baseline CAC score >0 to <100 or ≥10%/year if baseline score ≥ 100 (1537 cases of 2802 participants). Seropositivity was assessed in the entire cohort for Chlamydia pneumoniae and in a random sample (n = 873) for Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, and hepatitis A virus. RESULTS Seropositivity to C. pneumoniae was not significantly associated with CAC incidence (odds ratio [OR] 1.11 [95% CI, 0.88-1.39], P = 0.371) or progression (1.14 [0.96-1.36], P = 0.135) even in unadjusted models. When CAC incidence and progression were combined, we observed significant association with C. pneumoniae seropositivity before adjustment (OR 1.17 [1.03-1.33], P = 0.016) but not in a model adjusting for traditional risk factors (1.04 [0.90-1.19], P = 0.611). The results were consistent across subgroups according to age, sex, and race/ethnicity. None of five pathogens or their accrual was associated with CAC incidence and progression in the subsample. CONCLUSION Our prospective study does not support the pathophysiological involvement of these pathogens in CAC development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babray Laek
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Netherlands Institute for Health Sciences, Erasmus University, Dr. Molewaterplein 60, 3015 GJ Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Evani SJ, Dallo SF, Murthy AK, Ramasubramanian AK. Shear Stress Enhances Chemokine Secretion from Chlamydia pneumoniae-infected Monocytes. Cell Mol Bioeng 2013; 6:326-334. [PMID: 24505240 DOI: 10.1007/s12195-013-0291-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae is a common respiratory pathogen that is considered a highly likely risk factor for atherosclerosis. C. pneumoniae is disseminated from the lung into systemic circulation via infected monocytes and lodges at the atherosclerotic sites. During transit, C. pneumoniae-infected monocytes in circulation are subjected to shear stress due to blood flow. The effect of mechanical stimuli on infected monocytes is largely understudied in the context of C. pneumoniae infection and inflammation. We hypothesized that fluid shear stress alters the inflammatory response of C. pneumoniae-infected monocytes and contributes to immune cell recruitment to the site of tissue damage. Using an in vitro model of blood flow, we determined that a physiological shear stress of 7.5 dyn/cm2 for 1 h on C. pneumoniae-infected monocytes enhances the production of several chemokines, which in turn is correlated with the recruitment of significantly large number of monocytes. Taken together, these results suggest synergistic interaction between mechanical and chemical factors in C. pneumoniae infection and associated inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shankar J Evani
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Shatha F Dallo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Ashlesh K Murthy
- Departments of Pathology and Dental Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Anand K Ramasubramanian
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
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Atherosclerosis Induced by Chlamydophila pneumoniae: A Controversial Theory. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis 2013; 2013:941392. [PMID: 23956742 PMCID: PMC3730386 DOI: 10.1155/2013/941392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
More than a century ago, inflammation and infection were considered to have atherogenic effects. The old idea that coronary heart disease (CHD) possibly has an infectious etiology has only reemerged in recent years. Atherosclerosis is the main pathological process involved in CHD and is, logically, the first place to look for infectious etiology. The process of atherosclerosis itself provides the first hints of potential infectious cause. Smooth muscle proliferation, with subsequent intimal thickening, luminal narrowing, and endothelial degeneration, constitutes the natural history of atherosclerosis, being with the severity and speed of these changes. Both viral and bacterial pathogens have been proposed to be associated with the inflammatory changes found in atherosclerosis. Recently, Chlamydophila pneumoniae (C. pneumoniae) has been implicated as a possible etiologic agent of coronary artery disease and atherosclerosis. New evidence which supports a role for C. pneumoniae in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis has emerged. C. pneumoniae has been detected in atherosclerotic arteries by several techniques, and the organism has been isolated from both coronary and carotid atheromas. Recent animal models have suggested that C. pneumoniae is capable of inducing atherosclerosis in both rabbit and mouse models of atherosclerosis. Furthermore, human clinical treatment studies which examined the use of antichlamydial macrolide antibiotics in patients with coronary atherosclerosis have been carried out. The causal relationship has not yet been proven, but ongoing large intervention trials and research on pathogenetic mechanisms may lead to the use of antimicrobial agents in the treatment of CHD in the future.
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15
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Mannonen L, Markkula E, Puolakkainen M. Analysis of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in mononuclear cells by reverse transcription-PCR targeted to chlamydial gene transcripts. Med Microbiol Immunol 2011; 200:143-54. [PMID: 21279651 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-011-0184-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae (C. pneumoniae) is an important etiological agent of respiratory infections including pneumonia. C. pneumoniae DNA can be detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells indicating that monocytes can assist the spread of infection to other anatomical sites. Persistent infection established at these sites could promote inflammation and enhance pathology. Thus, the mononuclear cells are in a strategic position in the development of persistent infection. To investigate the intracellular replication and fate of C. pneumoniae in mononuclear cells, we have established an in vitro model in the human Mono Mac 6 cell line. In the present study, we analyzed the transcription of 11 C. pneumoniae genes in Mono Mac 6 cells during infection by real-time RT-PCR. Our results suggest that the transcriptional profile of the studied genes in monocytes is different from that seen in epithelial cells. Furthermore, our study shows that genes related to secretion are transcribed, and secreted bacterial proteins are also translated during infection of monocytes, creating novel opportunities for the management of chlamydial infection of monocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Mannonen
- Department of Virology, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
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16
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Abstract
Pathogenicity of Chlamydia and Chlamydia-related bacteria could be partially mediated by an enhanced activation of the innate immune response. The study of this host pathogen interaction has proved challenging due to the restricted in vitro growth of these strict intracellular bacteria and the lack of genetic tools to manipulate their genomes. Despite these difficulties, the interactions of Chlamydiales with the innate immune cells and their effectors have been studied thoroughly. This review aims to point out the role of pattern recognition receptors and signal molecules (cytokines, reactive oxygen species) of the innate immune response in the pathogenesis of chlamydial infection. Besides inducing clearance of the bacteria, some of these effectors may be used by the Chlamydia to establish chronic infections or to spread. Thus, the induced innate immune response seems to be variable depending on the species and/or the serovar, making the pattern more complex. It remains crucial to determine the common players of the innate immune response in order to help define new treatment strategies and to develop effective vaccines. The excellent growth in phagocytic cells of some Chlamydia-related organisms such as Waddlia chondrophila supports their use as model organisms to study conserved features important for interactions between the innate immunity and Chlamydia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brigida Rusconi
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Lausanne and University Hospital Center, Lausanne, Switzerland
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17
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Xie F, Hu Y, Magee LA, Money DM, Patrick DM, Brunham RM, Thomas E, von Dadelszen P. Chlamydia pneumoniaeInfection in Preeclampsia. Hypertens Pregnancy 2010; 29:468-77. [DOI: 10.3109/10641950903242642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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18
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Bellmann-Weiler R, Martinz V, Kurz K, Engl S, Feistritzer C, Fuchs D, Rupp J, Paldanius M, Weiss G. Divergent modulation of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection cycle in human monocytic and endothelial cells by iron, tryptophan availability and interferon gamma. Immunobiology 2010; 215:842-8. [PMID: 20646782 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2010.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2010] [Accepted: 05/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae is an obligatory intracellular bacterium causing chronic inflammatory diseases in humans. We studied the role of the nutritive factors, iron and tryptophan, towards the course of infection and immune response pathways in C. pneumoniae infected endothelial cells and monocytes. Human endothelial (EA.hy923) and monocytic cells (THP-1) were infected with C. pneumoniae, supplemented with iron or 1-methyltryptophan (1-MT), an inhibitor of the tryptophan degrading enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), and subsequently stimulated with IFN-gamma or left untreated. The number of infected cells, the morphology and quantity of C. pneumoniae inclusion bodies, IDO activity and innate immune effector pathways were analysed. While neither iron challenge, IDO inhibition or IFN-gamma treatment had a significant effect on C. pneumoniae morphology or numbers within THP-1 monocytic cells, iron supplementation to EA.hy926 cells resulted in promotion of C. pneumoniae proliferation and differentiation while IFN-gamma had an inhibitory effect. Furthermore, the number of infected endothelial cells was significantly decreased upon 1-MT treatment. C. pneumoniae infection induced a pro-inflammatory immune response as evidenced by increased IDO activity, neopterin formation or TNF-alpha production in THP-1 but not in endothelial cells. These pathways were superinduced upon IFN-gamma treatment and partly modulated by iron supplementation. Our results demonstrate that the infectious cycle of C. pneumoniae behaves differently between monocytic and endothelial cells. While the intracellular pathogen remains in a persistent form within monocytes, it can differentiate and proliferate within endothelial cells indicating that endothelial cells are a preferred environment for Chlamydia. Nutritive factors such as iron have subtle effects on C. pneumoniae biology in endothelial, but not monocytic cells. Our results contribute to a better understanding of C. pneumoniae infection and its role in chronic inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Bellmann-Weiler
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Clinical Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Innsbruck, Austria
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19
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Prakash H, Albrecht M, Becker D, Kuhlmann T, Rudel T. Deficiency of XIAP leads to sensitization for Chlamydophila pneumoniae pulmonary infection and dysregulation of innate immune response in mice. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:20291-302. [PMID: 20427267 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.096297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Obligate intracellular Chlamydophila pneumoniae induce apoptosis resistance in host cells to escape eradication by immune effector cells. Apoptosis resistance depends on the increased expression and stabilization of cellular inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (cIAPs) and X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP). Here we investigated the role of XIAP in experimental pulmonary infection of mice with C. pneumoniae. XIAP knock out (KO) mice were sensitized for C. pneumoniae infection compared with wild type mice. XIAP was involved in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of nitric oxide (NO) and endotoxin shock. Hyper-secretion of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and lower NO in LPS-treated KO mouse macrophages revealed its regulatory role in inflammatory responses. Unexpectedly, activating stimuli like LPS, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, or interferon-gamma very efficiently induced apoptotic cell death in KO macrophages but not in wild type macrophages. Cell survival transcription factor nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) p65 levels were reduced in lungs and pulmonary macrophages of infected KO mice. Furthermore, a reduced CD8 T cell population and their increased sensitivity for concanavalin A and chlamydial HSP60 stimulation revealed a defect in CD8 T cells in XIAP KO mice. These data demonstrated a role of XIAP for the integrity of both innate and cellular immune responses during C. pneumoniae infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hridayesh Prakash
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max-Planck-Institute for Infection Biology, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
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cIAP-1 controls innate immunity to C. pneumoniae pulmonary infection. PLoS One 2009; 4:e6519. [PMID: 19657383 PMCID: PMC2716518 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2009] [Accepted: 06/08/2009] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The resistance of epithelial cells infected with Chlamydophila pneumoniae for apoptosis has been attributed to the induced expression and increased stability of anti-apoptotic proteins called inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs). The significance of cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein-1 (cIAP-1) in C. pneumoniae pulmonary infection and innate immune response was investigated in cIAP-1 knockout (KO) mice using a novel non-invasive intra-tracheal infection method. In contrast to wildtype, cIAP-1 knockout mice failed to clear the infection from their lungs. Wildtype mice responded to infection with a strong inflammatory response in the lung. In contrast, the recruitment of macrophages was reduced in cIAP-1 KO mice compared to wildtype mice. The concentration of Interferon gamma (IFN-γ) was increased whereas that of Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF-α) was reduced in the lungs of infected cIAP-1 KO mice compared to infected wildtype mice. Ex vivo experiments on mouse peritoneal macrophages and splenocytes revealed that cIAP-1 is required for innate immune responses of these cells. Our findings thus suggest a new immunoregulatory role of cIAP-1 in the course of bacterial infection.
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Poikonen K, Lajunen T, Silvennoinen-Kassinen S, Leinonen M, Saikku P. Effects of CD14, TLR2, TLR4, LPB, and IL-6 Gene Polymorphisms onChlamydia pneumoniaeGrowth in Human MacrophagesIn Vitro. Scand J Immunol 2009; 70:34-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2009.02267.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Host cell cytokines induced by Chlamydia pneumoniae decrease the expression of interstitial collagens and fibronectin in fibroblasts. Infect Immun 2008; 77:867-76. [PMID: 19047405 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00566-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae infection has been associated with chronic obstructive airway disease (COPD), asthma, and atherosclerosis. Inflammation and airway remodeling in asthma and COPD result in subepithelial fibrosis that is characterized by the deposition of interstitial collagens and fibronectin. The progression of atherosclerosis is also accompanied by an increased production of interstitial collagens in the intima. As shown by reverse transcription-PCR and immunoblotting, infection of human fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells by C. pneumoniae TW-183 downregulated the expression of type I and III collagen and fibronectin, whereas the level of type IV collagen remained unchanged. Conditioned medium from infected fibroblasts as well as epithelial WISH cells also reduced the expression of interstitial collagens and fibronectin in uninfected cells. In experiments using blocking antibodies, beta interferon was found to contribute to the inhibitory effects of conditioned medium collected from infected fibroblasts. In contrast, downregulation of matrix protein expression by conditioned medium from epithelial cells was caused by interleukin-1alpha, which was not secreted from fibroblasts following chlamydial infection. C. pneumoniae-mediated inhibition of collagen and fibronectin expression was diminished following transfection of fibroblasts with specific small interfering RNA targeting the transcription factor CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein beta. The downregulation of interstitial collagens and fibronectin by the Chlamydia-induced host cell cytokine response may modulate tissue remodeling processes in airway diseases. In atherosclerosis the inhibition of collagen synthesis by C. pneumoniae infection may promote plaque vulnerability, thereby increasing the risk of plaque rupture.
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Agrawal T, Gupta R, Dutta R, Srivastava P, Bhengraj AR, Salhan S, Mittal A. Protective or pathogenic immune response to genital chlamydial infection in women--a possible role of cytokine secretion profile of cervical mucosal cells. Clin Immunol 2008; 130:347-54. [PMID: 19019735 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2008.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2008] [Revised: 09/30/2008] [Accepted: 10/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about genital mucosal immune response to chlamydial infection in women with or without sequelae (Chlamydia positive women with or without fertility disorders as infertility and multiple spontaneous abortions). Cervical lymphocytes were stimulated with chlamydial EBs and cytokine secretion was determined by ELISA, RT-PCR and ELISPOT assays. Stimulated cervical cells from women with fertility disorders (FD) secrete significantly (P<0.05) higher levels of IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10 and cells from fertile women secrete significantly higher levels of IL-12 and IFN-gamma compared to other groups. RT-PCR analysis showed similar results for IFN-gamma and IL-12. For IL-10 and IL-4, mRNA expression levels were significantly higher (P<0.05) in cells obtained from women with FD compared to other groups. Results for ELISPOT assay were similar as those of RT-PCR. The results suggest that cytokine secretion profile of cervical cells may decide whether infection does not hamper fertility or will develop fertility disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Agrawal
- Institute of Pathology (ICMR), Safdarjung Hospital Campus, New Delhi-110 029, India
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24
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Plaque Biology: Interesting Science or Pharmacological Treasure Trove? Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2008; 36:507-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejvs.2008.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2008] [Accepted: 06/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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25
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Agrawal T, Vats V, Wallace PK, Salhan S, Mittal A. Role of cervical dendritic cell subsets, co-stimulatory molecules, cytokine secretion profile and beta-estradiol in development of sequalae to Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2008; 6:46. [PMID: 18828896 PMCID: PMC2565664 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7827-6-46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2008] [Accepted: 10/01/2008] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chlamydia trachomatis infection of the female genital tract can lead to serious sequelae resulting in fertility related disorders. Little is known about the mechanism leading to Chlamydia induced pathology and factors responsible for it. As only some of the women develops reproductive disorders while majority of the women clears infection without any severe sequalae, mucosal immune response in women with or without fertility disorders was studied to identify factors which may lead to final clinical outcome of chlamydial infection. METHODS Myeloid DCs (mDCs) and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) populations in cervical mucosa and peripheral blood were analyzed in controls and Chlamydia positive women with or without fertility disorders with multicoloured flow cytometric analysis. Cervical cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma), C-reactive protein levels and sex hormone levels in serum were quantified by ELISA. RESULTS In cervix of Chlamydia positive women with fertility disorders, significantly high (P < 0.05) numbers of pDCs were present with increased CD80 expression. pDCs correlated significantly with C-reactive protein levels, IL-6 and IFN-gamma levels in women with fertility disorders. In contrast, mDCs showed significant upregulation of CD1a during chlamydial infection and correlated significantly with IL-12 levels in Chlamydia positive fertile women. beta-estradiol levels were significantly higher in women having fertility disorders as compared to fertile women and have significant correlations (r = 0.65; P < 0.05) with pDCs numbers, CD80 expression, IL-6 levels and IFN-gamma levels in these women. CONCLUSION These results suggest that development of sequalae in some women can be a result of interplay of many factors including type of dendritic cell, co stimulatory molecule expression, cytokine secretion pattern and hormone levels.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Antigens, Surface/metabolism
- C-Reactive Protein/metabolism
- Case-Control Studies
- Cervix Uteri/immunology
- Cervix Uteri/pathology
- Chlamydia Infections/blood
- Chlamydia Infections/complications
- Chlamydia Infections/immunology
- Chlamydia Infections/pathology
- Chlamydia trachomatis/immunology
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Cytokines/physiology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Dendritic Cells/pathology
- Dendritic Cells/physiology
- Estradiol/blood
- Estradiol/physiology
- Female
- Fertility/immunology
- Genital Diseases, Female/blood
- Genital Diseases, Female/etiology
- Genital Diseases, Female/immunology
- Genital Diseases, Female/microbiology
- Humans
- Immunity, Mucosal/immunology
- Pregnancy
- Pregnancy Complications, Infectious/blood
- Pregnancy Complications, Infectious/etiology
- Pregnancy Complications, Infectious/immunology
- Pregnancy Complications, Infectious/microbiology
- Progesterone/blood
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanvi Agrawal
- Institute of Pathology (ICMR), Safdarjung Hospital Campus, New Delhi, India
| | - Vikas Vats
- Institute of Pathology (ICMR), Safdarjung Hospital Campus, New Delhi, India
| | - Paul K Wallace
- Department of Flow Cytometry, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, USA
| | - Sudha Salhan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Safdarjung Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Aruna Mittal
- Institute of Pathology (ICMR), Safdarjung Hospital Campus, New Delhi, India
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26
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Verma V, Shen D, Sieving PC, Chan CC. The role of infectious agents in the etiology of ocular adnexal neoplasia. Surv Ophthalmol 2008; 53:312-31. [PMID: 18572051 DOI: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2008.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Given the fact that infectious agents contribute to around 18% of human cancers worldwide, it would seem prudent to explore their role in neoplasms of the ocular adnexa: primary malignancies of the conjunctiva, lacrimal glands, eyelids, and orbit. By elucidating the mechanisms by which infectious agents contribute to oncogenesis, the management, treatment, and prevention of these neoplasms may one day parallel what is already in place for cancers such as cervical cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma and gastric adenocarcinoma. Antibiotic treatment and vaccines against infectious agents may herald a future with a curtailed role for traditional therapies of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. Unlike other malignancies for which large epidemiological studies are available, analyzing ocular adnexal neoplasms is challenging as they are relatively rare. Additionally, putative infectious agents seemingly display an immense geographic variation that has led to much debate regarding the relative importance of one organism versus another. This review discusses the pathogenetic role of several microorganisms in different ocular adnexal malignancies, including human papilloma virus in conjunctival papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma, human immunodeficiency virus in conjunctival squamous carcinoma, Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpes virus or human herpes simplex virus-8 (KSHV/HHV-8) in conjunctival Kaposi sarcoma, Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori,), Chlamydia, and hepatitis C virus in ocular adnexal mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphomas. Unlike cervical cancer where a single infectious agent, human papilloma virus, is found in greater than 99% of lesions, multiple organisms may play a role in the etiology of certain ocular adnexal neoplasms by acting through similar mechanisms of oncogenesis, including chronic antigenic stimulation and the action of infectious oncogenes. However, similar to other human malignancies, ultimately the role of infectious agents in ocular adnexal neoplasms is most likely as a cofactor to genetic and environmental risk factors.
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MESH Headings
- Alphapapillomavirus/isolation & purification
- Alphapapillomavirus/physiology
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/virology
- Chlamydophila psittaci/isolation & purification
- Chlamydophila psittaci/physiology
- Conjunctival Neoplasms/microbiology
- Conjunctival Neoplasms/virology
- Eye Infections, Bacterial/microbiology
- Eye Infections, Bacterial/pathology
- Eye Infections, Viral/pathology
- Eye Infections, Viral/virology
- Eye Neoplasms/microbiology
- Eye Neoplasms/virology
- Eyelid Neoplasms/microbiology
- Eyelid Neoplasms/virology
- HIV-1/isolation & purification
- HIV-1/physiology
- Helicobacter pylori/isolation & purification
- Helicobacter pylori/physiology
- Hepacivirus/isolation & purification
- Hepacivirus/physiology
- Herpesvirus 8, Human/isolation & purification
- Herpesvirus 8, Human/physiology
- Humans
- Lacrimal Apparatus Diseases/microbiology
- Lacrimal Apparatus Diseases/virology
- Lymphoma, B-Cell, Marginal Zone/virology
- Orbital Neoplasms/microbiology
- Orbital Neoplasms/virology
- Sarcoma, Kaposi/virology
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Affiliation(s)
- Varun Verma
- Immunopathology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1857, USA
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Bobryshev YV, Killingsworth MC, Tran D, Lord R. Amalgamation of Chlamydia pneumoniae inclusions with lipid droplets in foam cells in human atherosclerotic plaque. Virchows Arch 2008; 453:69-77. [PMID: 18528704 DOI: 10.1007/s00428-008-0629-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2007] [Revised: 03/14/2008] [Accepted: 05/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae (Chlamydophila pneumoniae) infect macrophages and accelerates foam cell formation in in vitro experiments, but whether this might occur in human atherosclerosis is unknown. In the present study, we examined 17 carotid artery segments, obtained by endarterectomy, in which the presence of C. pneumoniae was confirmed by both polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. Electron microscopy demonstrated the presence of structures with the appearance of elementary, reticulate and aberrant bodies of C. pneumoniae in the cytoplasm of macrophage foam cells. The volume of the cytoplasm that was free from vacuoles and lipid droplets in C. pneumoniae-infected foam cells was dramatically reduced, and a phenomenon of the amalgamation of C. pneumoniae inclusions with lipid droplets was detected. Double immunohistochemistry showed that C. pneumoniae-infected foam cells contained a large number of oxidized low-density lipoproteins. The observations provide support to the hypothesis that C. pneumoniae could affect foam cell formation in human atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri V Bobryshev
- Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW, Australia.
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28
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Jiang SJ, Kuo CC, Berry MW, Lee AW, Campbell LA. Identification and characterization of Chlamydia pneumoniae-specific proteins that activate tumor necrosis factor alpha production in RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. Infect Immun 2008; 76:1558-64. [PMID: 18227157 PMCID: PMC2292846 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01331-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2007] [Revised: 10/22/2007] [Accepted: 01/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae is a common respiratory pathogen, which activates macrophages to induce inflammatory cytokines that may promote atherosclerosis. However, the antigens that induce macrophage activation have not been well defined. In the current study, three chlamydial proteins which are recognized during human infection, outer membrane protein 2 (OMP2) and two 53-kDa proteins (Cpn 0980 and Cpn 0809), were investigated to determine whether they activate macrophages and, if they do, what mechanism they use for this activation. It was shown that these three proteins could (i) induce expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and tissue factor and (ii) induce phosphorylation of p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and activation of early growth response factor 1 (Egr-1). Control proteins, the N-terminal fragment of polymorphic membrane protein 8 and the thioredoxin portion of the fusion protein, had no effect on macrophages. Treatment of cells with a MEK1/2 inhibitor, U0126, dramatically reduced the phosphorylation of ERK, activation of Egr-1, and expression of TNF-alpha in macrophages treated with recombinant proteins. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) act as sensors for microbial antigens and can signal via the MAPK pathway. Chlamydial protein-induced expression of TNF-alpha was significantly reduced in macrophages lacking TLR2 or TLR4. These findings suggest that C. pneumoniae may activate macrophages through OMP2, Cpn 0980, and Cpn 0809 in addition to cHSP60 and that activation occurs via TLR2 or TLR4, Egr-1, and MAPK pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinn-Jong Jiang
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Box 357328, Seattle, WA 98195-3873, USA
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Abstract
Cardiovascular disease, resulting from atherosclerosis, is a leading cause of global morbidity and mortality. Genetic predisposition and classical environmental risk factors explain much of the attributable risk for cardiovascular events in populations, but other risk factors for the development and progression of atherosclerosis, which can be identified and modified, may be important therapeutic targets. Infectious agents, such as Chlamydia pneumoniae, have been proposed as contributory factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. In the present review, we consider the experimental evidence that has accumulated over the last 20 years evaluating the role of C. pneumoniae in atherosclerosis and suggest areas for future research in this field.
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Paland N, Böhme L, Gurumurthy RK, Mäurer A, Szczepek AJ, Rudel T. Reduced display of tumor necrosis factor receptor I at the host cell surface supports infection with Chlamydia trachomatis. J Biol Chem 2007; 283:6438-48. [PMID: 18167350 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m708422200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The obligate intracellular human pathogenic bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis has evolved multiple mechanisms to circumvent the host immune system. Infected cells exhibit a profound resistance to the induction of apoptosis and down-regulate the expression of major histocompatibility complex class I and class II molecules to evade the cytotoxic effect of effector immune cells. Here we demonstrate the down-regulation of tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) on the surface of infected cells. Interestingly, other members of the TNFR family such as TNFR2 and CD95 (Fas/Apo-1) were not modulated during infection, suggesting a selective mechanism underlying surface reduction of TNFR1. The observed effect was not due to reduced expression since the overall amount of TNFR1 protein was increased in infected cells. TNFR1 accumulated at the chlamydial inclusion and was shed by the infected cell into the culture supernatant. Receptor shedding depended on the infection-induced activation of the MEK-ERK pathway and the metalloproteinase TACE (TNFalpha converting enzyme). Our results point to a new function of TNFR1 modulation by C. trachomatis in controlling inflammatory signals during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Paland
- Research Group for Molecular Infection and Tumor Biology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Charitéplatz 1, Berlin, Germany
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31
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Zaitsu M. The development of asthma in wheezing infants with Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. J Asthma 2007; 44:565-8. [PMID: 17885860 DOI: 10.1080/02770900701537115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae infection might play a role in the pathology of asthma, but its role in infantile asthma remains obscure. The presence of Chlamydia pneumoniae was serologically determined in wheezing infants who were then re-examined 1-year later to determine whether or not asthma is associated with this type of infection. Wheezing infants progressed to asthma more frequently after infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae than those who were not infected. These findings suggested that Chlamydia pneumoniae infection triggers asthma in wheezy infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masafumi Zaitsu
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan.
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Mamata Y, Hakki A, Newton C, Burdash N, Klein TW, Friedman H. Differential effects of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection on cytokine levels in human T lymphocyte- and monocyte-derived cell cultures. Int J Med Microbiol 2007; 297:109-15. [PMID: 17280867 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2006.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2006] [Revised: 10/23/2006] [Accepted: 11/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Continuous cultures of human lymphocyte- and monocyte-derived cell lines were examined for levels of immunoregulatory cytokines important in resistance to the intracellular opportunistic bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae (Cp), a ubiquitous pathogen widely disseminated in the population and hypothesized to be involved in chronic inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis and neurological diseases like multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. The results of this study showed that the continuous human T lymphocyte cell line MOLT-4 and the continuous monocytic cell line THP-1 were readily infected by Cp in vitro as shown by immunofluorescence microscopy for Cp lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The 16S rRNA expression determined by real-time RT-PCR increased rapidly after infection of either cell line with these bacteria. The THP-1 cells infected with Cp showed increased levels of the immunoregulatory cytokine IL-12 and also of TNFalpha and IL-10 compared to cultures stimulated with heat-killed Cp (KCp) or Escherichia coli LPS as a control. Stimulation of MOLT-4 cells with KCp or E. coli LPS also induced the Th1 cytokines IFNgamma and IL-12 and the Th2 cytokine IL-10, but infection with viable Cp induced higher Th1 cytokine levels. These results suggest that Cp infection induces a predominant Th1 cytokine profile by T cells, in addition to induction of TNFalpha by monocytes/macrophages. Such effects are likely involved in antibacterial immunity against Cp infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukimitsu Mamata
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL 33612-4742, USA
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33
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Signorelli SS, Stivala A, Di Pino L, Salmeri M, Tempera G, Toscano MA, Nicoletti G. Chronic peripheral arteriopathy is associated with seropositivity to Chlamydia pneumoniae. J Chemother 2006; 18:103-6. [PMID: 16572901 DOI: 10.1179/joc.2006.18.1.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
The study was carried out to clarify the correlation between Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and peripheral arterial disease (PAD). The level of specific antibodies of the 133 consecutive patients suffering from PAD at 2nd stage of Leriche's classification were compared with 60 healthy controls by using a commercial Micro-IF Test. A higher incidence of serological evidence of C. pneumoniae infection was found in the patients (106/133) than in controls (6/60). These results are in agreement with other findings that measured the infection in atheromasic plaques. A strong cause-effect relationship between bacterial infection and peripheral arterial disease was not found, but the raised seropositivity level could be considered as a target for medical therapy of PAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- S S Signorelli
- Department of Internal Medicine and Systemic Disease, Medical Angiology Care Unit, University of Catania, Italy
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34
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Wittkop U, Krausse-Opatz B, Gust TC, Kirsch T, Hollweg G, Köhler L, Zenke M, Gérard HC, Hudson AP, Zeidler H, Wagner AD. Fate of Chlamydophila pneumoniae in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells: Long lasting infection. Microb Pathog 2006; 40:101-9. [PMID: 16427247 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2005.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2005] [Revised: 11/08/2005] [Accepted: 11/24/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Earlier studies from this group demonstrated that Chlamydophila pneumoniae co-localized with dendritic cells (DC) in temporal artery biopsies from patients with giant cell arteritis (GCA). To investigate the interaction of DC with C. pneumoniae we employed an in vitro cell culture system of human monocyte derived DC. These DC were infected with C. pneumoniae and observed at regular time intervals up to 25 days post infection. Chlamydiae were visualized inside DC by both confocal and electron microscopy. Statistical analysis showed an increase in the number of chlamydial antigen during that period (p < 0.00005, chi2-test). Titration of DC lysates on HEp-2 cells showed that infectious progeny was recovered at various intervals but showed no exponential growth. Additionally, RT-PCR analyses of infected DC identified transcripts from dnaA, ftsK and tal throughout a period of 14 days, indicating viable chlamydiae. Thus, human monocyte-derived DC are susceptible to C. pneumoniae infection. These results indicate that C. pneumoniae-infected DC can play an important role in the transmission of these bacteria in GCA and other chlamydial diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Wittkop
- Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Department of Rheumatology, Carl-Neuberg Strasse 1, Hannover 30625, Germany.
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35
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Poppert S, Schlaupitz K, Marre R, Voisard R, Roessler W, Weckermann D, Weingärtner K, Essig A. Chlamydia pneumoniae in an ex vivo human artery culture model. Atherosclerosis 2005; 187:50-6. [PMID: 16202418 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2005.08.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2005] [Revised: 08/01/2005] [Accepted: 08/11/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The role of the obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia pneumoniae in the development of atherosclerosis could not be completely clarified. Reasons are the highly discrepant results obtained in the hitherto existing studies and the lack of an experimental system allowing the direct examination of chlamydial effects in the human vasculature. We established a human ex vivo organ culture model for the characterization of vascular chlamydial infection. Ninety sections of renal arteries, obtained from nephrectomies, were inoculated with Chlamydia pneumoniae. Using a monoclonal FITC-conjugated antibody, chlamydial LPS was broadly detected in inoculated arteries during the entire observation period of 35 days. However, recultivation of viable organisms from the artery vessel wall was impossible, indicating that productive infection in human arteries did not occur even under optimized conditions. This was substantiated by low recovery rates of Chlamydia pneumoniae, low amounts of detectable chlamydial 16S rRNA and ultramorphological presence of polymorph multilamellar bodies in experimentally infected smooth muscle cells originating from aortas, coronary and renal arteries. We could demonstrate that the complex environment of a human artery did not support the growth of Chlamydia pneumoniae although the presence of chlamydial LPS in the artery vessel wall following experimental infection was a common event. The presence of chlamydial LPS in the absence of viable organisms within the artery vessel wall may explain the failure of antibiotic treatment strategies for atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Poppert
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Ulm, Robert-Koch Str. 8, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
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36
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Mamata Y, Hakki A, Yamamoto Y, Newton C, Klein TW, Pross S, Friedman H. Nicotine modulates cytokine production by Chlamydia pneumoniae infected human peripheral blood cells. Int Immunopharmacol 2005; 5:749-56. [PMID: 15710343 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2004.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2004] [Revised: 12/08/2004] [Accepted: 12/09/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Nicotine, the addictive component of cigarette smoke, has been shown to have immunomodulatory effects. This drug alters proinflammatory cytokine production by immune cells, including lymphocytes, monocytes, and macrophages. The present study focuses on the effects of nicotine on infection by Chlamydia pneumoniae (Cpn), a ubiquitous intracellular pathogen which causes acute and chronic inflammatory diseases such as pulmonary infections, and may be associated with arthritis and atherosclerosis. Previous studies in our laboratory showed that lymphocytes and macrophages are susceptible to Cpn infection. The present study aimed at investigating the effect of nicotine on TGF-beta1, IL-10, IL-12, and TNF-alpha production in Cpn-infected human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Cytokine levels in the supernatant were assessed by ELISA. The results showed that Cpn infection alters the expression levels of IL-10, IL-12, and TNF-alpha in a time-dependent fashion. Nicotine treatment of the Cpn-infected cells up-regulated IL-10, but not TNF-alpha and IL-12, and also resulted in significant down-regulation of TGF-beta1 production which was marked in the Cpn-infected control cells. The combined action of nicotine and Cpn on cytokine production may have an impact in chronic inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukimitsu Mamata
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Florida, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
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37
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Age, sexual and seasonal differences of haematological values and antibody status to Chlamydophila sp. in feral and racing pigeons (Columba livia forma domestica) from an urban environment (Zagreb, Croatia). EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-005-0110-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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38
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Greub G, Desnues B, Raoult D, Mege JL. Lack of microbicidal response in human macrophages infected with Parachlamydia acanthamoebae. Microbes Infect 2005; 7:714-9. [PMID: 15826869 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2005.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2004] [Revised: 12/20/2004] [Accepted: 01/20/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Parachlamydia acanthamoebae is an obligate intracellular bacterium naturally infecting free-living amoebae. This potential agent of pneumonia resists destruction by human macrophages, inducing their death by apoptosis. However, the strategy used by Parachlamydia to escape the microbicidal effectors of macrophages remains unknown. In this work, we defined the effect of Parachlamydia on the cytokine secretion (measured in culture supernatants by immunoassays), on the oxidative burst (measured using a fluorogenic probe), on the production of nitric oxide (Griess assay), and on transcription of glutaredoxin, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). Living Parachlamydia did not induce an oxidative burst, the secretion of cytokines such as IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-alpha, nor the transcription of TNF-alpha in macrophages. However, living Parachlamydia led to increased secretion of IL-1beta and increased transcription of glutaredoxin, an anti-oxidant. The transcription of IDO, an enzyme, which catalyzes decyclization of l-tryptophan, was slightly up-regulated. Heat-inactivated Parachlamydia did not induce either an oxidative burst or the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In contrast to living bacteria, it had no effect on the IL-1beta release, but it induced IL-10 secretion. In conclusion, after being internalized, Parachlamydia may resist the microbicidal effectors of human macrophages through not inducing oxidative burst and pro-inflammatory cytokine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilbert Greub
- Unité des Rickettsies, Faculté de médecine, Université de la Méditerranée, Marseille, France.
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Mitusch R, Luedemann J, Wood WG, Berger K, Schminke U, Suter M, Kessler C, John U, Rupp J, Kentsch M, Maass M. Asymptomatic carotid atherosclerosis is associated with circulating chlamydia pneumoniae DNA in younger normotensive subjects in a general population survey. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 25:386-91. [PMID: 15550694 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000151284.49967.a7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Chlamydia pneumoniae infection has been associated with atherosclerosis, but serodiagnosis is unreliable in predicting vascular infection. Direct detection of circulating chlamydial DNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was thus evaluated as a marker for cardiovascular risk in a general population survey using the common carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) as surrogate marker of asymptomatic atherosclerosis. METHODS AND RESULTS C pneumoniae DNA in PBMCs was determined by nested polymerase chain reaction and associated with IMT for 1032 healthy participants of a general population survey who were within the highest or lowest IMT distribution quartile. C pneumoniae DNA was more prevalent in those with increased IMT (13.4% versus 10.7%), but this was not significant in univariate and of borderline significance in multivariate analysis. Testing for potential effect modifications by known strong determinants of an increased IMT in group interaction analysis revealed an independent association between C pneumoniae DNA and IMT in normotensive subjects (odds ratio [OR], 2.06; 95% CI, 1.05 to 4.03; P=0.04) and in those <70 years old (OR, 1.84; 95% CI, 1.06 to 3.19; P=0.03). CONCLUSIONS Asymptomatic atherosclerosis is associated with circulating C pneumoniae DNA independently of classical cardiovascular risk factors in normotensive subjects and those <70 years old. C pneumoniae has been implicated in atherogenesis. We determined the association of chlamydial DNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells with the carotid intima-media thickness from 1032 healthy subjects from a general population survey. A stratified group interaction analysis revealed an independent association in normotensive subjects and those <70 years old.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rolf Mitusch
- Medical Department, Hanse-Hospital Stralsund, Teaching Hospital of the Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University of Greifswald, Post Box 2341, D-18410 Stralsund, Germany.
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Baltch AL, Smith RP, Ritz WJ, Carpenter AN, Bopp LH, Michelsen PB, Carlyn CJ, Hibbs JR. Effect of levofloxacin on the viability of intracellular Chlamydia pneumoniae and modulation of proinflammatory cytokine production by human monocytes. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2004; 50:205-12. [PMID: 15541607 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2004.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2004] [Accepted: 07/15/2004] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Although antibiotics are known to affect the intracellular growth of Chlamydia pneumoniae in acute infections, their efficacy in therapy for chronic infections, including atherosclerosis, remains debatable. Human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) obtained from monocytes of healthy donors were infected with C. pneumoniae AR-39 and treated with levofloxacin (8 microg/mL) immediately after infection (0 hours) or 24 hours after infection. Levofloxacin treatment at 24 hours, but not at 0 hours, resulted in a significant decrease in the number of C. pneumoniae inclusions within the MDM (p < 0.05). Also decreased were concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, and IL-8 in the extracellular medium (p < 0.01). Viable counts in titrations remained similar to those in untreated controls. In summary, levofloxacin administered to MDM at serum-attainable levels 24 hours after C. pneumoniae infection significantly decreased inclusion counts and proinflammatory cytokine production, but did not eliminate the C. pneumoniae infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aldona L Baltch
- Stratton Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Albany, NY 12208, USA.
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Meza-Junco J, Montaño-Loza A, Castillo-Martínez L, Orea-Tejeda A, Remes-Troche JM, Villalobos-Zapata I, Ponce-De León-Garduño A, Calva-Mercado J. High prevalence of Chlamydia pneumoniae seropositivity in Mexican patients with ischemic heart disease. Arch Med Res 2004; 35:318-23. [PMID: 15325506 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2004.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2003] [Accepted: 03/17/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Risk factors for development of atherosclerosis, such as hyperlipidemia, high blood pressure, smoking habit, and diabetes mellitus, have been identified. The possibility that infectious agents may unchain biological and biochemical reactions related to inflammation, atherogenesis, and vascular thromboses events have recently been described. Chlamydia pneumoniae has been associated with coronary artery disease in some seroepidemiology studies. Reports of this association are limited in the Latin American population; therefore, we conducted a case-control study to explore this issue in the Mexican population. METHODS Eighty nine patients with scintigraphic evidence of coronary artery disease compared with a control group of 105 individuals were analyzed. Serum levels of IgA, IgM, and IgG against Chlamydia pneumoniae were determined using enzyme immunoassay method in all subjects. Conventional risk factors were also analyzed. RESULTS High seroprevalence of IgA and IgG with no significant difference between the two groups was found. Prevalence of antibodies was as follows: IgA 56.2% (50/89 patients); IgG 66.3% (59/ 89 patients) in coronary artery disease group; IgA 56.2% (59/105 patients), and IgG 70.5% (74/105 patients) in control group. Among common risk factors for coronary artery disease, significant differences were found in males, in patients with diabetes, and in habitual smokers. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest a high prevalence of C. pneumoniae infection in the studied population. However, in this series seroprevalence was not evidently associated with coronary artery disease (CAD). To clarify the possible relation between C. pneumoniae and coronary atherosclerosis, additional studies must be performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith Meza-Junco
- Departamentos de Medicina Interna, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, 14000 Mexico
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Blanc P, Corsi AM, Gabbuti A, Peduzzi C, Meacci F, Olivieri F, Lauretani F, Francesco M, Ferrucci L. Chlamydia Pneumoniae Seropositivity and Cardiovascular Risk Factors: The InCHIANTI Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2004; 52:1626-31. [PMID: 15450037 DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52453.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess the prevalence of Chlamydia pneumoniae (CP) seropositivity and test the hypothesis that CP infection (CPI) is associated with cardiovascular (CV) risk factors and levels of inflammatory biomarkers. DESIGN Cross-sectional survey. SETTING Representative sample of the residents of Greve in Chianti and Bagno a Ripoli, two small towns located in the Chianti geographic area (Tuscany, Italy). PARTICIPANTS A total of 1,304 (age-range: 20-103, 79% aged> or =65) participants of the InCHIANTI study. MEASUREMENTS CP seropositivity was assessed using immunofluorescence. Previous CPI was defined as immunoglobulin (Ig) G > or =1/16 and <1/256, and recent CPI was defined as IgG > or =1/512 or IgM > or =1/16. Inflammatory markers included interleukin (IL)-6, soluble IL-6 receptor (sIL-6r), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), IL-1beta, IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), iron, ferritin, and C-reactive protein (CRP). CV risk factors included smoking, body mass index (BMI), lipid profile, and hypertension. RESULTS The prevalence of CP seropositivity was 75%, increased with age, and was higher in men than in women (P<.01). CPI was not associated with IL-1beta, IL-1ra, iron, ferritin, CRP, BMI, lipids, and smoking. After adjusting for age and sex, previous or recent CPI was associated with higher TNF-alpha (P<.01), IL-6 (P<.03), sIL-6R (P<.01), and hypertension (P<.02). In additional age and sex-adjusted models, the associations between CPI and TNF-alpha, IL-6, sIL-6r, and hypertension appeared to be mutually independent. CONCLUSION CP seropositivity is highly prevalent in the older population and is a significant, independent correlate of hypertension and circulating levels of TNF-alpha, IL-6, and sIL-6r.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierluigi Blanc
- Infectious Diseases Section, Hospital SS Annunziata, Florence, Italy
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Rupp J, Berger M, Reiling N, Gieffers J, Lindschau C, Haller H, Dalhoff K, Maass M. Cox-2 inhibition abrogates Chlamydia pneumoniae-induced PGE2 and MMP-1 expression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 320:738-44. [PMID: 15240110 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.05.210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral blood monocytes (PBMC) promote vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis. Chlamydia pneumoniae (Cp) infection of PBMC is found in atherosclerotic patients, appears refractory to antibiotics, and may predispose to vascular damage. In Cp-infected human PBMC we analyzed the role of cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) for the proatherosclerotic key mediators prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and interstitial collagenase (MMP-1). Cp infection resulted in rapid and sustained Cox-2 mRNA and protein stimulation depending on p38 and p44/42 MAPkinases. Subsequent upregulation of PGE synthase and MMP-1 was completely abrogated by the selective Cox-2 inhibitor NS398. Enhanced synthesis of PGE2 and MMP-1 in Cp infected PBMC is mediated through initiation of the p38 and p44/42 MAPK pathways and requires sustained Cox-2 activation. Selective Cox-2 inhibitors, currently under investigation for cardiovascular risk reduction, may represent a novel therapeutic option for patients with endovascular Cp infection as they target the actuated pathological signal transduction cascade in persistently infected PBMC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Rupp
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Luebeck, Germany
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44
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Burián K, Hegyesi H, Buzás E, Endrész V, Kis Z, Falus A, Gönczöl E. Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae induces histidine decarboxylase production in the mouse lung. Immunol Lett 2004; 89:229-36. [PMID: 14556983 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-2478(03)00154-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae (C. pneumoniae) is the third most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia and is probably involved in the development of certain chronic inflammatory diseases, including atherosclerosis and adult-onset asthma. Histamine, synthesized by histidine decarboxylase (HDC) from L-histidine, plays an essential role in allergic and inflammatory processes and in cell differentiation. The effect of C. pneumoniae infection on the expression of HDC has not been examined. In the present study, normal Balb/c mice and HDC knockouts, and control mice with a CD1 background were infected intranasally with C. pneumoniae. On days 1, 3, 7, 16 and 31 after infection, the normal Balb/c mice were sacrificed and divided into three groups. In the homogenized lungs of the first group, C. pneumoniae titres were determined and demonstrated peak levels on day 7. HDC production was revealed by a Western blot assay throughout the observation period of 1-16 days, and cytokine concentrations were determined by ELISA. The interleukin-3 (IL-3) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels were highest on day 1 and on days 1-3, respectively; the interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-4 (IL-4) levels reached the maximum on day 7, but the quantity of IL-4 was still three times higher than that in the control group 16 days after infection. The lungs of the mice in the second group were processed for the in situ demonstration of HDC activity, while the lungs in the third group were stained for C. pneumoniae antigen. The HDC activity was increased predominantly in the bronchial epithelial cells, while C. pneumoniae antigens were expressed especially in the interstitial macrophages. The HDC knockout mice exhibited a higher survival rate after C. pneumoniae infection than did the control mice. These results point to a strong association between local histamine production and other inflammatory mediators and are novel in demonstrating the role of histamine in the pathomechanism of C. pneumoniae infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katalin Burián
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunobiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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Abstract
Cardiovascular disease, of which atherosclerosis is an important component, is the leading cause of death in the western world. Although there are well-defined risk factors for atherosclerosis, these factors do not account for all incidences of the disease. Because atherosclerotic processes are typified by chronic inflammatory responses, which are similar to those that are elicited by chronic infection, the role of infection in promoting or accelerating atherosclerosis has received renewed attention. This review focuses on the accumulating evidence that chronic infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae, a ubiquitous human respiratory pathogen, might contribute to atherosclerotic lesion progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Ann Campbell
- Department of Pathobiology, Box 357238, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98155, USA.
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46
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Wehrl W, Brinkmann V, Jungblut PR, Meyer TF, Szczepek AJ. From the inside out - processing of the Chlamydial autotransporter PmpD and its role in bacterial adhesion and activation of human host cells. Mol Microbiol 2004; 51:319-34. [PMID: 14756775 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03838.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Polymorphic membrane protein (Pmp)21 otherwise known as PmpD is the longest of 21 Pmps expressed by Chlamydophila pneumoniae. Recent bioinformatical analyses annotated PmpD as belonging to a family of exported Gram-negative bacterial proteins designated autotransporters. This prediction, however, was never experimentally supported, nor was the function of PmpD known. Here, using 1D and 2D PAGE we demonstrate that PmpD is processed into two parts, N-terminal (N-pmpD), middle (M-pmpD) and presumably third, C-terminal part (C-pmpD). Based on localization of the external part on the outer membrane as shown by immunofluorescence, immuno-electron microscopy and immunoblotting combined with trypsinization, we demonstrate that N-pmpD translocates to the surface of bacteria where it non-covalently binds other components of the outer membrane. We propose that N-pmpD functions as an adhesin, as antibodies raised against N-pmpD blocked chlamydial infectivity in the epithelial cells. In addition, recombinant N-pmpD activated human monocytes in vitro by upregulating their metabolic activity and by stimulating IL-8 release in a dose-dependent manner. These results demonstrate that N-PmpD is an autotransporter component of chlamydial outer membrane, important for bacterial invasion and host inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Wehrl
- Max-Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Department of Molecular Biology, Schumannstr. 21/22, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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Bea F, Puolakkainen MH, McMillen T, Hudson FN, Mackman N, Kuo CC, Campbell LA, Rosenfeld ME. Chlamydia pneumoniae induces tissue factor expression in mouse macrophages via activation of Egr-1 and the MEK-ERK1/2 pathway. Circ Res 2003; 92:394-401. [PMID: 12600889 DOI: 10.1161/01.res.0000059982.43865.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have suggested that infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae (C pneumoniae) may contribute to the instability of atherosclerotic plaques and thrombosis and is associated with acute coronary events. Tissue factor (TF), a potent prothrombotic molecule, is expressed by macrophages and other cell types within atherosclerotic lesions and plays an essential role in thrombus formation after plaque rupture. Therefore the effects of C pneumoniae on induction of TF expression in macrophages were investigated. Infection of RAW mouse macrophages with C pneumoniae induced a time-dependent increase in procoagulant activity, expression of TF protein, and TF mRNA. C pneumoniae infection stimulated increased binding of nuclear proteins to the consensus DNA sequence for Egr-1, a key response element within the TF promoter, and increased the expression of Egr-1 protein. Transient transfections of RAW cells with mutated TF promoter constructs showed that the Egr-1 binding region is an important transcriptional regulator of C pneumoniae-induced TF expression. Furthermore, C pneumoniae-stimulated phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and Elk-1 and pharmacological inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase activity reduced the expression of TF and Egr-1. Antibody and polymyxin B blocking of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) partially reduced the C pneumoniae-induced expression of TF and Egr-1. In conclusion, the C pneumoniae-induced increase in TF expression in macrophages is mediated in part by Egr-1, signaling through TLR4, and activation of the MEK-ERK1/2 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Bea
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash 98195, USA
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Yang J, Hooper WC, Phillips DJ, Tondella ML, Talkington DF. Induction of proinflammatory cytokines in human lung epithelial cells during Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. Infect Immun 2003; 71:614-20. [PMID: 12540537 PMCID: PMC145357 DOI: 10.1128/iai.71.2.614-620.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae is an obligate intracellular human pathogen that causes acute respiratory diseases such as pneumonia and bronchitis. Previous studies have established that C. pneumoniae can induce cytokines in mouse and/or human cells, but little information is available on the cytokine response of respiratory epithelial cells, a first line of infection. In this study, heparin treatment of C. pneumoniae significantly reduced its ability to induce interleukin 8 (IL-8) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) mRNA in human lung carcinoma cells, indicating that cytadherence is an important early stimulus for induction of proinflammatory mediators. Although the IL-8, gamma interferon, and TNF-alpha message was consistently induced by infection of A549 cells not treated with heparin, only an elevation of IL-8 protein was detected in A549 supernatants. A549 IL-beta and IL-6 mRNA and supernatant protein profiles were not significantly changed by infection. Heat or UV inactivation of C. pneumoniae only partially reduced the cytokine response, and inhibition of C. pneumoniae protein or DNA synthesis did not affect its ability to induce cytokine gene expression. To prevent stress-induced cytokine release by the A549 cells, centrifugation was not utilized for infection experiments. These experiments establish the importance of cytadherence in cytokine release by cells of respiratory epithelial origin and suggest that further work in the area of cytokine mediators is warranted to gain valuable pathogenic and therapeutic insights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yang
- Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA
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Abstract
Aging is associated with chronic low-grade increases in circulating levels of inflammatory markers. A wide range of environmental factors, including smoking, infections, and obesity, genetic factors, and the declining function of sex hormones may contribute to systemic low-grade inflammatory activity in older individuals. Age-associated disease may exacerbate this phenomenon. The multifunctional cytokines TNF-alpha and IL-6 have been associated with morbidity and mortality in the elderly. Evidence supports the direct role of TNF-alpha in the pathogeneses of atherosclerosis, type 2 DM, and AD in older individuals. Age-related increases in systemic levels of TNF-alpha could provide a unifying basis for these disorders. Furthermore, TNF-alpha induces a catabolic state that causes frailty. Circulating levels of IL-6 seem to be a strong risk factor for frailty in the elderly, which could reflect its association with increased production of TNF-alpha. IL-6 also may be a risk factor for thromboembolic complications. In healthy, elderly populations, high circulating levels of TNF-alpha and IL-6 predict mortality, independent of comorbidity, indicating that TNF-alpha and IL-6 cause morbidity and mortality. In cohorts of frail, older individuals, TNF-alpha and IL-6 also act as disease markers. Circulating levels of TNF-alpha seem to be the best predictor of mortality in frail, elderly populations with a high mortality rate, whereas IL-6 seems to be the strongest risk marker in healthy, elderly populations. This finding could reflect that in relatively healthy old populations the increase in circulating levels of IL-6 represent a systemic response to local proinflammatory activities; however, when age-related inflammatory diseases progress, levels of TNF-alpha increase in the circulation and become gradually a stronger risk marker than IL-6. In conclusion low-grade elevations in levels of circulating cytokines are strong independent risk factors of morbidity and mortality in the elderly, and lifestyle factors and comorbidities may modulate these levels. Exercise and dietary interventions may be possible strategies to decrease inflammatory activity and improve the health status of the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helle Brüünsgaard
- Department of Infectious Diseases M7641, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 9, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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Wahl C, Maier S, Marre R, Essig A. Chlamydia pneumoniae induces the expression of inhibitor of apoptosis 2 (c-IAP2) in a human monocytic cell line by an NF-kappaB-dependent pathway. Int J Med Microbiol 2003; 293:377-81. [PMID: 14695066 DOI: 10.1078/1438-4221-00274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the inhibitor of apoptosis protein family are important factors that regulate apoptotic cell death. As demonstrated both by RT-PCR and Western Blot analysis C. pneumoniae infection of the human monocytic cell line Mono Mac 6 induces the expression of mRNA and protein of the cellular inhibitor of apoptosis 2 (c-IAP2). Blocking NF-kappaB DNA-binding activity by the proteasome inhibitor MG-132 results in decrease of C. pneumoniae-induced c-IAP2 expression. Therefore, C. pneumoniae may exploit the NF-kappaB pathway to induce expression of an antiapoptotic host cell protein that may contribute to intracellular survival of the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Wahl
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany.
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