Counter-regulatory function of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B in platelet-derived growth factor- or fibroblast growth factor-induced motility and proliferation of cultured smooth muscle cells and in neointima formation

Mechanisms of nebivolol-mediated effects on bFGF-induced vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration

Background

Nebivolol is a β-adrenergic receptor antagonist that has intrinsic activity on β3-adrenergic receptors (β3-ARs). Previous studies suggest that nebivolol inhibits bFGF-induced vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and migration and vascular injury-induced neointima formation through activation of β3-ARs. However, our recently published data shown that activation of β3-ARs produced the opposite results, suggesting that the mechanisms of nebivolol-mediated effects are not fully understood. The current project was to study the mechanisms of nebivolol's effects on bFGF-induced VSMC proliferation and migration by comparing to the selective β3-AR agonist, CL316,243.

Methods

VSMCs isolated from Sprague Dawley rat aortas were pretreated with nebivolol or CL316,243 followed by stimulation with bFGF. Cell proliferation and migration and phosphorylation of ERK and AKT were measured.

Results

We found that pretreatment of VSMCs with nebivolol produced biphasic effects on bFGF-induced VSMC proliferation, manifested as potentiation at lower concentrations and inhibition at the higher concentration. The effects of low concentrations of nebivolol on bFGF-induced VSMC proliferation was blocked by the selective β3-AR antagonist, SR59230A. Nebivolol inhibited bFGF-induced cell migration at all concentrations tested. In addition, only higher concentrations of nebivolol significantly inhibited bFGF-induced AKT phosphorylation but not ERK phosphorylation whereas CL316,243 at all concentrations tested significantly enhanced bFGF-induced VSMC proliferation and migration and higher concentrations of CL316,243 not only enhanced bFGF-induced AKT phosphorylation but also ERK phosphorylation.

Conclusion

Our data suggest that the effect of nebivolol on bFGF-induced cell proliferation is concentration-dependent. The enhancement on bFGF-induced cell proliferation at lower concentrations appears to be mainly mediated by activation of β3-ARs but the inhibitory effects on bFGF-mediated cell proliferation as well as migration may occur through different mechanisms. AKT signaling is only involved in high concentrations of nebivolol-mediated effects.

PTP1B Modulates Carotid Plaque Vulnerability in Atherosclerosis Through Rab5-PDGFRβ-Mediated Endocytosis Disruption and Apoptosis

BACKGROUND

Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) is a protein tyrosine phosphatase and modulates platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)/platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) signaling in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) via endocytosis. However, the related molecular pathways that participated in the interaction of endo-lysosome and the trafficking of PDGFR are largely unknown. This study aims to determine the subcellular regulating mechanism of PTP1B to the endo-lysosome degradation of PDGFR in atherosclerotic carotid plaques, thereby offering a potential therapeutic target for the stabilization of carotid plaques.

METHODS

The immunohistochemical staining technique was employed to assess the expression levels of both PDGFR-β and Caspase 3 in stable and vulnerable carotid plaques. Tunnel staining was utilized to quantify the apoptosis of carotid plaques. Live-cell imaging was employed to observe endocytic motility, while cell apoptosis was evaluated through Propidium Iodide staining. In an in vivo experiment, ApoE-/- mice were administered a PTP1B inhibitor to investigate the impact of PTP1B on atherosclerosis.

RESULTS

The heightened expression of PDGFR-β correlates with apoptosis in patients with vulnerable carotid plaques. At the subcellular level of VSMCs, PDGFR-β plays a pivotal role in sustaining a balanced endocytosis system motility, regulated by the expression of Rab5, a key regulator of endocytic motility. And PTP1B modulates PDGFR-β signaling via Rab5-mediated endocytosis. Additionally, disrupted endocytic motility influences the interplay between endosomes and lysosomes, which is crucial for controlling PDGFR-β trafficking. Elevated PTP1B expression induces cellular apoptosis and impedes migration and proliferation of carotid VSMCs. Ultimately, mice with PTP1B deficiency exhibit a reduction in atherosclerosis.

CONCLUSION

Our results illustrate that PTP1B induces disruption in endocytosis and apoptosis of VSMCs through the Rab5-PDGFRβ pathway, suggesting a potential association with the heightened vulnerability of carotid plaques.

PTPN14 aggravates neointimal hyperplasia via boosting PDGFRβ signaling in smooth muscle cells

Smooth muscle cell (SMC) phenotypic modulation, primarily driven by PDGFRβ signaling, is implicated in occlusive cardiovascular diseases. However, the promotive and restrictive regulation mechanism of PDGFRβ and the role of protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 14 (PTPN14) in neointimal hyperplasia remain unclear. Our study observes a marked upregulation of PTPN14 in SMCs during neointimal hyperplasia. PTPN14 overexpression exacerbates neointimal hyperplasia in a phosphatase activity-dependent manner, while SMC-specific deficiency of PTPN14 mitigates this process in mice. RNA-seq indicates that PTPN14 deficiency inhibits PDGFRβ signaling-induced SMC phenotypic modulation. Moreover, PTPN14 interacts with intracellular region of PDGFRβ and mediates its dephosphorylation on Y692 site. Phosphorylation of PDGFRβY692 negatively regulates PDGFRβ signaling activation. The levels of both PTPN14 and phospho-PDGFRβY692 are correlated with the degree of stenosis in human coronary arteries. Our findings suggest that PTPN14 serves as a critical modulator of SMCs, promoting neointimal hyperplasia. PDGFRβY692, dephosphorylated by PTPN14, acts as a self-inhibitory site for controlling PDGFRβ activation.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B in metabolic and cardiovascular diseases: from mechanisms to therapeutics

Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) has emerged as a significant regulator of metabolic and cardiovascular disease. It is a non-transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatase that negatively regulates multiple signaling pathways integral to the regulation of growth, survival, and differentiation of cells, including leptin and insulin signaling, which are critical for development of obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Given PTP1B's central role in glucose homeostasis, energy balance, and vascular function, targeted inhibition of PTP1B represents a promising strategy for treating these diseases. However, challenges, such as off-target effects, necessitate a focus on tissue-specific approaches, to maximize therapeutic benefits while minimizing adverse outcomes. In this review, we discuss molecular mechanisms by which PTP1B influences metabolic and cardiovascular functions, summarize the latest research on tissue-specific roles of PTP1B, and discuss the potential for PTP1B inhibitors as future therapeutic agents.

Participation of Krüppel-like Factors in Atherogenesis

Atherosclerosis is an important problem in modern medicine, the keys to understanding many aspects of which are still not available to clinicians. Atherosclerosis develops as a result of a complex chain of events in which many cells of the vascular wall and peripheral blood flow are involved. Endothelial cells, which line the vascular wall in a monolayer, play an important role in vascular biology. A growing body of evidence strengthens the understanding of the multifaceted functions of endothelial cells, which not only organize the barrier between blood flow and tissues but also act as regulators of hemodynamics and play an important role in regulating the function of other cells in the vascular wall. Krüppel-like factors (KLFs) perform several biological functions in various cells of the vascular wall. The large family of KLFs in humans includes 18 members, among which KLF2 and KLF4 are at the crossroads between endothelial cell mechanobiology and immunometabolism, which play important roles in both the normal vascular wall and atherosclerosis.

PTPN1 Deficiency Modulates BMPR2 Signaling and Induces Endothelial Dysfunction in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

Bone morphogenic protein receptor 2 (BMPR2) expression and signaling are impaired in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). How BMPR2 signaling is decreased in PAH is poorly understood. Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) play important roles in vascular remodeling in PAH. To identify whether PTPs modify BMPR2 signaling, we used a siRNA-mediated high-throughput screening of 22,124 murine genes in mouse myoblastoma reporter cells using ID1 expression as readout for BMPR2 signaling. We further experimentally validated the top hit, PTPN1 (PTP1B), in healthy human pulmonary arterial endothelial cells (PAECs) either silenced by siRNA or exposed to hypoxia and confirmed its relevance to PAH by measuring PTPN1 levels in blood and PAECs collected from PAH patients. We identified PTPN1 as a novel regulator of BMPR2 signaling in PAECs, which is downregulated in the blood of PAH patients, and documented that downregulation of PTPN1 is linked to endothelial dysfunction in PAECs. These findings point to a potential involvement for PTPN1 in PAH and will aid in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in the disease.

Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B Deficiency in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Promotes Perivascular Fibrosis following Arterial Injury

Background  Smooth muscle cell (SMC) phenotype switching plays a central role during vascular remodeling. Growth factor receptors are negatively regulated by protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), including its prototype PTP1B. Here, we examine how reduction of PTP1B in SMCs affects the vascular remodeling response to injury.

Methods  Mice with inducible PTP1B deletion in SMCs (SMC.PTP1B-KO) were generated by crossing mice expressing Cre.ER ^T2 recombinase under the Myh11 promoter with PTP1B ^flox/flox mice and subjected to FeCl ₃ carotid artery injury.

Results  Genetic deletion of PTP1B in SMCs resulted in adventitia enlargement, perivascular SMA ⁺ and PDGFRβ ⁺ myofibroblast expansion, and collagen accumulation following vascular injury. Lineage tracing confirmed the appearance of Myh11 -Cre reporter cells in the remodeling adventitia, and SCA1 ⁺ CD45 ^- vascular progenitor cells increased. Elevated mRNA expression of transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) signaling components or enzymes involved in extracellular matrix remodeling and TGFβ liberation was seen in injured SMC.PTP1B-KO mouse carotid arteries, and mRNA transcript levels of contractile SMC marker genes were reduced already at baseline. Mechanistically, Cre recombinase (mice) or siRNA (cells)-mediated downregulation of PTP1B or inhibition of ERK1/2 signaling in SMCs resulted in nuclear accumulation of KLF4, a central transcriptional repressor of SMC differentiation, whereas phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of SMAD2 and SMAD3 were reduced. SMAD2 siRNA transfection increased protein levels of PDGFRβ and MYH10 while reducing ERK1/2 phosphorylation, thus phenocopying genetic PTP1B deletion.

Conclusion  Chronic reduction of PTP1B in SMCs promotes dedifferentiation, perivascular fibrosis, and adverse remodeling following vascular injury by mechanisms involving an ERK1/2 phosphorylation-driven shift from SMAD2 to KLF4-regulated gene transcription.

Integrated Microarray for Identifying the Hub mRNAs and Constructed MiRNA-mRNA Network in Coronary In-stent Restenosis

As a major complication after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) in patients who suffer from coronary artery disease, in-stent restenosis (ISR) poses a significant challenge for clinical management. A miRNA-mRNA regulatory network of ISR can be constructed to better reveal the occurrence of ISR. The relevant dataset from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database was downloaded, and 284 differentially expressed miRNAs (DE-miRNAs) and 849 differentially expressed mRNAs (DE-mRNAs) were identified. As predicted by online tools, 65 final functional genes (FmRNAs) were overlapping DE-mRNAs and DE-miRNAs target genes. In the biological process (BP) terms of Gene Ontology (GO) functional analysis, the FmRNAs were mainly enriched in cellular response to peptide, epithelial cell proliferation and response to peptide hormone. In the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis, the FmRNAs were mainly enriched in breast cancer, endocrine resistance and cushing syndrome. Jun Proto-Oncogene, AP-1 Transcription Factor Subunit (JUN), Insulin Like Growth Factor 1 Receptor (IGF1R), Member RAS Oncogene Family (RAB14), Specificity Protein 1 (SP1), Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Non-Receptor Type1(PTPN1), DDB1 And CUL4 Associated Factor 10 (DCAF10), Retinoblastoma-Binding Protein 5 (RBBP5) and Eukaryotic Initiation Factor 4A-I (EIF4A1) were hub genes in the protein-protein interaction network (PPI network). The miRNA-mRNA network containing DE-miRNA and hub genes was built. Hsa-miR-139-5p-JUN, hsa-miR-324-5p-SP1 axis pairs were found in the miRNA-mRNA network, which could promote ISR development. The above results indicate that the miRNA-mRNA network constructed in ISR has a regulatory role in the development of ISR, and may provide new approaches for clinical treatment and experimental development.

Regulation of bFGF-induced effects on rat aortic smooth muscle cells by β3-adrenergic receptors

Background

Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF)-mediated vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and migration play an important role in vascular injury-induced neointima formation and subsequent vascular restenosis, a major event that hinders the long-term success of angioplasty. The function of β₃-adrenergic receptors (β₃-ARs) in vascular injury-induced neointima formation has not yet been defined.

Objectives

Our current study explored the possible role of β₃-ARs in vascular injury-induced neointima formation by testing its effects on bFGF-induced VSMC migration and proliferation.

Methods

β₃-AR expression in rat carotid arteries was examined at 14 days following a balloon catheter-induced injury. The effects of β₃-AR activation on bFGF-induced rat aortic smooth muscle cell proliferation, migration, and signaling transduction (including extracellular-signal-regulated kinase/mitogen activated protein kinase, ERK/MAPK and Protein kinase B, AKT) were tested.

Results

We found that vascular injury induced upregulation of β₃-ARs in neointima. Pretreatment of VSMCs with a selective β₃-AR agonist, CL316,243 significantly potentiated bFGF-induced cell migration and proliferation, and ERK and AKT phosphorylation. Our results also revealed that suppressing phosphorylation of ERK and AKT blocked bFGF-induced cell migration and that inhibiting AKT phosphorylation reduced bFGF-mediated cell proliferation.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that activation of β₃-ARs potentiates bFGF-mediated effects on VSMCs by enhancing bFGF-mediated ERK and AKT phosphorylation and that β₃-ARs may play a role in vascular injury-induced neointima formation.

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β₃-adrenergic receptor (β₃-AR) expression was upregulated in the newly formed intima following rat carotid artery injury.

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Activation of β₃-ARs potentiated bFGF-induced VSMC migration and proliferation and phosphorylation of ERK and/or AKT.

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Inhibition of ERK or AKT pathways decreased bFGF-induced cell migration.

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Inhibition of AKT pathway decreased bFGF-induced cell proliferation.

Reduction of Connexin 43 Attenuates Angiogenic Effects of Human Smooth Muscle Progenitor Cells via Inactivation of Akt and NF-κB Pathway

OBJECTIVE

Circulating progenitor cells possess vasculogenesis property and participate in repair of vascular injury. Cx (connexin) 43-a transmembrane protein constituting gap junctions-is involved in vascular pathology. However, the role of Cx43 in smooth muscle progenitor cells (SPCs) remained unclear. Approach and Results: Human SPCs cultured from CD34+ peripheral blood mononuclear cells expressed smooth muscle cell markers, such as smooth muscle MHC (myosin heavy chain), nonmuscle MHC, calponin, and CD140B, and Cx43 was the most abundant Cx isoform. To evaluate the role of Cx43 in SPCs, short interference RNA was used to knock down Cx43 expression. Cellular activities of SPCs were reduced by Cx43 downregulation. In addition, Cx43 downregulation attenuated angiogenic potential of SPCs in hind limb ischemia mice. Protein array and ELISA of the supernatant from SPCs showed that IL (interleukin)-6, IL-8, and HGF (hepatocyte growth factor) were reduced by Cx43 downregulation. Simultaneously, Cx43 downregulation reduced the phosphorylation of NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) and Akt (protein kinase B) pathway and reactivation of NF-κB and Akt using betulinic acid, and SC79 could restore the secretion of growth factors and cytokines. Moreover, FAK (focal adhesion kinase)-Src (proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src) activation was increased by Cx43 downregulation, and inactivation of Akt-NF-κB could be restored by Src inhibitor (PP2), indicating that Akt-NF-κB inactivated by Cx43 downregulation arose from FAK-Src activation. Finally, the depressed cellular activities and secretion of SPCs after Cx43 downregulation were restored by FAK inhibitor PF-562271 or PP2.

CONCLUSIONS

SPCs possess angiogenic potential to repair ischemic tissue mainly through paracrine effects. Gap junction protein Cx43 plays an important role in regulating cellular function and paracrine effects of SPCs through FAK-Src axis.

Inducible Knockdown of Endothelial Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase-1B Promotes Neointima Formation in Obese Mice by Enhancing Endothelial Senescence

AIMS

Protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B (PTP1B) is a negative regulator of receptor tyrosine kinase signaling. In this study, we determined the importance of PTP1B expressed in endothelial cells for the vascular response to arterial injury in obesity.

RESULTS

Morphometric analysis of vascular lesions generated by 10% ferric chloride (FeCl₃) revealed that tamoxifen-inducible endothelial PTP1B deletion (Tie2.ER^T2-Cre × PTP1B^fl/fl; End.PTP1B knockout, KO) significantly increased neointima formation, and reduced numbers of (endothelial lectin-positive) luminal cells in End.PTP1B-KO mice suggested impaired lesion re-endothelialization. Significantly higher numbers of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)-positive proliferating cells as well as smooth muscle actin (SMA)-positive or vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM1)-positive activated smooth muscle cells or vimentin-positive myofibroblasts were detected in neointimal lesions of End.PTP1B-KO mice, whereas F4/80-positive macrophage numbers did not differ. Activated receptor tyrosine kinase and transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ) signaling and oxidative stress markers were also significantly more abundant in End.PTP1B-KO mouse lesions. Genetic knockdown or pharmacological inhibition of PTP1B in endothelial cells resulted in increased expression of caveolin-1 and oxidative stress, and distinct morphological changes, elevated numbers of senescence-associated β-galactosidase-positive cells, and increased expression of tumor suppressor protein 53 (p53) or the cell cycle inhibitor cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor-2A (p16INK4A) suggested senescence, all of which could be attenuated by small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated downregulation of caveolin-1. In vitro, senescence could be prevented and impaired re-endothelialization restored by preincubation with the antioxidant Trolox.

INNOVATION

Our results reveal a previously unknown role of PTP1B in endothelial cells and provide mechanistic insights how PTP1B deletion or inhibition may promote endothelial senescence.

CONCLUSION

Absence of PTP1B in endothelial cells impairs re-endothelialization, and the failure to induce smooth muscle cell quiescence or to protect from circulating growth factors may result in neointimal hyperplasia.

Gene expression profiles and signaling mechanisms in α2B-adrenoceptor-evoked proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells

BACKGROUND

α2-adrenoceptors are important regulators of vascular tone and blood pressure. Regulation of cell proliferation is a less well investigated consequence of α2-adrenoceptor activation. We have previously shown that α2B-adrenoceptor activation stimulates proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). This may be important for blood vessel development and plasticity and for the pathology and therapeutics of cardiovascular disorders. The underlying cellular mechanisms have remained mostly unknown. This study explored pathways of regulation of gene expression and intracellular signaling related to α2B-adrenoceptor-evoked VSMC proliferation.

RESULTS

The cellular mechanisms and signaling pathways of α2B-adrenoceptor-evoked proliferation of VSMCs are complex and include redundancy. Functional enrichment analysis and pathway analysis identified differentially expressed genes associated with α2B-adrenoceptor-regulated VSMC proliferation. They included the upregulated genes Egr1, F3, Ptgs2 and Serpine1 and the downregulated genes Cx3cl1, Cav1, Rhoa, Nppb and Prrx1. The most highly upregulated gene, Lypd8, represents a novel finding in the VSMC context. Inhibitor library screening and kinase activity profiling were applied to identify kinases in the involved signaling pathways. Putative upstream kinases identified by two different screens included PKC, Raf-1, Src, the MAP kinases p38 and JNK and the receptor tyrosine kinases EGFR and HGF/HGFR. As a novel finding, the Src family kinase Lyn was also identified as a putative upstream kinase.

CONCLUSIONS

α2B-adrenoceptors may mediate their pro-proliferative effects in VSMCs by promoting the activity of bFGF and PDGF and the growth factor receptors EGFR, HGFR and VEGFR-1/2. The Src family kinase Lyn was also identified as a putative upstream kinase. Lyn is known to be expressed in VSMCs and has been identified as an important regulator of GPCR trafficking and GPCR effects on cell proliferation. Identified Ser/Thr kinases included several PKC isoforms and the β-adrenoceptor kinases 1 and 2. Cross-talk between the signaling mechanisms involved in α2B-adrenoceptor-evoked VSMC proliferation thus appears to involve PKC activation, subsequent changes in gene expression, transactivation of EGFR, and modulation of kinase activities and growth factor-mediated signaling. While many of the identified individual signals were relatively small in terms of effect size, many of them were validated by combining pathway analysis and our integrated screening approach.

Recent progress in studies on the health benefits of pyrroloquinoline quinone

Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ), an aromatic tricyclic o-quinone, was identified initially as a redox cofactor for bacterial dehydrogenases. Although PQQ is not biosynthesized in mammals, trace amounts of PQQ have been found in human and rat tissues because of its wide distribution in dietary sources. Importantly, nutritional studies in rodents have revealed that PQQ deficiency exhibits diverse systemic responses, including growth impairment, immune dysfunction, and abnormal reproductive performance. Although PQQ is not currently classified as a vitamin, PQQ has been implicated as an important nutrient in mammals. In recent years, PQQ has been receiving much attention owing to its physiological importance and pharmacological effects. In this article, we review the potential health benefits of PQQ with a focus on its growth-promoting activity, anti-diabetic effect, anti-oxidative action, and neuroprotective function. Additionally, we provide an update of its basic pharmacokinetics and safety information in oral ingestion.

Use of Dominant-Negative/Substrate Trapping PTP Mutations to Search for PTP Interactors/Substrates

Phosphorylation of proteins on tyrosine residues is the consequence of coordinated action of tyrosine kinases (TKs), and protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Together, they regulate intermolecular interactions, subcellular localization, and activity of a variety of proteins. The level of total protein-associated tyrosine phosphorylation in eukaryotic cells is only a small fraction of the total phosphorylation. PTPs, which have high specific activity compared to tyrosine kinases, play an important role in maintaining the tyrosine phosphorylation state of proteins and regulate signal transduction pathways and cellular responses. PTPs depend on specific invariant residues that enable binding to substrates phosphorylated at tyrosine and aid catalytic activity. Identification of PTP substrates has helped understand their role in distinct intracellular signaling pathways. Because of their high specific activity, the interaction between tyrosine phosphatases and their substrates is often very transient in the cellular context, and therefore identification of physiological substrates has been difficult. Single-site mutations in the enzymes stabilize interaction between the enzyme and its targets and have been used extensively to identify substrates. The mutations are either of the catalytic cysteine (Cys) residue or other invariant residues and have been classified as substrate-trapping mutants (STMs). These mutants often serve as dominant negatives that can inactivate effector functions of a specific PTP within cells. Considering their association with human disorders, inhibiting specific PTPs is important therapeutically. Since the catalytic domains are largely conserved, developing small-molecule inhibitors to a particular enzyme has proven difficult and therefore alternate strategies to block functions of individual enzymes are seriously being investigated. We provide a description of methods that will be useful to design strategies of using dominant-negative and substrate-trapping mutants for identifying novel interacting partners and substrates of PTPs.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B regulates migration of ARPE-19 cells through EGFR/ERK signaling pathway

AIM

To evaluate whether protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) contributed to initiate human retinal pigment epithelium cells (A)-19 migration and investigate the signaling pathways involved in this process.

METHODS

ARPE-19 cells were cultured and treated with the siRNA-PTP1B. Expression of PTP1B was confirmed by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). AG1478 [a selective inhibitor of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)] and PD98059 (a specific inhibitor of the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase) were used to help to determine the PTP1B signaling mechanism. Western blot analysis verified expression of EGFR and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in ARPE-19 cells. The effect of siRNA-PTP1B on cell differentiation was confirmed by immunostaining for α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and qRT-PCR. Cell migration ability was analyzed by transwell chamber assay.

RESULTS

The mRNA levels of PTP1B were reduced by siRNA-PTP1B as determined by qRT-PCR assay. SiRNA-PTP1B activated EGFR and ERK phosphorylation. α-SMA staining and qRT-PCR assay demonstrated that siRNA-PTP1B induced retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells to differentiate toward better contractility and motility. Transwell chamber assay proved that PTP1B inhibition improved migration activity of RPE cells. Treatment with AG1478 and PD98059 abolished siRNA-PTP1B-induced activation of EGFR and ERK, α-SMA expression and cell migration.

CONCLUSION

PTP1B inhibition promoted myofibroblast differentiation and migration of ARPE-19 cells, and EGFR/ERK signaling pathway played important role in migration process.

Proteinase-activated receptor 1- and 4-promoted migration of Hep3B hepatocellular carcinoma cells depends on ROS formation and RTK transactivation

PURPOSE

There is growing evidence for a role of proteinase-activated receptors (PARs), a subfamily of G protein-coupled receptors, in cancer. We have previously shown that PAR1 and PAR4 are able to promote the migration of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells suggesting a function in HCC progression. In this study, we assessed the underlying signalling mechanisms.

METHODS

Using Hep3B liver carcinoma cells, RTK activation was assessed by Western blot employing phospho-RTK specific antibodies, ROS level were estimated by H2DCF-DA using confocal laser scanning microscopy, and measurement of PTP activity was performed in cell lysates using 6,8-difluoro-4-methylumbelliferyl phosphate (DiFMUP) as a substrate.

RESULTS

Thrombin, the PAR1 selective agonist peptide TFLLRN-NH2 (PAR1-AP), and the PAR4 selective agonist peptide, AYPGKF-NH2 (PAR4-AP), induced a significant increase in Hep3B cell migration that could be blocked by inhibitors targeting formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), or activation of hepatocyte-growth factor receptor (Met), or platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), respectively. The involvement of these intracellular effectors in PAR1/4-initiated migratory signalling was further supported by the findings that individual stimulation of Hep3B cells with the PAR1-AP and the PAR4-AP induced an increase in ROS production and the transactivation of Met and PDGFR. In addition, PAR1- and PAR4-mediated inhibition of total PTP activity and specifically PTP1B. ROS inhibition by N-acetyl-L-cysteine prevented the inhibition of PTP1B phosphatase activity induced by PAR1-AP and the PAR4-AP, but had no effect on PAR1/4-mediated activation of Met and PDGFR in Hep3B cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our data indicate that PAR1 and PAR4 activate common promigratory signalling pathways in Hep3B liver carcinoma cells including activation of the receptor tyrosine kinases Met and PDGFR, the formation of ROS and the inactivation of PTP1B. However, PAR1/4-triggered Met and PDGFR transactivation seem to be mediated independently from the ROS-PTP1B signalling module.

Inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatases enhances cerebral collateral growth in rats

Arteriogenesis involves the rapid proliferation of preexisting arterioles to fully functional arteries as a compensatory mechanism to overcome circulatory deficits. Stimulation of arteriogenesis has therefore been considered a treatment concept in arterial occlusive disease. Here, we investigated the impact of inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) on cerebral arteriogenesis in rats. Arteriogenesis was induced by occlusion of one carotid and both vertebral arteries (three-vessel occlusion (3-VO)). Collateral growth and functional vessel perfusion was assessed 3-35 days following 3-VO. Furthermore, animals underwent 3-VO surgery and were treated with the pan-PTP inhibitor BMOV, the SHP-1 inhibitor sodium stibogluconate (SSG), or the PTP1B inhibitor AS279. Cerebral vessel diameters and cerebrovascular reserve capacity (CVRC) were determined, together with immunohistochemistry analyses and proximity ligation assays (PLA) for determination of tissue proliferation and phosphorylation patterns after 7 days. The most significant changes in vessel diameter increase were present in the ipsilateral posterior cerebral artery (PCA), with proliferative markers (PCNA) being time-dependently increased. The CVRC was lost in the early phase after 3-VO and partially recovered after 21 days. PTP inhibition resulted in a significant increase in the ipsilateral PCA diameter in BMOV-treated animals and rats subjected to PTP1B inhibition. Furthermore, CVRC was significantly elevated in AS279-treated rats compared to control animals, along with hyperphosphorylation of the platelet-derived growth factor-β receptor in the vascular wall in vivo. In summary, our data indicate PTPs as hitherto unrecognized negative regulators in cerebral arteriogenesis. Further, PTP inhibition leading to enhanced collateral growth and blood perfusion suggests PTPs as novel targets in anti-ischemic treatment.

KEY MESSAGES

PTPs exhibit negative regulatory function in cerebral collateral growth in rats. Inhibition of pan-PTP/PTP1B increases vessel PDGF-β receptor phosphorylation. PTP1B inhibition enhances arteriogenesis and cerebrovascular reserve capacity.

Enhanced angiogenesis and increased cardiac perfusion after myocardial infarction in protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B-deficient mice

The protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) modulates tyrosine kinase receptors, among which is the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor type 2 (VEGFR2), a key component of angiogenesis. Because PTP1B deficiency in mice improves left ventricular (LV) function 2 mo after myocardial infarction (MI), we hypothesized that enhanced angiogenesis early after MI via activated VEGFR2 contributes to this improvement. At 3 d after MI, capillary density was increased at the infarct border of PTP1B(-/-) mice [+7±2% vs. wild-type (WT), P = 0.05]. This was associated with increased extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 phosphorylation and VEGFR2 activation (i.e., phosphorylated-Src/Src/VEGFR2 and dissociation of endothelial VEGFR2/VE-cadherin), together with higher infiltration of proangiogenic M2 macrophages within unchanged overall infiltration. In vitro, we showed that PTP1B inhibition or silencing using RNA interference increased VEGF-induced migration and proliferation of mouse heart microvascular endothelial cells as well as fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-induced proliferation of rat aortic smooth muscle cells. At 8 d after MI in PTP1B(-/-) mice, increased LV capillary density (+21±3% vs. WT; P<0.05) and an increased number of small diameter arteries (15-50 μm) were likely to participate in increased LV perfusion assessed by magnetic resonance imaging and improved LV compliance, indicating reduced diastolic dysfunction. In conclusion, PTP1B deficiency reduces MI-induced heart failure promptly after ischemia by enhancing angiogenesis, myocardial perfusion, and diastolic function.

Chronic Caffeine Administration Attenuates Vascular Injury-Induced Neointimal Hyperplasia in Rats

Background: Inflammation is considered to be a major initiator to angioplasty-induced vascular restenosis. Proinflammatory cytokines stimulate vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) migration and proliferation leading to neointimal hyperplasia. It has been reported that chronic caffeine use suppresses the production of proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor Alpha) and alters adenosine receptor expression in human neutrophils, indicating that caffeine may attenuate vascular injury-induced inflammation and subsequent neointimal hyperplasia. Our current study was designed to test the hypothesis that chronic caffeine treatment decreases vascular injury-induced neointimal hyperplasia by suppressing VSMC migration and proliferation. Methods and Results: The experiments were carried out using both in vivo (rat carotid artery injury model) and in vitro (VSMCs isolated from rat aorta) models. Male Sprague-Dawley rats that received chronic caffeine treatment (10 and 20 mg/kg per day, through oral gavage) showed a significant decrease in neointimal hyperplasia when compared to rats that received vehicle. To understand the underlying mechanisms, we tested if caffeine inhibits fetal bovine serum (FBS)-induced VSMC migration and proliferation. We found that caffeine substantially suppressed FBS-induced VSMC migration and proliferation. The attenuation of FBS-stimulated cell migration is dose dependent. Conclusion: Together, our results suggest that chronic treatment with high concentrations of caffeine attenuates vascular injury-induced neointimal hyperplasia by suppressing smooth muscle cell migration and proliferation in rats.

IGF-1R modulation of acute GH-induced STAT5 signaling: role of protein tyrosine phosphatase activity

GH is a potent anabolic and metabolic factor that binds its cell surface receptor (GHR), activating the GHR-associated tyrosine kinase, Janus kinase 2, which phosphorylates and activates the latent transcription factor, signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5). Some GH actions are mediated by the elaboration of IGF-1, which exerts effects by binding and activating the heterotetrameric tyrosine kinase growth factor receptor, IGF-1R. In addition to this GH-GHR-IGF-1-IGF-1R scheme, we have demonstrated in primary osteoblasts and in islet β-cells that then deletion or silencing of IGF-1R results in diminished GH-induced STAT5 phosphorylation, suggesting that the presence of IGF-1R may facilitate GH signaling. In this study, we explore potential roles for protein tyrosine phosphatase activity in modulating GH-induced signaling, comparing conditions in which IGF-1R is present or diminished. We confirm that in mouse primary osteoblasts harboring loxP sites flanking the IGF-1R gene, infection with an adenovirus that expresses the Cre recombinase results in IGF-1R deletion and diminished acute GH-induced STAT5 phosphorylation. Furthermore, we present a new model of IGF-1R silencing, in which expression of short hairpin RNA directed at IGF-1R greatly reduces IGF-1R abundance in LNCaP human prostate cancer cells. In both models, treatment with a chemical inhibitor of protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B (PTP-1B), but not one of src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphotase-1 (SHP-1) and SHP-2, reverses the loss of GH-induced STAT5 phosphorylation in cells lacking IGF-1R but has no effect in cells with intact IGF-1R. Furthermore, expression of either a dominant-negative PTP-1B or the PTP-1B-interacting inhibitory protein, constitutive photomorphogenesis 1, also rescues acute GH-induced STAT5 signaling in IGF-1R-deficient cells but has no effect in IGF-1R replete cells. By expressing a substrate-trapping mutant PTP-1B, we demonstrate that tyrosine phosphorylated Janus kinase-2 is a PTP-1B substrate only in cells lacking IGF-1R. Collectively, our data suggest that IGF-1R positively regulates acute GH signaling by preventing access of PTP-1B activity to Janus kinase 2 and thereby preventing PTP-1B-mediated suppression of GH-induced STAT5 activation.

Knockout of Density-Enhanced Phosphatase-1 impairs cerebrovascular reserve capacity in an arteriogenesis model in mice

Collateral growth, arteriogenesis, represents a proliferative mechanism involving endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and monocytes/macrophages. Here we investigated the role of Density-Enhanced Phosphatase-1 (DEP-1) in arteriogenesis in vivo, a protein-tyrosine-phosphatase that has controversially been discussed with regard to vascular cell biology. Wild-type C57BL/6 mice subjected to permanent left common carotid artery occlusion (CCAO) developed a significant diameter increase in distinct arteries of the circle of Willis, especially in the anterior cerebral artery. Analyzing the impact of loss of DEP-1 function, induction of collateralization was quantified after CCAO and hindlimb femoral artery ligation comparing wild-type and DEP-1^−/− mice. Both cerebral collateralization assessed by latex perfusion and peripheral vessel growth in the femoral artery determined by microsphere perfusion and micro-CT analysis were not altered in DEP-1^−/− compared to wild-type mice. Cerebrovascular reserve capacity, however, was significantly impaired in DEP-1^−/− mice. Cerebrovascular transcriptional analysis of proarteriogenic growth factors and receptors showed specifically reduced transcripts of PDGF-B. SiRNA knockdown of DEP-1 in endothelial cells in vitro also resulted in significant PDGF-B downregulation, providing further evidence for DEP-1 in PDGF-B gene regulation. In summary, our data support the notion of DEP-1 as positive functional regulator in vascular cerebral arteriogenesis, involving differential PDGF-B gene expression.

Emerging drugs for the treatment of diabetic ulcers

INTRODUCTION

Diabetic ulcers are chronic nonhealing ulcerations that despite the available medical tools still result in high amputation rates. Growing evidence suggests that alteration of the biochemical milieu of the chronic wound plays a significant role in impaired diabetic wound healing.

AREAS COVERED

The basic pathophysiology and the conventional treatment strategy of diabetic foot ulcers have been reviewed in the first section. In the second part, the most up-to-date bench and translational research in the field are described. The third section focuses on the drugs currently under development and the ongoing clinical trials evaluating their safety and efficacy. Finally, the major drug development issues and the possible scientific approaches to overcome them are analyzed.

EXPERT OPINION

Significant strides in understanding the chronic wound development have led to the development of topical therapies to address aberrant expression of growth factors and overexpression of inflammatory cytokines. Current research in the laboratory suggests that while decreased growth factor expression occurs at the local wound level, increased systemic serum levels of growth factors suggest growth factor resistance.

Necrotic renal epithelial cell inhibits renal interstitial fibroblast activation: role of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B

Our recent studies showed that contents of necrotic renal proximal tubular cells (RPTC) from 2 × 10(6) cells/ml directly induced death of cultured renal interstitial fibroblasts. However, it remains unknown whether nonlethal number of necrotic RPTC would also alter the fate of renal interstitial fibroblasts. To address this issue, renal interstitial fibroblasts (NRK-49F) were exposed to necrotic RPTC supernatant (RPTC-Sup) obtained from 2 × 10(4) to 5 × 10(5) cells/ml. These concentrations of RPTC did not induce cell death, but led to inactivation of renal fibroblasts as indicated by reduced expression of α-smooth muscle actin and fibronectin, two hallmarks of activated fibroblasts. Concurrently, the same doses of necrotic RPTC-Sup suppressed phosphorylation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and signal transducers and activators of transcription-3 (STAT3) in a time- and dose-dependent manner, but did not affect phosphorylation of platelet-derived growth factor receptor-β, AKT, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2. The presence of sodium orthovanadate, a general protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) inhibitor or TCS-401 (a selective PTP1B inhibitor), abrogated those effects of RPTC-Sup, whereas coincubation with the EGFR inhibitor (Gefitinib) or silencing of EGFR with siRNA preserved the ability of RPTC-Sup in suppressing renal fibroblast activation and STAT3 phosphorylation. Moreover, RPTC-Sup treatment induced PTP1B phosphorylation and its interaction with EGFR. Collectively, these results indicate that nonlethal necrotic RPTC-Sup can induce inactivation of renal interstitial fibroblasts, which occurs through a mechanism involved in PTP1B-mediated inhibition of EGFR signaling.

Pyrroloquinoline quinone stimulates epithelial cell proliferation by activating epidermal growth factor receptor through redox cycling

Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ), a redox cofactor for bacterial dehydrogenases, has been implicated to be an important nutrient in mammals functioning as a potent growth factor. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms have not been elucidated. The present study revealed that PQQ induces the activation (tyrosine autophosphorylation) of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and its downstream signaling in a ligand-independent manner, leading to increased cellular proliferation in an epithelial cell line A431. PQQ inhibited protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), which negatively regulates the EGFR signaling by tyrosine dephosphorylation, to oxidatively modify the catalytic cysteine through its redox cycling activity to generate H(2)O(2). PQQ-inducible intracellular ROS production and EGFR activation were significantly suppressed by the pre-treatment with antioxidants. The intracellular redox state regulates the EGFR signaling through the redox-sensitive catalytic cysteine of PTP1B and modulates cell proliferation. Our data suggest that PQQ may stimulate epithelial cell proliferation by activating EGFR by oxidation and subsequent inactivation of PTP1B via its redox cycling. Our results provide novel insight into the mechanisms by which PQQ may function as a growth factor to contribute to mammalian growth.

Inhibitory effects of docetaxel on platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB-induced proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells through blocking PDGF-receptor β phosphorylation

The abnormal proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in arterial wall is an important pathogenic factor for vascular disorders such as atherosclerosis and restenosis after angioplasty. The present study was designed to investigate the inhibitory effects of docetaxel on VSMC proliferation, as well as the molecular mechanism of this inhibition. Docetaxel at 10, 20 and 40 µM significantly inhibited both the proliferation and the DNA synthesis of fetal bovine serum (FBS)- and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB-stimulated VSMCs in a concentration-dependent manner. In accordance with these findings, docetaxel blocked the FBS- and PDGF-BB-induced progression of synchronized cells through the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. Docetaxel also decreased the expressions of cell cycle-related proteins, including cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 2, cyclin E, CDK4, cyclin D1, retinoblastoma protein, and proliferative cell nuclear antigen in PDGF-BB-stimulated VSMCs. Docetaxel significantly inhibited the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, Akt, and phospholipase C-γ1, downstream molecule in the PDGF-BB signaling pathway. Docetaxel suppressed the phosphorylation of PDGF receptor (PDGF-R) β, the upstream molecule in PDGF-BB signaling cascade, suggesting that the inhibitory effect of docetaxel on the proliferation of VSMCs may occur by blocking PDGF-Rβ phosphorylation. Thus, docetaxel may be a potential antiproliferative agent for the treatment of atherosclerosis and angioplasty restenosis.[Supplementary Figures: available only at http://dx.doi.org/10.1254/jphs.10276FP].

Hypoxia enhances platelet-derived growth factor signaling in the pulmonary vasculature by down-regulation of protein tyrosine phosphatases

RATIONALE

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) plays a pivotal role in the pathobiology of pulmonary hypertension (PH) because it promotes pulmonary vascular remodeling. PH is frequently associated with pulmonary hypoxia.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether hypoxia alters PDGF β receptor (βPDGFR) signaling in the pulmonary vasculature.

METHODS

The impact of chronic hypoxia on signal transduction by the βPDGFR was measured in human pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (hPASMC) in vitro, and in mice with hypoxia-induced PH in vivo.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Chronic hypoxia significantly enhanced PDGF-BB-dependent proliferation and chemotaxis of hPASMC. Pharmacologic inhibition of PI3 kinase (PI3K) and PLCγ abrogated these events under both normoxia and hypoxia. Although hypoxia did not affect βPDGFR expression, it increased the ligand-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of the receptor, particularly at binding sites for PI3K (Y751) and PLCγ (Y1021). The activated βPDGFR is dephosphorylated by protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Interestingly, hypoxia decreased expression of numerous PTPs (T cell PTP, density-enhanced phosphatase-1, PTP1B, and SH2 domain-containing phosphatase-2), resulting in reduced PTP activity. Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α is involved in this regulation of gene expression, because hypoxia-induced βPDGFR hyperphosphorylation and PTP down-regulation were abolished by HIF-1α siRNA and by the HIF-1α inhibitor 2-methoxyestradiol. βPDGFR hyperphosphorylation and PTP down-regulation were also present in vivo in mice with chronic hypoxia-induced PH.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypoxia reduces expression and activity of βPDGFR-antagonizing PTPs in a HIF-1α-dependent manner, thereby enhancing receptor activation and proliferation and chemotaxis of hPASMC. Because hyperphosphorylation of the βPDGFR and down-regulation of PTPs occur in vivo, this mechanism likely has significant impact on the development and progression of PH and other hypoxia-associated diseases.

Suppression of PKG by PDGF or nitric oxide in differentiated aortic smooth muscle cells: obligatory role of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B

Treatment of aortic smooth muscle cells with PDGF induces the upregulation of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B). PTP1B, in turn, decreases the function of several growth factor receptors, thus completing a negative feedback loop. Studies have reported that PDGF induces the downregulation of PKG as part of a repertoire of dedifferentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells. Other studies have reported that chronic nitric oxide (NO) treatment also induces the downregulation of PKG. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that the downregulation of PKG by PDGF or NO in differentiated rat aortic smooth muscle cells can be attributed to the upregulation of PTP1B. We found that treatment with PDGF or NO induced an upregulation of PTP1B levels. Overexpression of PTP1B induced a marked downregulation of PKG mRNA and protein levels, whereas the expression of dominant negative PTP1B or short interfering RNA directed against PTP1B blocked the capacity of PDGF or NO to decrease PKG levels. We conclude that the upregulation of PTP1B by PDGF or NO is both necessary and sufficient to induce the downregulation of PKG via an effect on PKG mRNA levels.

Mechanisms related to NO-induced motility in differentiated rat aortic smooth muscle cells

Nitric oxide (NO) is thought to play an important role as an inhibitor of vascular cell proliferation, motility, and neointima formation. This effect is mediated, in part, via the upregulation of protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP)1B. Conversely, studies have reported that in presumably hyperinsulinemic mice fed a high-fat diet, NO enhances vascular remodeling, whereas a deficit of NO attenuates vascular remodeling. We have reported that in differentiated cultured smooth muscle cells treated with insulin, NO induces a motogenic effect that is dependent on Src homology-2 domain PTP 2 (SHP2) upregulation. In the present study, we describe novel mechanisms relevant to the motogenic effect of NO. Treatment of cultured cells with the selective angiontensin type 1 receptor antagonist losartan, but not with the selective angiotensin type 2 receptor antagonist PD-123319, blocked the comotogenic capacity of NO and insulin. Insulin and NO increased the secretion of ANG II into the culture media by 2- and 2.5-fold (P < 0.05), respectively, whereas treatment of cells with ANG II uncovered the motogenic effect of NO (1.4-fold above control, P < 0.05) and decreased the levels of PTP1B to 45% of control (P < 0.05). Suppression of PTP1B function was sufficient to uncover the motogenic effect of NO. The capacity of insulin to suppress PTP1B activity was blocked by losartan, implicating ANG II function in mediating this effect. Both insulin and ANG II induced the upregulation of phosphatidyl inositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-δ by two- to threefold (P < 0.05), and this effect was both necessary and sufficient to uncover NO-induced motogenesis. Finally, suppression of PTP1B function potentiated, whereas overexpression of PTP1B inhibited, SHP2-induced motogenesis. These results support the hypothesis that the comotogenic effect of insulin and NO occurs via an ANG II-mediated effect involving the suppression of PTP1B and upregulation of PI3K-δ and SHP2.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPepsilonM negatively regulates PDGF beta-receptor signaling induced by high glucose and PDGF in vascular smooth muscle cells

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and migration and vascular endothelial cell (VEC) dysfunction are closely associated with the development of atherosclerosis. We previously demonstrated that protein tyrosine phosphatase ε M (PTPεM) promotes VEC survival and migration. The present study investigates the biological functions of PTPεM in VSMCs and determines whether PTPεM is implicated in diabetes-accelerated atherosclerosis. We overexpressed wild-type and inactive PTPεM and an small interfering RNA (siRNA) of PTPεM by using an adenovirus vector to investigate the effects of PTPεM upon platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)- and high glucose (HG)-induced responses of rat VSMCs in vitro. We found that PTPεM decreased PDGF-induced DNA synthesis and migration by reducing the phosphorylation level of the PDGF β-receptor (PDGFRβ) with subsequently suppressed H(2)O(2) generation. The HG content in the medium generated H(2)O(2), upregulated PDGFRβ expression and its tyrosine-phosphorylation, and elevated NADPH oxidase 1 (Nox1) expression even without exogenous PDGF, all of which were downregulated by PTPεM. The PDGFR inhibitor AG1296 also blocked HG-induced Nox1 expression and H(2)O(2) production. Moreover, HG suppressed PTPεM expression itself, which was blocked by the antioxidant N-acetyl-l-cysteine. The effects of PTPεM siRNA were the opposite of those of wild-type PTPεM. Therefore, PTPεM negatively regulates PDGFRβ-mediated signaling pathways that are crucial for the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, and PTPεM may be involved in diabetes-accelerated atherosclerosis.

Platelet-derived growth factor-DD targeting arrests pathological angiogenesis by modulating glycogen synthase kinase-3beta phosphorylation

Platelet-derived growth factor-DD (PDGF-DD) is a recently discovered member of the PDGF family. The role of PDGF-DD in pathological angiogenesis and the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms remain largely unexplored. In this study, using different animal models, we showed that PDGF-DD expression was up-regulated during pathological angiogenesis, and inhibition of PDGF-DD suppressed both choroidal and retinal neovascularization. We also demonstrated a novel mechanism mediating the function of PDGF-DD. PDGF-DD induced glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK3beta) Ser(9) phosphorylation and Tyr(216) dephosphorylation in vitro and in vivo, leading to increased cell survival. Consistently, GSK3beta activity was required for the antiangiogenic effect of PDGF-DD targeting. Moreover, PDGF-DD regulated the expression of GSK3beta and many other genes important for angiogenesis and apoptosis. Thus, we identified PDGF-DD as an important target gene for antiangiogenic therapy due to its pleiotropic effects on vascular and non-vascular cells. PDGF-DD inhibition may offer new therapeutic options to treat neovascular diseases.

The protein tyrosine phosphatase PTP1B is required for efficient delivery of N-cadherin to the cell surface

This work shows a novel role of PTP1B in the regulation of N-cadherin trafficking. PTP1B is required for the association of p120 to the N-cadherin precursor and this event is crucial for trafficking of the complex through the early stages of the secretory pathway.

PTP1B bound to mature N-cadherin promotes the association of β-catenin into the complex, the stable expression of the complex at cell surface, and cadherin-mediated adhesion. Here we show that PTP1B is also required for N-cadherin precursor trafficking through early stages of the secretory pathway. This function does not require association of PTP1B with the precursor. In PTP1B null cells, the N-cadherin precursor showed higher sensitivity to endoglycosidase H than in cells reconstituted with the wild-type enzyme. It also showed slower kinetics of ER-to-Golgi translocation and processing. Trafficking of the viral stomatitis vesicular glycoprotein, VSV-G, however, revealed no differences between PTP1B null and reconstituted cells. N-cadherin precursor complexes contained similar levels of α- and β-catenin regardless of PTP1B expression. In contrast, the associated p120 catenin (p120) was significantly reduced in absence of PTP1B expression. An N-cadherin precursor construct defective in p120 binding, and expressed in PTP1B reconstituted cells, showed higher sensitivity to endoglycosidase H and slower kinetics of processing than the wild-type precursor. Our results suggest that PTP1B promotes the association of p120 to the N-cadherin precursor, facilitating the trafficking of the complex from the ER to the Golgi complex.

The emerging importance of group II PAKs

The Rho-family GTPases Rho Rac and Cdc42 regulate many intracellular processes through their interaction with downstream effector proteins. The PAKs (p21-activated kinases) are a family of effector proteins for Rac and Cdc42. PAKs are important regulators of actin cytoskeletal dynamics, neurite outgrowth, cell survival, hormone signalling and gene transcription. There are six mammalian PAKs that can be divided into two groups: group I PAKs (PAK1-3) and group II PAKs (PAK4-6). Although the two PAK groups are architecturally similar, there are differences in their mode of regulation, suggesting that their cellular functions are likely to be different. Whereas much is known about group I PAKs, less is known about the more recently discovered PAK4, PAK5 and PAK6. This review will focus on the latest structural and functional results relating to the group II PAKs and discuss the emerging importance of group II PAKs in disease progression.

Novel role of NADPH oxidase in angiogenesis and stem/progenitor cell function

Neovascularization is involved in normal development and wound repair as well as ischemic heart disease and peripheral artery disease. Both angiogenesis and vasculogenesis [de novo new vessel formation through mobilization of stem/progenitor cells from bone marrow (BM) and their homing to the ischemic sites] contribute to the formation of new blood vessels after tissue ischemia. Angiogenesis is dependent on cell proliferation, migration, and capillary tube formation in endothelial cells (ECs). Stem/progenitor cells have been used for cell-based therapy to promote revascularization after peripheral or myocardial ischemia. Excess amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in senescence and apoptosis of ECs and stem/progenitor cells, causing defective neovascularization. ROS at low levels function as signaling molecules to mediate cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, and gene expression. NADPH oxidase is one of the major sources of ROS in ECs and stem/progenitor cells, and is activated by various growth factors, cytokines, hypoxia, and ischemia. ROS derived from NADPH oxidase play an important role in redox signaling linked to angiogenesis ECs, as well as stem/progenitor cell mobilization, homing, and differentiation, thereby promoting neovascularization. Understanding these mechanisms may provide insight into NADPH oxidase and its mediators as potential therapeutic targets for ischemic heart and limb disease.

Differentiation-dependent PTPIP51 expression in human skeletal muscle cell culture

Protein tyrosine phosphatase-interacting protein 51 (PTPIP51) expression was analyzed in proliferating and differentiating human myogenic cells cultured in vitro. Satellite cell cultures derived from four different individuals were used in this study. To analyze the expression of PTPIP51, myoblasts were cultured under conditions promoting either proliferation or differentiation. In addition, further differentiation of already-differentiated myobtubes was inhibited by resubmitting the cells to conditions promoting proliferation. PTPIP51 protein and mRNA were investigated in samples taken at defined time intervals by immunostaining, immunoblotting, in situ hybridization, and PCR. Image analyses of fluorescence immunostainings were used to quantify PTPIP51 in cultured myoblasts and myotubes. Myoblasts grown in the presence of epidermal and fibroblast growth factors (EGF and FGF), both promoting proliferation, expressed PTPIP51 on a basic level. Differentiation to multinuclear myotubes displayed a linear increase in PTPIP51 expression. The rise in PTPIP51 protein was paralleled by an augmented expression of muscle-specific proteins, namely, sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) ATPase and myosin heavy-chain protein, both linked to a progressive state of myotubal differentiation. This differentiation-induced increase in PTPIP51 was partly reversible by resubmission of differentiated myotubes to conditions boosting proliferation. The results clearly point toward a strong association between PTPIP51 expression and differentiation in human muscle cells.

Chronic insulin treatment suppresses PTP1B function, induces increased PDGF signaling, and amplifies neointima formation in the balloon-injured rat artery

We tested the hypothesis that hyperinsulinemia induces the suppression of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) function, leading to enhanced PDGF receptor (PDGFR) signaling and neointimal hyperplasia. Rats were implanted with insulin-releasing pellets or sham pellets. Blood glucose levels, insulin levels, food and water intake, body weights, and blood pressures were measured. Neointimal hyperplasia was assessed by computerized morphometry 14 days after carotid balloon injury. PTP1B protein expression in injured arteries was determined via Western blot analysis, whereas PTP1B activity was determined via an immunophosphatase assay. Serum insulin levels were two- to threefold greater in hyperinsulinemic rats, whereas systolic blood pressures, food and water intake, serum triglyceride levels, plasma cortisol levels, and urinary catecholamine levels were not affected. Fourteen days after injury, neointima-to-media area ratios were 0.89 +/- 0.23 and 1.35 +/- 0.22 in control and hyperinsulinemic rats, respectively (P < 0.01). PTP1B protein levels and total PTP1B activity in injured carotid arteries from the insulin-treated group were significantly decreased 7 or 14 days after injury, whereas PTP1B specific activity was decreased only 14 days after injury. These findings were associated with decreased PTP1B mRNA levels and increased PDGFR tyrosyl phosphorylation in insulin-treated rats. These observations support the hypothesis that hyperinsulinemia induces the suppression of PTP1B function, leading to enhanced PDGFR signaling and neointimal hyperplasia.

Association of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs)-1B with c-Met receptor and modulation of corneal epithelial wound healing

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression and activity of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) in epithelium during corneal wound healing and to investigate how PTPs regulate activation of the c-Met receptor and the receptor's proximal signaling.

METHODS

Rabbit corneas were injured by gentle scraping of the surface, leaving the limbal epithelium intact, and epithelium was collected at 1, 2, 3, and 7 days after injury. In organ culture models, epithelium was removed and corneas were incubated with hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), with or without the PTP inhibitor bpV(phen), and the PI-3K inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002. Human corneal epithelial (HCE) cells were stimulated with HGF with or without bpV(phen). Total cell lysates and cytosolic and membrane fractions were analyzed by Western blot. PTP activities were measured with specific substrates. PTP1B and SHP-2 genes were knocked down by interference RNA (siRNA).

RESULTS

PTP activity and expression increased during wound healing. The most abundant were SHP-2, PTP1B, and PTEN. HGF activated the c-Met receptor in HCE cells up to 30 minutes and was downregulated by 2 hours. Inhibition of PTPs increased HGF-promoted wound healing, HGF-activated phosphorylation of c-Met, and its downstream signal PI-3K/Akt, but not ERK1/2 or p70S6K. PTP1B and SHP-2 were bound to the c-Met. Part of the c-Met was colocalized in the endoplasmic reticulum with PTP1B. PTP1B phosphorylation increased when the c-Met receptor was deactivated, and gene knockdown of PTP1B increased c-Met activation. SHP-2 phosphorylation and binding to c-Met was higher during receptor activation, and SHP-2 gene silencing decreased receptor phosphorylation.

CONCLUSIONS

Inhibition of PTP activity mimics the effect of HGF by activating the PI-3K/Akt signal involved in wound healing. PTP1B and SHP-2 are bound to the c-Met receptor to control its activity. Although the binding of PTP1B increases when there is a decrease in c-Met activation and acts as a negative regulator of the receptor, the increased binding and phosphorylation of SHP-2 coincide with maximal stimulation of c-Met, acting as a positive regulator.

Resveratrol inhibits PDGF receptor mitogenic signaling in mesangial cells: role of PTP1B

Mesangioproliferative glomerulonephritis is associated with overactive PDGF receptor signal transduction. We show that the phytoalexin resveratrol dose dependently inhibits PDGF-induced DNA synthesis in mesangial cells with an IC(50) of 10 microM without inducing apoptosis. Remarkably, the increased SIRT1 deacetylase activity induced by resveratrol was not necessary for this inhibitory effect. Resveratrol significantly blocked PDGF-stimulated c-Src and Akt kinase activation, resulting in reduced cyclin D1 expression and attenuated pRb phosphorylation and cyclin-dependent kinase-2 (CDK2) activity. Furthermore, resveratrol inhibited PDGFR phosphorylation at the PI 3 kinase and Grb-2 binding sites tyrosine-751 and tyrosine-716, respectively. This deficiency in PDGFR phosphorylation resulted in significant inhibition of PI 3 kinase and Erk1/2 MAPK activity. Interestingly, resveratrol increased the activity of protein tyrosine phosphatase PTP1B, which dephosphorylates PDGF-stimulated phosphorylation at tyrosine-751 and tyrosine-716 on PDGFR with concomitant reduction in Akt and Erk1/2 kinase activity. PTP1B significantly inhibited PDGF-induced DNA synthesis without inducing apoptosis. These results for the first time provide evidence that the stilbene resveratrol targets PTP1B to inhibit PDGFR mitogenic signaling.

Chronic insulin treatment amplifies PDGF-induced motility in differentiated aortic smooth muscle cells by suppressing the expression and function of PTP1B

Hyperinsulinemia plays a major role in the pathogenesis of vascular disease. Restenosis occurs at an accelerated rate in hyperinsulinemia and is dependent on increased vascular smooth muscle cell movement from media to neointima. PDGF plays a critical role in mediating neointima formation in models of vascular injury. We have reported that PDGF increases the levels of protein tyrosine phosphatase PTP1B and that PTP1B suppresses PDGF-induced motility in cultured cells and that it attenuates neointima formation in injured carotid arteries. Others have reported that insulin enhances the mitogenic and motogenic effects of PDGF in cultured smooth muscle cells and that hyperinsulinemia promotes vascular remodeling. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that insulin amplifies PDGF-induced cell motility by suppressing the expression and function of PTP1B. We found that chronic but not acute treatment of cells with insulin enhances PDGF-induced motility in differentiated cultured primary rat aortic smooth muscle cells and that it suppresses PDGF-induced upregulation of PTP1B protein. Moreover, insulin suppresses PDGF-induced upregulation of PTP1B mRNA levels, PTP1B enzyme activity, and binding of PTP1B to the PDGF receptor-beta, and it enhances PDGF-induced PDGF receptor phosphotyrosylation. Treatment with insulin induces time-dependent upregulation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase)-delta and activation of Akt, an enzyme downstream of PI3-kinase. Finally, inhibition of PI3-kinase activity, or its function, by pharmacological or genetic means rescues PTP1B activity in insulin-treated cells. These observations uncover novel mechanisms that explain how insulin amplifies the motogenic capacity of the pivotal growth factor PDGF.

Role of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B in vascular endothelial growth factor signaling and cell-cell adhesions in endothelial cells

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) binding induces phosphorylation of VEGF receptor (VEGFR)2 in tyrosine, which is followed by disruption of VE-cadherin-mediated cell-cell contacts of endothelial cells (ECs), thereby stimulating EC proliferation and migration to promote angiogenesis. Tyrosine phosphorylation events are controlled by the balance of activation of protein tyrosine kinases and protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Little is known about the role of endogenous PTPs in VEGF signaling in ECs. In this study, we found that PTP1B expression and activity are markedly increased in mice hindlimb ischemia model of angiogenesis. In ECs, overexpression of PTP1B, but not catalytically inactive mutant PTP1B-C/S, inhibits VEGF-induced phosphorylation of VEGFR2 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, as well as EC proliferation, whereas knockdown of PTP1B by small interfering RNA enhances these responses, suggesting that PTP1B negatively regulates VEGFR2 signaling in ECs. VEGF-induced p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation and EC migration are not affected by PTP1B overexpression or knockdown. In vivo dephosphorylation and cotransfection assays reveal that PTP1B binds to VEGFR2 cytoplasmic domain in vivo and directly dephosphorylates activated VEGFR2 immunoprecipitates from human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Overexpression of PTP1B stabilizes VE-cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesions by reducing VE-cadherin tyrosine phosphorylation, whereas PTP1B small interfering RNA causes opposite effects with increasing endothelial permeability, as measured by transendothelial electric resistance. In summary, PTP1B negatively regulates VEGFR2 receptor activation via binding to the VEGFR2, as well as stabilizes cell-cell adhesions through reducing tyrosine phosphorylation of VE-cadherin. Induction of PTP1B by hindlimb ischemia may represent an important counterregulatory mechanism that blunts overactivation of VEGFR2 during angiogenesis in vivo.

Dynamic changes in the expression of DEP-1 and other PDGF receptor-antagonizing PTPs during onset and termination of neointima formation

Growth factor-dependent tissue remodeling, such as restenosis, is believed to be predominantly regulated by changes in expression of receptor-tyrosine-kinases (RTKs) and their ligands. As endogenous antagonists of RTKs, protein-tyrosine-phosphatases (PTPs) are additional candidate regulators of these processes. Using laser-capture-microdissection and quantitative RT-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), we investigated the layer-specific expression of the four platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) isoforms, the PDGF-alpha and beta receptors, and five PTPs implied in control of PDGF-receptor signaling 8 and 14 days after balloon injury of the rat carotid. Results were correlated with analyses of PDGF-beta receptor phosphorylation and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation in vivo. The expression levels of all components, as well as receptor activation and VSMC proliferation, showed specific changes, which varied between media and neointima. Interestingly, PTP expression--particularly, DEP-1 levels--appeared to be the dominating factor determining receptor-phosphorylation and VSMC proliferation. In support of these findings, cultured DEP-1(-/-) cells displayed increased PDGF-dependent cell signaling. Hyperactivation of PDGF-induced signaling was also observed after siRNA-down-regulation of DEP-1 in VSMCs. The results indicate a previously unrecognized role of PDGF-receptor-targeting PTPs in controlling neointima formation. In more general terms, the observations indicate transcriptional regulation of PTPs as an important mechanism for controlling onset and termination of RTK-dependent tissue remodeling.

Antioxidants relieve phosphatase inhibition and reduce PDGF signaling in cultured VSMCs and in restenosis

OBJECTIVE

Growth factor- and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced activation of VSMCs is involved in vascular disease. This study investigates whether inhibitory oxidation of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) contributes to signaling in VSMCs in vitro and in vivo, and analyzes whether ROS- and growth factor-dependent vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) signaling is blunted by antioxidants that are able to activate oxidized PTPs.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Signaling induced by H2O2 and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) was analyzed in VSMCs with or without the antioxidants N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) and tempol. Effects of antioxidants on PDGF-stimulated chemotaxis and proliferation were determined. In vivo effects of antioxidants were analyzed in the rat carotid balloon-injury model, by analyzing neointima formation, cell proliferation, PDGF beta-receptor status, and PTP expression and activity. NAC treatment prevented H2O2-induced PTP inhibition, and reduced H2O2- and ligand-induced PDGF beta-receptor phosphorylation, PDGF-induced proliferation, and chemotaxis of VSMCs. Antioxidants inhibited neointima formation and reduced PDGF receptor phosphorylation in the neointima and also increased PTP activity.

CONCLUSIONS

PTP-inhibition was identified as an intrinsic component of H2O2- and PDGF-induced signaling in cultured VSMCs. The reduction in PDGF beta-receptor phosphorylation in vivo, and the increase in PTP activity, by antioxidants indicate activation of oxidized PTPs as a previously unrecognized mechanism for the antirestenotic effects of antioxidants. The findings thus suggest, in general terms, reactivation of oxidized PTPs as a novel antirestenotic strategy.