FIP200 is required for the cell-autonomous maintenance of fetal hematopoietic stem cells

The Inflamed Bone Marrow Scenery Amongst the Symplegades of Ageing and Diseases

Upon inflammation, the bone marrow (BM) landscape undergoes significant architectural and functional modifications. Stimulation of the hematopoietic niche triggers a series of lightning events, which begin with stem/progenitor blood elements mobilization and culminates with the activation of immune responses. Ageing partially mirrors this process, albeit with a propensity towards chronic inflammation and immune dysfunction. Age-related chronic inflammation disrupts bone homeostasis and accompanies impaired tissue regeneration. Thus, focusing on the bone marrow's dynamics during inflammatory bone diseases could lay the way for the development of novel therapeutic platforms aimed at niche reprogramming. Herein, we summarize inflammatory and age-induced processes in multiple BM compartments, with particular reference to hematopoietic, stromal stem/progenitor cells, and mature immunocytes. Finally, we focus on autophagy and its potential to clinically re-modulate the pathological "flogistic" bias, possibly by restoring functional phenotypes within the bone marrow niche elements.

Current Understanding of the Role of Autophagy in the Treatment of Myeloid Leukemia

The most important issues in acute myeloid leukemia are preventing relapse and treating relapse. Although the remission rate has improved to approximately 80%, the 5-year survival rate is only around 30%. The main reasons for this are the high relapse rate and the limited treatment options. In chronic myeloid leukemia patients, when a deep molecular response is achieved for a certain period of time through tyrosine kinase inhibitor treatment, about half of them will reach treatment-free remission, but relapse is still a problem. Therefore, potential therapeutic targets for myeloid leukemias are eagerly awaited. Autophagy suppresses the development of cancer by maintaining cellular homeostasis; however, it also promotes cancer progression by helping cancer cells survive under various metabolic stresses. In addition, autophagy is promoted or suppressed in cancer cells by various genetic mutations. Therefore, the development of therapies that target autophagy is also being actively researched in the field of leukemia. In this review, studies of the role of autophagy in hematopoiesis, leukemogenesis, and myeloid leukemias are presented, and the impact of autophagy regulation on leukemia treatment and the clinical trials of autophagy-related drugs to date is discussed.

Understanding the molecular regulatory mechanisms of autophagy in lung disease pathogenesis

Lung disease development involves multiple cellular processes, including inflammation, cell death, and proliferation. Research increasingly indicates that autophagy and its regulatory proteins can influence inflammation, programmed cell death, cell proliferation, and innate immune responses. Autophagy plays a vital role in the maintenance of homeostasis and the adaptation of eukaryotic cells to stress by enabling the chelation, transport, and degradation of subcellular components, including proteins and organelles. This process is essential for sustaining cellular balance and ensuring the health of the mitochondrial population. Recent studies have begun to explore the connection between autophagy and the development of different lung diseases. This article reviews the latest findings on the molecular regulatory mechanisms of autophagy in lung diseases, with an emphasis on potential targeted therapies for autophagy.

Bnip3lb-driven mitophagy sustains expansion of the embryonic hematopoietic stem cell pool

Embryonic hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) have the unique ability to undergo rapid proliferation while maintaining multipotency, a clinically-valuable quality which currently cannot be replicated in vitro. Here, we show that embryonic HSPCs achieve this state by precise spatio-temporal regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) via Bnip3lb-associated developmentally-programmed mitophagy, a distinct autophagic regulatory mechanism from that of adult HSPCs. While ROS drives HSPC specification in the dorsal aorta, scRNAseq and live-imaging of Tg(ubi:mitoQC) zebrafish indicate that mitophagy initiates as HSPCs undergo endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition and colonize the caudal hematopoietic tissue (CHT). Knockdown of bnip3lb reduced mitophagy and HSPC numbers in the CHT by promoting myeloid-biased differentiation and apoptosis, which was rescued by anti-oxidant exposure. Conversely, induction of mitophagy enhanced both embryonic HSPC and lymphoid progenitor numbers. Significantly, mitophagy activation improved ex vivo functional capacity of hematopoietic progenitors derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs), enhancing serial-replating hematopoietic colony forming potential.

HIGHLIGHTS

ROS promotes HSPC formation in the dorsal aorta but negatively affects maintenance thereafter.HSPCs colonizing secondary niches control ROS levels via Bnip3lb-directed mitophagy.Mitophagy protects nascent HSPCs from ROS-associated apoptosis and maintains multipotency.Induction of mitophagy enhances long-term hematopoietic potential of iPSC-derived HSPCs.

Enhancing Therapeutic Efficacy in Cancer Treatment: Integrating Nanomedicine with Autophagy Inhibition Strategies

The complicated stepwise lysosomal degradation process known as autophagy is in charge of destroying and eliminating damaged organelles and defective cytoplasmic components. This mechanism promotes metabolic adaptability and nutrition recycling. Autophagy functions as a quality control mechanism in cells that support homeostasis and redox balance under normal circumstances. However, the role of autophagy in cancer is controversial because, mostly depending on the stage of the tumor, it may either suppress or support the disease. While autophagy delays the onset of tumors and slows the dissemination of cancer in the early stages of tumorigenesis, numerous studies demonstrate that autophagy promotes the development and spread of tumors as well as the evolution and development of resistance to several anticancer drugs in advanced cancer stages. In this Review, we primarily emphasize the therapeutic role of autophagy inhibition in improving the treatment of multiple cancers and give a broad overview of how its inhibition modulates cancer responses. There have been various attempts to inhibit autophagy, including the use of autophagy inhibitor drugs, gene silencing therapy (RNA interference), and nanoparticles. In this Review, all these topics are thoroughly covered and illustrated by recent studies and field investigations.

Autophagy prevents graft failure during murine graft-versus-host disease

ABSTRACT

Autophagy is an intracellular survival process that has established roles in the long-term survival and function of hematopoietic stem cells (HSC). We investigated the contribution of autophagy to HSC fitness during allogeneic transplantation and graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). We demonstrate in vitro that both tumor necrosis factor and IL-1β, major components of GVHD cytokine storm, synergistically promote autophagy in both HSC and their more mature hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPC). In vivo we demonstrate that autophagy is increased in donor HSC and HPC during GVHD. Competitive transplant experiments demonstrated that autophagy-deficient cells display reduced capacity to reconstitute the hematopoietic system compared to wild-type counterparts. In a major histocompatibility complex-mismatched model of GVHD and associated cytokine dysregulation, we demonstrate that autophagy-deficient HSC and progenitors fail to establish durable hematopoiesis, leading to primary graft failure and universal transplant related mortality. Using several different models, we confirm that autophagy activity is increased in early progenitor and HSC populations in the presence of T-cell-derived inflammatory cytokines and that these HSC populations require autophagy to survive. Thus, autophagy serves as a key survival mechanism in HSC and progenitor populations after allogeneic stem cell transplant and may represent a therapeutic target to prevent graft failure during GVHD.

Distinct roles of core autophagy-related genes in zebrafish definitive hematopoiesis

Despite the well-described discrepancy between ATG (macroautophagy/autophagy-related) genes in the regulation of hematopoiesis, varying essentiality of core ATG proteins in vertebrate definitive hematopoiesis remains largely unclear. Here, we employed zebrafish (Danio rerio) to compare the functions of six core atg genes, including atg13, becn1 (beclin1), atg9a, atg2a, atg5, and atg3, in vertebrate definitive hematopoiesis via clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9 ribonucleoprotein and morpholino targeting. Zebrafish with various atg mutations showed autophagic deficiency and presented partially consistent hematopoietic abnormalities during early development. All six atg mutations led to a declined number of spi1b+ (Spi-1 proto-oncogene b) myeloid progenitor cells. However, only becn1 mutation resulted in the expansion of myb+ (v-myb avian myeloblastosis viral oncogene homolog) hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) and transiently increased coro1a+ (coronin, actin binding protein, 1A) leukocytes, whereas atg3 mutation decreased the number of HSPCs and leukocytes. Proteomic analysis of caudal hematopoietic tissue identified sin3aa (SIN3 transcription regulator family member Aa) as a potential modulator of atg13- and becn1-regulated definitive hematopoiesis. Disruption of sin3aa rescued the expansion of HSPCs and leukocytes in becn1 mutants and exacerbated the decrease of HSPCs in atg13 mutants. Double mutations were also performed to examine alternative functions of various atg genes in definitive hematopoiesis. Notably, becn1 mutation failed to induce HSPCs expansion with one of the other five atg mutations. These findings demonstrated the distinct roles of atg genes and their interplays in zebrafish definitive hematopoiesis, thereby suggesting that the vertebrate definitive hematopoiesis is regulated in an atg gene-dependent manner.Abbreviations: AGM: aorta-gonad-mesonephros; AO: acridine orange; atg: autophagy related; becn1: beclin 1, autophagy related; CHT: caudal hematopoietic tissue; CKO: conditional knockout; coro1a: coronin, actin binding protein, 1A; CQ: chloroquine; CRISPR: clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats; dpf: days post fertilization; FACS: fluorescence-activated cell sorting; hbae1.1: hemoglobin, alpha embryonic 1.1; HSCs: hematopoietic stem cells; HSPCs: hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells; KD: knockdown; KO: knockout; map1lc3/lc3: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3; MO: morpholino; mpeg1.1: macrophage expressed 1, tandem duplicate 1; mpx: myeloid-specific peroxidase; myb: v-myb avian myeloblastosis viral oncogene homolog; PE: phosphatidylethanolamine; p-H3: phospho-H3 histone; PtdIns3K: class 3 phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; rag1: recombination activating 1; rb1cc1/fip200: RB1-inducible coiled-coil 1; RFLP: restriction fragment length polymorphism; RNP: ribonucleoprotein; sin3aa: SIN3 transcription regulator family member Aa; spi1b: Spi-1 proto-oncogene b; ulk: unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase; vtg1: vitellogenin 1; WISH: whole-mount in situ hybridization.

Fetal liver macrophages contribute to the hematopoietic stem cell niche by controlling granulopoiesis

During embryogenesis, the fetal liver becomes the main hematopoietic organ, where stem and progenitor cells as well as immature and mature immune cells form an intricate cellular network. Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) reside in a specialized niche, which is essential for their proliferation and differentiation. However, the cellular and molecular determinants contributing to this fetal HSC niche remain largely unknown. Macrophages are the first differentiated hematopoietic cells found in the developing liver, where they are important for fetal erythropoiesis by promoting erythrocyte maturation and phagocytosing expelled nuclei. Yet, whether macrophages play a role in fetal hematopoiesis beyond serving as a niche for maturing erythroblasts remains elusive. Here, we investigate the heterogeneity of macrophage populations in the murine fetal liver to define their specific roles during hematopoiesis. Using a single-cell omics approach combined with spatial proteomics and genetic fate-mapping models, we found that fetal liver macrophages cluster into distinct yolk sac-derived subpopulations and that long-term HSCs are interacting preferentially with one of the macrophage subpopulations. Fetal livers lacking macrophages show a delay in erythropoiesis and have an increased number of granulocytes, which can be attributed to transcriptional reprogramming and altered differentiation potential of long-term HSCs. Together, our data provide a detailed map of fetal liver macrophage subpopulations and implicate macrophages as part of the fetal HSC niche.

Autophagy regulates the maturation of hematopoietic precursors in the embryo

An understanding of the mechanisms regulating embryonic hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) development would facilitate their regeneration. The aorta-gonad-mesonephros region is the site for HSC production from hemogenic endothelial cells (HEC). While several distinct regulators are involved in this process, it is not yet known whether macroautophagy (autophagy) plays a role in hematopoiesis in the pre-liver stage. Here, we show that different states of autophagy exist in hematopoietic precursors and correlate with hematopoietic potential based on the LC3-RFP-EGFP mouse model. Deficiency of autophagy-related gene 5 (Atg5) specifically in endothelial cells disrupts endothelial to hematopoietic transition (EHT), by blocking the autophagic process. Using combined approaches, including single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq), we have confirmed that Atg5 deletion interrupts developmental temporal order of EHT to further affect the pre-HSC I maturation, and that autophagy influences hemogenic potential of HEC and the formation of pre-HSC I likely via the nucleolin pathway. These findings demonstrate a role for autophagy in the formation/maturation of hematopoietic precursors.

The Function of Autophagy in the Initiation, and Development of Breast Cancer

Autophagy is a significant catabolic procedure that increases in stressful conditions. This mechanism is mostly triggered after damage to the organelles, the presence of unnatural proteins, and nutrient recycling in reaction to these stresses. One of the key points in this article is that cleaning and preserving damaged organelles and accumulated molecules through autophagy in normal cells helps prevent cancer. Since dysfunction of autophagy is associated with various diseases, including cancer, it has a dual function in tumor suppression and expansion. It has newly become clear that the regulation of autophagy can be used for the treatment of breast cancer, which has a promising effect of increasing the efficiency of anticancer treatment in a tissue- and cell-type-specific manner by affecting the fundamental molecular mechanisms. Regulation of autophagy and its function in tumorigenesis is a vital part of modern anticancer techniques. This study discusses the current advances related to the mechanisms that describe essential modulators of autophagy involved in the metastasis of cancers and the development of new breast cancer treatments.

Loss of α-1,2-mannosidase MAN1C1 promotes tumorigenesis of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma through enhancing CD133-FIP200 interaction

CD133 is widely used as a marker to isolate tumor-initiating cells in many types of cancers. The structure of N-glycan on CD133 is altered during the differentiation of tumor-initiating cells. However, the relationship between CD133 N-glycosylation and stem cell characteristics remains elusive. Here, we found that the level of α-1,2-mannosylated CD133 was associated with the level of stemness genes in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA) tissues. α-1,2-mannosylated CD133+ cells possessed the characteristics of tumor-initiating cells. The loss of the Golgi α-mannosidase I coding gene MAN1C1 resulted in the formation of α-1,2-mannosylated CD133 in iCCA-initiating cells. Mechanistically, α-1,2-mannosylation promoted the cytoplasmic distribution of CD133 and enhanced the interaction between CD133 and the autophagy gene FIP200, subsequently promoting the tumorigenesis of α-1,2-mannosylated CD133+ cells. Analysis of iCCA samples showed that the level of cytoplasmic CD133 was associated with poor iCCA prognosis. Collectively, α-1,2-mannosylated CD133 is a functional marker of iCCA-initiating cells.

Haematopoietic development and HSC formation in vitro: promise and limitations of gastruloid models

Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are the most extensively studied adult stem cells. Yet, six decades after their first description, reproducible and translatable generation of HSC in vitro remains an unmet challenge. HSC production in vitro is confounded by the multi-stage nature of blood production during development. Specification of HSC is a late event in embryonic blood production and depends on physical and chemical cues which remain incompletely characterised. The precise molecular composition of the HSC themselves is incompletely understood, limiting approaches to track their origin in situ in the appropriate cellular, chemical and mechanical context. Embryonic material at the point of HSC emergence is limiting, highlighting the need for an in vitro model of embryonic haematopoietic development in which current knowledge gaps can be addressed and exploited to enable HSC production. Gastruloids are pluripotent stem cell-derived 3-dimensional (3D) cellular aggregates which recapitulate developmental events in gastrulation and early organogenesis with spatial and temporal precision. Gastruloids self-organise multi-tissue structures upon minimal and controlled external cues, and are amenable to live imaging, screening, scaling and physicochemical manipulation to understand and translate tissue formation. In this review, we consider the haematopoietic potential of gastruloids and review early strategies to enhance blood progenitor and HSC production. We highlight possible strategies to achieve HSC production from gastruloids, and discuss the potential of gastruloid systems in illuminating current knowledge gaps in HSC specification.

Always stressed but never exhausted: how stem cells in myeloid neoplasms avoid extinction in inflammatory conditions

Chronic or recurrent episodes of acute inflammation cause attrition of normal hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) that can lead to hematopoietic failure but they drive progression in myeloid malignancies and their precursor clonal hematopoiesis. Mechanistic parallels exist between hematopoiesis in chronic inflammation and the continuously increased proliferation of myeloid malignancies, particularly myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). The ability to enter dormancy, a state of deep quiescence characterized by low oxidative phosphorylation, low glycolysis, reduced protein synthesis, and increased autophagy is central to the preservation of long-term HSCs and likely MPN SCs. The metabolic features of dormancy resemble those of diapause, a state of arrested embryonic development triggered by adverse environmental conditions. To outcompete their normal counterparts in the inflammatory MPN environment, MPN SCs co-opt mechanisms used by HSCs to avoid exhaustion, including signal attenuation by negative regulators, insulation from activating cytokine signals, anti-inflammatory signaling, and epigenetic reprogramming. We propose that new therapeutic strategies may be derived from conceptualizing myeloid malignancies as an ecosystem out of balance, in which residual normal and malignant hematopoietic cells interact in multiple ways, only few of which have been characterized in detail. Disrupting MPN SC insulation to overcome dormancy, interfering with aberrant cytokine circuits that favor MPN cells, and directly boosting residual normal HSCs are potential strategies to tip the balance in favor of normal hematopoiesis. Although eradicating the malignant cell clones remains the goal of therapy, rebalancing the ecosystem may be a more attainable objective in the short term.

Advances in Understanding the Links between Metabolism and Autophagy in Acute Myeloid Leukemia: From Biology to Therapeutic Targeting

Autophagy is a highly conserved cellular degradation process that regulates cellular metabolism and homeostasis under normal and pathophysiological conditions. Autophagy and metabolism are linked in the hematopoietic system, playing a fundamental role in the self-renewal, survival, and differentiation of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, and in cell death, particularly affecting the cellular fate of the hematopoietic stem cell pool. In leukemia, autophagy sustains leukemic cell growth, contributes to survival of leukemic stem cells and chemotherapy resistance. The high frequency of disease relapse caused by relapse-initiating leukemic cells resistant to therapy occurs in acute myeloid leukemia (AML), and depends on the AML subtypes and treatments used. Targeting autophagy may represent a promising strategy to overcome therapeutic resistance in AML, for which prognosis remains poor. In this review, we illustrate the role of autophagy and the impact of its deregulation on the metabolism of normal and leukemic hematopoietic cells. We report updates on the contribution of autophagy to AML development and relapse, and the latest evidence indicating autophagy-related genes as potential prognostic predictors and drivers of AML. We review the recent advances in autophagy manipulation, combined with various anti-leukemia therapies, for an effective autophagy-targeted therapy for AML.

Regulation of RB1CC1/FIP200 stability and autophagy function by CREBBP-mediated acetylation in an intrinsically disordered region

RB1CC1/FIP200 is an essential macroautophagy/autophagy protein that plays an important role in a variety of biological and disease processes through its canonical autophagy-dependent and -independent functions. However, it remains largely unknown whether post-translational modifications could regulate RB1CC1 and its associated autophagy functions. Here, we report acetylation of several lysine residues of RB1CC1 by acetyltransferase CREBBP (CREB binding protein), with K276 as the major CREBBP acetylation site. K276 is also identified as a ubiquitination site by mass spectrometry, and acetylation at this site reduces ubiquitination of RB1CC1 to inhibit its ubiquitin-dependent degradation. We also find that RB1CC1 contains an N-terminal intrinsically disordered region (IDR) capable of forming liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) in vitro, which may drive formation of RB1CC1 puncta with LLPS properties in cells independent of SQSTM1/p62 and other autophagy receptors CALCOCO2/NDP52, NBR1, TAX1BP1 and OPTN. Mutational analysis shows that both K276 acetylation and the N-terminal IDR containing it are important for maintaining canonical autophagy function of RB1CC1 in breast cancer cells. Our findings demonstrate regulation of RB1CC1 by a new post-translational mechanism and suggest potential therapeutic application of inducing RB1CC1 degradation through blocking K276 acetylation in the treatment of cancer and other diseases.Abbreviations: Baf-A1: bafilomycin A1; CREBBP/CBP: CREB binding protein; CHX: cycloheximide; EP300/p300: E1A binding protein p300; FRAP: fluorescence recovery after photobleaching; HADCs: histone deacetylases; IDR: intrinsically disordered region; LLPS: liquid-liquid phase separation; KAT2A/GCN5: lysine acetyltransferase 2A; KAT2B/PCAF: lysine acetyltransferase 2B; KAT5/TIP60: lysine acetyltransferase 5; KAT8/MOF: lysine acetyltransferase 8; NAM: nicotinamide; PAS: phagophore assembly site; PEG-8000: polyethylene glycol 8000; RB1CC1/FIP200: RB1 inducible coiled-coil 1; TSA: trichostatin A.

Hematopoietic stem cells preferentially traffic misfolded proteins to aggresomes and depend on aggrephagy to maintain protein homeostasis

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) regenerate blood cells throughout life. To preserve their fitness, HSCs are particularly dependent on maintaining protein homeostasis (proteostasis). However, how HSCs purge misfolded proteins is unknown. Here, we show that in contrast to most cells that primarily utilize the proteasome to degrade misfolded proteins, HSCs preferentially traffic misfolded proteins to aggresomes in a Bag3-dependent manner and depend on aggrephagy, a selective form of autophagy, to maintain proteostasis in vivo. When autophagy is disabled, HSCs compensate by increasing proteasome activity, but proteostasis is ultimately disrupted as protein aggregates accumulate and HSC function is impaired. Bag3-deficiency blunts aggresome formation in HSCs, resulting in protein aggregate accumulation, myeloid-biased differentiation, and diminished self-renewal activity. Furthermore, HSC aging is associated with a severe loss of aggresomes and reduced autophagic flux. Protein degradation pathways are thus specifically configured in young adult HSCs to preserve proteostasis and fitness but become dysregulated during aging.

Autophagy inhibition prevents lymphatic malformation progression to lymphangiosarcoma by decreasing osteopontin and Stat3 signaling

Lymphatic malformation (LM) is a vascular anomaly originating from lymphatic endothelial cells (ECs). While it mostly remains a benign disease, a fraction of LM patients progresses to malignant lymphangiosarcoma (LAS). However, very little is known about underlying mechanisms regulating LM malignant transformation to LAS. Here, we investigate the role of autophagy in LAS development by generating EC-specific conditional knockout of an essential autophagy gene Rb1cc1/FIP200 in Tsc1^iΔEC mouse model for human LAS. We find that Fip200 deletion blocked LM progression to LAS without affecting LM development. We further show that inhibiting autophagy by genetical ablation of FIP200, Atg5 or Atg7, significantly inhibited LAS tumor cell proliferation in vitro and tumorigenicity in vivo. Transcriptional profiling of autophagy-deficient tumor cells and additional mechanistic analysis determine that autophagy plays a role in regulating Osteopontin expression and its down-stream Jak/Stat3 signaling in tumor cell proliferation and tumorigenicity. Lastly, we show that specifically disrupting FIP200 canonical autophagy function by knocking-in FIP200-4A mutant allele in Tsc1^iΔEC mice blocked LM progression to LAS. These results demonstrate a role for autophagy in LAS development, suggesting new strategies for preventing and treating LAS.

Autophagy: A challengeable paradox in cancer treatment

OBJECTIVE

Autophagy is an intracellular degradation pathway conserved in all eukaryotes from yeast to humans. This process plays a quality-control role by destroying harmful cellular components under normal conditions, maintaining cell survival, and establishing cellular adaptation under stressful conditions. Hence, there are various studies indicating dysfunctional autophagy as a factor involved in the development and progression of various human diseases, including cancer. In addition, the importance of autophagy in the development of cancer has been highlighted by paradoxical roles, as a cytoprotective and cytotoxic mechanism. Despite extensive research in the field of cancer, there are many questions and challenges about the roles and effects suggested for autophagy in cancer treatment. The aim of this study was to provide an overview of the paradoxical roles of autophagy in different tumors and related cancer treatment options.

METHODS

In this study, to find articles, a search was made in PubMed and Google scholar databases with the keywords Autophagy, Autophagy in Cancer Management, and Drug Design.

RESULTS

According to the investigation, some studies suggest that several advanced cancers are dependent on autophagy for cell survival, so when cancer cells are exposed to therapy, autophagy is induced and suppresses the anti-cancer effects of therapeutic agents and also results in cell resistance. However, enhanced autophagy from using anti-cancer drugs causes autophagy-mediated cell death in several cancers. Because autophagy also plays roles in both tumor suppression and promotion further research is needed to determine the precise mechanism of this process in cancer treatment.

CONCLUSION

We concluded in this article, autophagy manipulation may either promote or hinder the growth and development of cancer according to the origin of the cancer cells, the type of cancer, and the behavior of the cancer cells exposed to treatment. Thus, before starting treatment it is necessary to determine the basal levels of autophagy in various cancers.

Autophagy Is Essential for Neural Stem Cell Proliferation Promoted by Hypoxia

Hypoxia as a microenvironment or niche stimulates proliferation of neural stem cells (NSCs). However, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Autophagy is a protective mechanism by which recycled cellular components and energy are rapidly supplied to the cell under stress. Whether autophagy mediates the proliferation of NSCs under hypoxia and how hypoxia induces autophagy remain unclear. Here, we report that hypoxia facilitates embryonic NSC proliferation through HIF-1/mTORC1 signaling pathway-mediated autophagy. Initially, we found that hypoxia greatly induced autophagy in NSCs, while inhibition of autophagy severely impeded the proliferation of NSCs in hypoxia conditions. Next, we demonstrated that the hypoxia core regulator HIF-1 was necessary and sufficient for autophagy induction in NSCs. Considering that mTORC1 is a key switch that suppresses autophagy, we subsequently analyzed the effect of HIF-1 on mTORC1 activity. Our results showed that the mTORC1 activity was negatively regulated by HIF-1. Finally, we provided evidence that HIF-1 regulated mTORC1 activity via its downstream target gene BNIP3. The increased expression of BNIP3 under hypoxia enhanced autophagy activity and proliferation of NSCs, which was mediated by repressing the activity of mTORC1. We further illustrated that BNIP3 can interact with Rheb, a canonical activator of mTORC1. Thus, we suppose that the interaction of BNIP3 with Rheb reduces the regulation of Rheb toward mTORC1 activity, which relieves the suppression of mTORC1 on autophagy, thereby promoting the rapid proliferation of NSCs. Altogether, this study identified a new HIF-1/BNIP3-Rheb/mTORC1 signaling axis, which regulates the NSC proliferation under hypoxia through induction of autophagy.

Sensory nerve niche regulates mesenchymal stem cell homeostasis via FGF/mTOR/autophagy axis

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) reside in microenvironments, referred to as niches, which provide structural support and molecular signals. Sensory nerves are niche components in the homeostasis of tissues such as skin, bone marrow and hematopoietic system. However, how the sensory nerve affects the behavior of MSCs remains largely unknown. Here we show that the sensory nerve is vital for mesenchymal tissue homeostasis and maintenance of MSCs in the continuously growing adult mouse incisor. Loss of sensory innervation leads to mesenchymal disorder and a decrease in MSCs. Mechanistically, FGF1 from the sensory nerve directly acts on MSCs by binding to FGFR1 and activates the mTOR/autophagy axis to sustain MSCs. Modulation of mTOR/autophagy restores the MSCs and rescues the mesenchymal tissue disorder of Fgfr1 mutant mice. Collectively, our study provides insights into the role of sensory nerves in the regulation of MSC homeostasis and the mechanism governing it.

Autophagy and Its Lineage-Specific Roles in the Hematopoietic System

Autophagy is a dynamic process that regulates the selective and nonselective degradation of cytoplasmic components, such as damaged organelles and protein aggregates inside lysosomes to maintain tissue homeostasis. Different types of autophagy including macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperon-mediated autophagy (CMA) have been implicated in a variety of pathological conditions, such as cancer, aging, neurodegeneration, and developmental disorders. Furthermore, the molecular mechanism and biological functions of autophagy have been extensively studied in vertebrate hematopoiesis and human blood malignancies. In recent years, the hematopoietic lineage-specific roles of different autophagy-related (ATG) genes have gained more attention. The evolution of gene-editing technology and the easy access nature of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), hematopoietic progenitors, and precursor cells have facilitated the autophagy research to better understand how ATG genes function in the hematopoietic system. Taking advantage of the gene-editing platform, this review has summarized the roles of different ATGs at the hematopoietic cell level, their dysregulation, and pathological consequences throughout hematopoiesis.

Autophagy in Hematological Malignancies

Simple Summary

Autophagy is a dynamic and tightly regulated process that seems to have dual effects in cancer. In some contexts, it can induce carcinogenesis and promote cancer cell survival, whereas in others, it acts preventing tumor cell growth and tumor progression. Thus, autophagy functions seem to strictly depend on cancer ontogenesis, progression, and type. Here, we will dive into the current knowledge of autophagy in hematological malignancies and will highlight the main genetic components involved in each cancer type.

Abstract

Autophagy is a highly conserved metabolic pathway via which unwanted intracellular materials, such as unfolded proteins or damaged organelles, are digested. It is activated in response to conditions of oxidative stress or starvation, and is essential for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and other vital functions, such as differentiation, cell death, and the cell cycle. Therefore, autophagy plays an important role in the initiation and progression of tumors, including hematological malignancies, where damaged autophagy during hematopoiesis can cause malignant transformation and increase cell proliferation. Over the last decade, the importance of autophagy in response to standard pharmacological treatment of hematological tumors has been observed, revealing completely opposite roles depending on the tumor type and stage. Thus, autophagy can promote tumor survival by attenuating the cellular damage caused by drugs and/or stabilizing oncogenic proteins, but can also have an antitumoral effect due to autophagic cell death. Therefore, autophagy-based strategies must depend on the context to create specific and safe combination therapies that could contribute to improved clinical outcomes. In this review, we describe the process of autophagy and its role on hematopoiesis, and we highlight recent research investigating its role as a potential therapeutic target in hematological malignancies. The findings suggest that genetic variants within autophagy-related genes modulate the risk of developing hemopathies, as well as patient survival.

Targeting Both Autophagy and Immunotherapy in Breast Cancer Treatment

As clinical efforts towards breast-conserving therapy and prolonging survival of those with metastatic breast cancer increase, innovative approaches with the use of biologics are on the rise. Two areas of current focus are cancer immunotherapy and autophagy, both of which have been well-studied independently but have recently been shown to have intertwining roles in cancer. An increased understanding of their interactions could provide new insights that result in novel diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic strategies. In this breast cancer-focused review, we explore the interactions between autophagy and two clinically relevant immune checkpoint pathways; the programmed cell death-1 receptor with its ligand (PD-L1)/PD-1 and the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4)/CD80 and CD86 (B7-1 and B7-2). Furthermore, we discuss emerging preclinical and clinical data supporting targeting both immunotherapy and autophagy pathway manipulation as a promising approach in the treatment of breast cancer.

ROS function as an inducer of autophagy to promote granulocyte proliferation in Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas

Hematopoiesis is the biological process to generate new blood cells in the living body and reactive oxygen species (ROS) contribute significantly to the regulation of haematopoietic cell homeostasis. In the present study, the involvement of ROS in the proliferation of haemocytes was examined in Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. The ROS content in haemocytes increased significantly after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment, but decreased after the treatment with antioxidant N-Acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC, a scavenger of ROS). The percentage of 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine labeled (EdU⁺) granulocytes in total haemocytes significantly increased at 12 h (4.12-fold, p < 0.001) and 24 h (2.36-fold, p < 0.001) after LPS treatment, while decreased at 12 h (0.26-fold, p < 0.001) and 24 h (0.61-fold, p < 0.05) after NAC treatment, respectively. Meanwhile, the percentage of haemocytes with autophagosome positive signals significantly increased at 12 h (1.17-fold, p < 0.01) and 24 h (1.19-fold, p < 0.05) after LPS treatment, but significantly reduced at 12 h (0.41-fold, p < 0.001) and 24 h (0.28-fold, p < 0.001) after the NAC treatment, respectively. After ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) treatment, the percentage of haemocytes with autophagosome and EdU⁺ granulocytes significantly increased at 12 h, which was 1.27-fold (p < 0.01) and 1.70-fold (p < 0.01) of control group, respectively. These results collectively suggested that ROS produced after LPS treatment could act as an inducer for autophagy and involved in regulating the proliferation of some granulocytes in C. gigas.

The Roles of Mitophagy and Autophagy in Ineffective Erythropoiesis in β-Thalassemia

β-Thalassemia is one of the most common genetically inherited disorders worldwide, and it is characterized by defective β-globin chain synthesis leading to reduced or absent β-globin chains. The excess α-globin chains are the key factor leading to the death of differentiating erythroblasts in a process termed ineffective erythropoiesis, leading to anemia and associated complications in patients. The mechanism of ineffective erythropoiesis in β-thalassemia is complex and not fully understood. Autophagy is primarily known as a cell recycling mechanism in which old or dysfunctional proteins and organelles are digested to allow recycling of constituent elements. In late stage, erythropoiesis autophagy is involved in the removal of mitochondria as part of terminal differentiation. Several studies have shown that autophagy is increased in earlier erythropoiesis in β-thalassemia erythroblasts, as compared to normal erythroblasts. This review summarizes what is known about the role of autophagy in β-thalassemia erythropoiesis and shows that modulation of autophagy and its interplay with apoptosis may provide a new therapeutic route in the treatment of β-thalassemia. Literature was searched and relevant articles were collected from databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Prospero, Clinicaltrials.gov, Google Scholar, and the Google search engine. Search terms included: β-thalassemia, ineffective erythropoiesis, autophagy, novel treatment, and drugs during the initial search. Relevant titles and abstracts were screened to choose relevant articles. Further, selected full-text articles were retrieved, and then, relevant cross-references were scanned to collect further information for the present review.

Autophagy regulated by the HIF/REDD1/mTORC1 signaling is progressively increased during erythroid differentiation under hypoxia

For hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs), hypoxia is a specific microenvironment known as the hypoxic niche. How hypoxia regulates erythroid differentiation of HSPCs remains unclear. In this study, we show that hypoxia evidently accelerates erythroid differentiation, and autophagy plays a pivotal role in this process. We further determine that mTORC1 signaling is suppressed by hypoxia to relieve its inhibition of autophagy, and with the process of erythroid differentiation, mTORC1 activity gradually decreases and autophagy activity increases accordingly. Moreover, we provide evidence that the HIF-1 target gene REDD1 is upregulated to suppress mTORC1 signaling and enhance autophagy, thereby promoting erythroid differentiation under hypoxia. Together, our study identifies that the enhanced autophagy by hypoxia favors erythroid maturation and elucidates a new regulatory pattern whereby autophagy is progressively increased during erythroid differentiation, which is driven by the HIF-1/REDD1/mTORC1 signaling in a hypoxic niche.

The cross-talk of autophagy and apoptosis in breast carcinoma: implications for novel therapies?

Breast cancer is still the most common cancer in women worldwide. Resistance to drugs and recurrence of the disease are two leading causes of failure in treatment. For a more efficient treatment of patients, the development of novel therapeutic regimes is needed. Recent studies indicate that modulation of autophagy in concert with apoptosis induction may provide a promising novel strategy in breast cancer treatment. Apoptosis and autophagy are two tightly regulated distinct cellular processes. To maintain tissue homeostasis abnormal cells are disposed largely by means of apoptosis. Autophagy, however, contributes to tissue homeostasis and cell fitness by scavenging of damaged organelles, lipids, proteins, and DNA. Defects in autophagy promote tumorigenesis, whereas upon tumor formation rapidly proliferating cancer cells may rely on autophagy to survive. Given that evasion of apoptosis is one of the characteristic hallmarks of cancer cells, inhibiting autophagy and promoting apoptosis can negatively influence cancer cell survival and increase cell death. Hence, combination of antiautophagic agents with the enhancement of apoptosis may restore apoptosis and provide a therapeutic advantage against breast cancer. In this review, we discuss the cross-talk of autophagy and apoptosis and the diverse facets of autophagy in breast cancer cells leading to novel models for more effective therapeutic strategies.

ATG4A regulates human erythroid maturation and mitochondrial clearance

Autophagy is a self-degradation pathway that is essential for erythropoiesis. During erythroid differentiation, autophagy facilitates the degradation of macromolecules and the programmed clearance of mitochondria. Impaired mitochondrial clearance results in anemia and alters the lifespan of red blood cells in vivo. While several essential autophagy genes contribute to autophagy in erythropoiesis, little is known about erythroid-specific mediators of this pathway. Genetic analysis of primary human erythroid and nonerythroid cells revealed the selective upregulation of the core autophagy gene ATG4A in maturing human erythroid cells. Because the function of ATG4A in erythropoiesis is unknown, we evaluated its role using an ex vivo model of human erythropoiesis. Depletion of ATG4A in primary human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells selectively impaired erythroid but not myeloid lineage differentiation, resulting in reduced red cell production, delayed terminal differentiation, and impaired enucleation. Loss of ATG4A impaired autophagy and mitochondrial clearance, giving rise to reticulocytes with retained mitochondria and autophagic vesicles. In summary, our study identifies ATG4A as a cell type-specific regulator of autophagy in erythroid development.

An Overview of Autophagy in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation

Autophagy is a fundamental homeostatic process crucial for cellular adaptation in response to metabolic stress. Autophagy exerts its effect through degrading intracellular components and recycling them to produce macromolecular precursors and energy. This physiological process contributes to cellular development, maintenance of cellular/tissue homeostasis, immune system regulation, and human disease. Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is the only preferred therapy for most bone marrow-derived cancers. Unfortunately, HSCT can result in several serious and sometimes untreatable conditions due to graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), graft failure, and infection. These are the major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients receiving the transplant. During the last decade, autophagy has gained a considerable understanding of its role in various diseases and cellular processes. In light of recent research, it has been confirmed that autophagy plays a crucial role in the survival and function of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), T-cell differentiation, antigen presentation, and responsiveness to cytokine stimulation. Despite the importance of these events to HSCT, the role of autophagy in HSCT as a whole remains relatively ambiguous. As a result of the growing use of autophagy-modulating agents in the clinic, it is imperative to understand how autophagy functions in allogeneic HSCT. The purpose of this literature review is to elucidate the established and implicated roles of autophagy in HSCT, identifying this pathway as a potential therapeutic target for improving transplant outcomes.

The multifaceted role of autophagy in cancer

Autophagy is a cellular degradative pathway that plays diverse roles in maintaining cellular homeostasis. Cellular stress caused by starvation, organelle damage, or proteotoxic aggregates can increase autophagy, which uses the degradative capacity of lysosomal enzymes to mitigate intracellular stresses. Early studies have shown a role for autophagy in the suppression of tumorigenesis. However, work in genetically engineered mouse models and in vitro cell studies have now shown that autophagy can be either cancer-promoting or inhibiting. Here, we summarize the effects of autophagy on cancer initiation, progression, immune infiltration, and metabolism. We also discuss the efforts to pharmacologically target autophagy in the clinic and highlight future areas for exploration.

The Role of Autophagy in the Function of CD4+ T Cells and the Development of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases

Uncontrolled acute inflammation progresses to persistent inflammation that leads to various chronic inflammatory diseases, including asthma, Crohn’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. CD4⁺ T cells are key immune cells that determine the development of these chronic inflammatory diseases. CD4⁺ T cells orchestrate adaptive immune responses by producing cytokines and effector molecules. These functional roles of T cells vary depending on the surrounding inflammatory or anatomical environment. Autophagy is an important process that can regulate the function of CD4⁺ T cells. By lysosomal degradation of cytoplasmic materials, autophagy mediates CD4⁺ T cell-mediated immune responses, including cytokine production, proliferation, and differentiation. Furthermore, through canonical processes involving autophagy machinery, autophagy also contributes to the development of chronic inflammatory diseases. Therefore, a targeted intervention of autophagy processes could be used to treat chronic inflammatory diseases. This review focuses on the role of autophagy via CD4⁺ T cells in the pathogenesis and treatment of such diseases. In particular, we explore the underlying mechanisms of autophagy in the regulation of CD4⁺ T cell metabolism, survival, development, proliferation, differentiation, and aging. Furthermore, we suggest that autophagy-mediated modulation of CD4⁺ T cells is a promising therapeutic target for treating chronic inflammatory diseases.

Molecular regulation of hematopoietic stem cell quiescence

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are primarily dormant in a cell-cycle quiescence state to preserve their self-renewal capacity and long-term maintenance, which is essential for the homeostasis of hematopoietic system. Dysregulation of quiescence causes HSC dysfunction and may result in aberrant hematopoiesis (e.g., myelodysplastic syndrome and bone marrow failure syndromes) and leukemia transformation. Accumulating evidence indicates that both intrinsic molecular networks and extrinsic signals regulate HSC quiescence, including cell-cycle regulators, transcription factors, epigenetic factors, and niche factors. Further, the transition between quiescence and activation of HSCs is a continuous developmental path driven by cell metabolism (e.g., protein synthesis, glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, and autophagy). Elucidating the complex regulatory networks of HSC quiescence will expand the knowledge of HSC hemostasis and benefit for clinical HSC use. Here, we review the current understanding and progression on the molecular and metabolic regulation of HSC quiescence, providing a more complete picture regarding the mechanisms of HSC quiescence maintenance.

Lysosomes in Stem Cell Quiescence: A Potential Therapeutic Target in Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Lysosomes are cellular organelles that regulate essential biological processes such as cellular homeostasis, development, and aging. They are primarily connected to the degradation/recycling of cellular macromolecules and participate in cellular trafficking, nutritional signaling, energy metabolism, and immune regulation. Therefore, lysosomes connect cellular metabolism and signaling pathways. Lysosome's involvement in the critical biological processes has rekindled clinical interest towards this organelle for treating various diseases, including cancer. Recent research advancements have demonstrated that lysosomes also regulate the maintenance and hemostasis of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), which play a critical role in the progression of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and other types of cancer. Lysosomes regulate both HSCs' metabolic networks and identity transition. AML is a lethal type of blood cancer with a poor prognosis that is particularly associated with aging. Although the genetic landscape of AML has been extensively described, only a few targeted therapies have been produced, warranting the need for further research. This review summarizes the functions and importance of targeting lysosomes in AML, while highlighting the significance of lysosomes in HSCs maintenance.

The mTOR-lysosome axis at the centre of ageing

Age‐related diseases represent some of the largest unmet clinical needs of our time. While treatment of specific disease‐related signs has had some success (for example, the effect of statin drugs on slowing progression of atherosclerosis), slowing biological ageing itself represents a target that could significantly increase health span and reduce the prevalence of multiple age‐related diseases. Mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) is known to control fundamental processes in ageing: inhibiting this signalling complex slows biological ageing, reduces age‐related disease pathology and increases lifespan in model organisms. How mTORC1 inhibition achieves this is still subject to ongoing research. However, one mechanism by which mTORC1 inhibition is thought to slow ageing is by activating the autophagy–lysosome pathway. In this review, we examine the special bidirectional relationship between mTORC1 and the lysosome. In cells, mTORC1 is located on lysosomes. From this advantageous position, it directly controls the autophagy–lysosome pathway. However, the lysosome also controls mTORC1 activity in numerous ways, creating a special two‐way relationship. We then explore specific examples of how inhibition of mTORC1 and activation of the autophagy–lysosome pathway slow the molecular hallmarks of ageing. This body of literature demonstrates that the autophagy–lysosome pathway represents an excellent target for treatments that seek to slow biological ageing and increase health span in humans.

Loss of Atg2b and Gskip impairs the maintenance of the hematopoietic stem cell pool size

A germ line copy number duplication of chromosome 14q32, which contains ATG2B and GSKIP, was identified in families with myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN). Here, we show that mice lacking both Atg2b and Gskip, but not either alone, exhibited decreased hematopoiesis, resulting in death in utero accompanied by anemia. In marked contrast to MPN patients with duplication of ATG2B and GSKIP, the number of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), in particular long-term HSCs, in double-knockout fetal livers was significantly decreased due to increased cell death. Although the remaining HSCs still had the ability to differentiate into hematopoietic progenitor cells, the differentiation efficiency was quite low. Remarkably, mice with knockout of Atg2b or Gskip alone did not show any hematopoietic abnormality. Mechanistically, while loss of both genes had no effect on autophagy, it increased the expression of genes encoding enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation. Taken together, our results indicate that Atg2b and Gskip play a synergistic effect in maintaining the pool size of HSCs.

Autophagy and Metabolism in Normal and Malignant Hematopoiesis

The hematopoietic system relies on regulation of both metabolism and autophagy to maintain its homeostasis, ensuring the self-renewal and multipotent differentiation potential of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). HSCs display a distinct metabolic profile from that of their differentiated progeny, while metabolic rewiring from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) has been shown to be crucial for effective hematopoietic differentiation. Autophagy-mediated regulation of metabolism modulates the distinct characteristics of quiescent and differentiating hematopoietic cells. In particular, mitophagy determines the cellular mitochondrial content, thus modifying the level of OXPHOS at the different differentiation stages of hematopoietic cells, while, at the same time, it ensures the building blocks and energy for differentiation. Aberrations in both the metabolic status and regulation of the autophagic machinery are implicated in the development of hematologic malignancies, especially in leukemogenesis. In this review, we aim to investigate the role of metabolism and autophagy, as well as their interconnections, in normal and malignant hematopoiesis.

Role of Autophagy in the Maintenance of Stemness in Adult Stem Cells: A Disease-Relevant Mechanism of Action

Autophagy is an intracellular scavenging mechanism induced to eliminate damaged, denatured, or senescent macromolecular substances and organelles in the body. The regulation of autophagy plays essential roles in the processes of cellular homeostasis and senescence. Dysregulated autophagy is a common feature of several human diseases, including cancers and neurodegenerative disorders. The initiation and development of these disorders have been shown to be associated with the maintenance of disease-specific stem cell compartments. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of the role of autophagy in the maintenance of stemness. Specifically, we focus on the intersection between autophagy and adult stem cells in the initiation and progression of specific diseases. Accordingly, this review highlights the role of autophagy in stemness maintenance from the perspective of disease-associated mechanisms, which may be fundamental to our understanding of the pathogeneses of human diseases and the development of effective therapies.

Autophagy a Close Relative of AML Biology

Simple Summary

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is the most common acute leukemia in adults. Despite a high rate of complete remission following conventional chemotherapy, the prognosis remains poor due to frequent relapses caused by relapse-initiating leukemic cells (RICs), which are resistant to chemotherapies. While the development of new targeted therapies holds great promise (e.g., molecules targeting IDH1/2, FLT3, BCL2), relapses still occur. Therefore, a paramount issue in the elimination of RICs is to decipher the AML resistance mechanisms. Thus, it has been recently shown that AML cells exhibit metabolic changes in response to chemotherapy or targeted therapies. Autophagy is a major regulator of cell metabolism, involved in maintaining cancer state, metastasis, and resistance to anticancer therapy. However, whether autophagy acts as a tumor suppressor or promoter in AML is still a matter of debate. Therefore, depending on molecular AML subtypes or treatments used, a better understanding of the role of autophagy is needed to determine whether its modulation could result in a clinical benefit.

Abstract

Autophagy, which literally means “eat yourself”, is more than just a lysosomal degradation pathway. It is a well-known regulator of cellular metabolism and a mechanism implicated in tumor initiation/progression and therapeutic resistance in many cancers. However, whether autophagy acts as a tumor suppressor or promoter is still a matter of debate. In acute myeloid leukemia (AML), it is now proven that autophagy supports cell proliferation in vitro and leukemic progression in vivo. Mitophagy, the specific degradation of mitochondria through autophagy, was recently shown to be required for leukemic stem cell functions and survival, highlighting the prominent role of this selective autophagy in leukemia initiation and progression. Moreover, autophagy in AML sustains fatty acid oxidation through lipophagy to support mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OxPHOS), a hallmark of chemotherapy-resistant cells. Nevertheless, in the context of therapy, in AML, as well as in other cancers, autophagy could be either cytoprotective or cytotoxic, depending on the drugs used. This review summarizes the recent findings that mechanistically show how autophagy favors leukemic transformation of normal hematopoietic stem cells, as well as AML progression and also recapitulates its ambivalent role in resistance to chemotherapies and targeted therapies.

Enhanced autophagy in Becn1F121A/F121A knockin mice counteracts aging-related neural stem cell exhaustion and dysfunction

Macroautophagy/autophagy is emerging as a major pathway that regulates both aging and stem cell function. Previous studies have demonstrated a positive correlation of autophagy with longevity; however, these studies did not directly address the consequence of altered autophagy in stem cells during aging. In this study, we used Becn1^F121A/F121A knockin mice (designated as Becn1 KI mice) with the F121A allele in the autophagy gene Becn1 to investigate the consequences of enhanced autophagy in postnatal neural stem cells (NSCs) during aging. We found that increased autophagy protected NSCs from exhaustion and promoted neurogenesis in old (≥18-months-old) mice compared with age-matched wild-type (WT) mice, although it did not affect NSCs in young (3-months-old) mice. After pharmacologically-induced elimination of proliferative cells in the subventricular zone (SVZ), there was enhanced re-activation of quiescent NSCs in old Becn1 KI mice as compared to those in WT mice, with more efficient exit from quiescent status to generate proliferative cells and neuroblasts. Moreover, there was also improved maintenance and increased neuronal differentiation of NSCs isolated from the SVZ of old Becn1 KI mice in in vitro assays. Lastly, the increased neurogenesis in Becn1 KI mice was associated with better olfactory function in aged animals. Together, our results suggest a protective role of increased autophagy in aging NSCs, which may help the development of novel strategies to treat age-related neurodegeneration.

MAEA is an E3 ubiquitin ligase promoting autophagy and maintenance of haematopoietic stem cells

Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) tightly regulate their quiescence, proliferation, and differentiation to generate blood cells during the entire lifetime. The mechanisms by which these critical activities are balanced are still unclear. Here, we report that Macrophage-Erythroblast Attacher (MAEA, also known as EMP), a receptor thus far only identified in erythroblastic island, is a membrane-associated E3 ubiquitin ligase subunit essential for HSC maintenance and lymphoid potential. Maea is highly expressed in HSCs and its deletion in mice severely impairs HSC quiescence and leads to a lethal myeloproliferative syndrome. Mechanistically, we have found that the surface expression of several haematopoietic cytokine receptors (e.g. MPL, FLT3) is stabilised in the absence of Maea, thereby prolonging their intracellular signalling. This is associated with impaired autophagy flux in HSCs but not in mature haematopoietic cells. Administration of receptor kinase inhibitor or autophagy-inducing compounds rescues the functional defects of Maea-deficient HSCs. Our results suggest that MAEA provides E3 ubiquitin ligase activity, guarding HSC function by restricting cytokine receptor signalling via autophagy.

The Interplay of HIV and Autophagy in Early Infection

HIV/AIDS is still a global threat despite the notable efforts made by the scientific and health communities to understand viral infection, to design new drugs or to improve existing ones, as well as to develop advanced therapies and vaccine designs for functional cure and viral eradication. The identification and analysis of HIV-1 positive individuals that naturally control viral replication in the absence of antiretroviral treatment has provided clues about cellular processes that could interact with viral proteins and RNA and define subsequent viral replication and clinical progression. This is the case of autophagy, a degradative process that not only maintains cell homeostasis by recycling misfolded/old cellular elements to obtain nutrients, but is also relevant in the innate and adaptive immunity against viruses, such as HIV-1. Several studies suggest that early steps of HIV-1 infection, such as virus binding to CD4 or membrane fusion, allow the virus to modulate autophagy pathways preparing cells to be permissive for viral infection. Confirming this interplay, strategies based on autophagy modulation are able to inhibit early steps of HIV-1 infection. Moreover, autophagy dysregulation in late steps of the HIV-1 replication cycle may promote autophagic cell-death of CD4⁺ T cells or control of HIV-1 latency, likely contributing to disease progression and HIV persistence in infected individuals. In this scenario, understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying HIV/autophagy interplay may contribute to the development of new strategies to control HIV-1 replication. Therefore, the aim of this review is to summarize the knowledge of the interplay between autophagy and the early events of HIV-1 infection, and how autophagy modulation could impair or benefit HIV-1 infection and persistence, impacting viral pathogenesis, immune control of viral replication, and clinical progression of HIV-1 infected patients.

Autophagy and senescence: Insights from normal and cancer stem cells

Autophagy is a fundamental cellular process, which allows cells to adapt to metabolic stress through the degradation and recycling of intracellular components to generate macromolecular precursors and produce energy. Autophagy is also critical in maintaining cellular/tissue homeostasis, as well preserving immunity and preventing human disease. Deregulation of autophagic processes is associated with cancer, neurodegeneration, muscle and heart disease, infectious diseases and aging. Research on a variety of stem cell types establish that autophagy plays critical roles in normal and cancer stem cell quiescence, activation, differentiation, and self-renewal. Considering its critical function in regulating the metabolic state of stem cells, autophagy plays a dual role in the regulation of normal and cancer stem cell senescence, and cellular responses to various therapeutic strategies. The relationships between autophagy, senescence, dormancy and apoptosis frequently focus on responses to various forms of stress. These are interrelated processes that profoundly affect normal and abnormal human physiology that require further elucidation in cancer stem cells. This review provides a current perspective on autophagy and senescence in both normal and cancer stem cells.

Transglutaminase Type 2 is Involved in the Hematopoietic Stem Cells Homeostasis

Type 2 transglutaminase (TG2) is a multifunctional protein involved in various biological processes playing a key regulatory role in cell homeostasis such as cell death and autophagy. New evidence is emerging that support an important role of autophagy in regulating normal hematopoiesis. Prompted by these findings, in this study we investigated in vivo involvement of TG2 in mouse hematopoiesis under normal or nutrient deprivation conditions. We found that the number and rate of differentiation of bone marrow hematopoietic stem cell was decreased in the TG2 knockout mice. We present evidence showing that these effects on hematopoietic system are very likely due to the TG2-dependent impairment of autophagy. In fact, stimulation of autophagy by starvation is able to rescue the block of the differentiation of stem cells progenitors in the TG2 KO mice. It was also shown that the RhoA/ERK½ pathway, known to be essential for regulation of the bone marrow progenitor cells homeostasis, was significantly impaired in the absence of TG2. Hence, this study expanded our knowledge about TG2 discovering a role of this enzyme in regulation of hematopoiesis.

Hematopoietic Stem Cell Metabolism during Development and Aging

Cellular metabolism in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) is an area of intense research interest, but the metabolic requirements of HSCs and their adaptations to their niches during development have remained largely unaddressed. Distinctive from other tissue stem cells, HSCs transition through multiple hematopoietic sites during development. This transition requires drastic metabolic shifts, insinuating the capacity of HSCs to meet the physiological demand of hematopoiesis. In this review, we highlight how mitochondrial metabolism determines HSC fate, and especially focus on the links between mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and lysosomes in HSC metabolism.

Autophagy-mediated tumor cell survival and progression of breast cancer metastasis to the brain

Brain metastases represent a substantial amount of morbidity and mortality in breast cancer (BC). Metastatic breast tumor cells committed to brain metastases are unique because they escape immune surveillance, can penetrate the blood-brain barrier, and also adapt to the brain tissue microenvironment (TME) for colonization and outgrowth. In addition, dynamic intracellular interactions between metastatic cancer cells and neighboring astrocytes in the brain are thought to play essential roles in brain tumor progression. A better understanding of the above mechanisms will lead to developing more effective therapies for brain metastases. Growing literature suggests autophagy, a conserved lysosomal degradation pathway involved in cellular homeostasis under stressful conditions, plays essential roles in breast tumor metastatic transformation and brain metastases. Cancer cells must adapt under various microenvironmental stresses, such as hypoxia, and nutrient (glucose) deprivation, in order to survive and progress. Clinical studies reveal that tumoral expression of autophagy-related proteins is higher in brain metastasis compared to primary breast tumors. In this review, we outline the molecular mechanisms underlying autophagy-mediated BC cell survival and metastasis to the brain.

Lysosomes in acute myeloid leukemia: potential therapeutic targets?

Lysosomes, since their discovery, have been primarily known for degrading cellular macromolecules. However, in recent studies, they have begun to emerge as crucial regulators of cell homeostasis. They are at the crossroads of catabolic and anabolic pathways and are intricately involved in cellular trafficking, nutrient signaling, energy metabolism, and immune regulation. Their involvement in such essential cellular functions has renewed clinical interest in targeting the lysosome as a novel way to treat disease, particularly cancer. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is an aggressive blood cancer with a low survival probability, particularly in older patients. The genomic landscape of AML has been extensively characterized but few targeted therapies (with the exception of differentiation therapy) can achieve a long-term cure. Therefore, there is an unmet need for less intensive and more tolerable therapeutic interventions. In this review, we will give an overview on the myriad of functions performed by lysosomes and their importance in malignant disease. Furthermore, we will discuss their relevance in hematopoietic cells and different ways to potentially target them in AML.

OGT Regulates Hematopoietic Stem Cell Maintenance via PINK1-Dependent Mitophagy

O-linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) transferase (OGT) is a unique enzyme introducing O-GlcNAc moiety on target proteins, and it critically regulates various cellular processes in diverse cell types. However, its roles in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) remain elusive. Here, using Ogt conditional knockout mice, we show that OGT is essential for HSPCs. Ogt is highly expressed in HSPCs, and its disruption induces rapid loss of HSPCs with increased reactive oxygen species and apoptosis. In particular, Ogt-deficient hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) lose quiescence, cannot be maintained in vivo, and become vulnerable to regenerative and competitive stress. Interestingly, Ogt-deficient HSCs accumulate defective mitochondria due to impaired mitophagy with decreased key mitophagy regulator, Pink1, through dysregulation of H3K4me3. Furthermore, overexpression of PINK1 restores mitophagy and the number of Ogt-deficient HSCs. Collectively, our results reveal that OGT critically regulates maintenance and stress response of HSCs by ensuring mitochondrial quality through PINK1-dependent mitophagy.