Biological roles of fibroblast growth factor-2

Alterations of Alpl and bFGF levels in peripheral tissues after mild traumatic brain injury: implications on sexual differences

BACKGROUND

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a significant health issue affecting people of all ages and socioeconomic groups. Its clinical spectrum alters from transient mild symptoms to disabling problems. The molecular mechanisms that affect the vital functions and treatment after mTBI have yet to be fully understood. This study aims to investigate the expression levels of Alkaline Phosphatase (Alpl) and Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF) in peripheral organs after mTBI in traumatic mice models and observe the differences between acute and chronic phases.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of 30 animals were randomly divided into three groups, with equal numbers of males and females in each group. mTBI was induced in mice utilizing the Marmarau trauma model. Alpl and bFGF expression levels in the acute and chronic phases were determined via Real-Time PCR in liver, kidney, bone, and muscle tissues. Alpl and bFGF gene expressions in the acute phase after mTBI increased significantly. In the kidney, Alpl and bFGF levels increased in the acute phase in females, but bFGF significantly decreased in males. In muscle tissue bFGF levels significantly increased in males in the chronic phase. Our study showed significant differences between sexes in response to mTBI.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study investigated the role of Alpl and bFGF genes in peripheral tissues in acute and chronic phases after mTBI for the first time in the literature. The data obtained will guide understanding the secondary events and the consequences of the disease in mTBI and taking the necessary treatment and measures.

Deficiency of fibroblast growth factor 2 promotes contractile phenotype of pericytes in ascending thoracic aortic aneurysm

Pericytes exhibit progenitor cell-like qualities and associate with the vasa vasorum-vital microvessels nourishing larger arteries and veins. How pericytes change in human ascending thoracic aortic aneurysm (ATAA) remains unknown. Here, we used the public single-nuclei sequencing data to reveal a contractile phenotype transition of pericytes in human ATAA specimens. In addition, we found that a protective factor, fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), is decreased in the aortic adventitia of both male and female patients with ATAA and impacts pericytes. We demonstrated that FGF2 maintained pericytes in a less contractile and high angiogenic phenotype via MAPK and PI3K-AKT signaling pathways. These findings suggested the latent engagement of pericytes in ATAA, providing insights that could guide the development of new therapies against aortic disease.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Here, we revealed that pericytes transition into a contractile phenotype in human ATAA. We demonstrated that FGF2 maintained pericytes in a less contractile and high angiogenic stage via MAPK and PI3K-AKT signaling pathway, whereas we found FGF2 is decreased in the aortic adventitia of patients with ATAA. Our findings suggest how growth factor deficiency in the microenvironment affects pericytes during ATAA, offering leads for potential new therapies for aortic diseases.

Retinal glia in myopia: current understanding and future directions

Myopia, a major public health problem, involves axial elongation and thinning of all layers of the eye, including sclera, choroid and retina, which defocuses incoming light and thereby blurs vision. How the various populations of glia in the retina are involved in the disorder is unclear. Astrocytes and Müller cells provide structural support to the retina. Astrogliosis in myopia may influence blood oxygen supply, neuronal function, and axon diameter, which in turn may affect signal conduction. Müller cells act as a sensor of mechanical stretching in myopia and trigger downstream molecular responses. Microglia, for their part, may exhibit a reactive morphology and elevated response to inflammation in myopia. This review assesses current knowledge about how myopia may involve retinal glia, and it explores directions for future research into that question.

EFEMP1 contributes to light-dependent ocular growth in zebrafish

Myopia (short-sightedness) is the most common ocular disorder. It generally develops after over-exposure to aberrant visual environments, disrupting emmetropization mechanisms that should match eye growth with optical power. A pre-screening of strongly associated myopia-risk genes identified through human genome-wide association studies implicates efemp1 in myopia development, but how this gene impacts ocular growth remains unclear. Here, we modify efemp1 expression specifically in the retina of zebrafish. We found that under normal lighting, efemp1 mutants developed axial myopia, enlarged eyes, reduced spatial vision and altered retinal function. However, under myopia-inducing dark-rearing, compared to control fish, mutants remained emmetropic and showed changes in retinal function. Efemp1 modification changed the expression of efemp1, egr1, tgfb1a, vegfab and rbp3 genes in the eye, and changed the inner retinal distributions of myopia-associated EFEMP1, TIMP2 and MMP2 proteins. Efemp1 modification also impacted dark-rearing-induced responses of vegfab and wnt2b genes and above-mentioned myopia-associated proteins. Together, we provided robust evidence that light-dependent ocular growth is regulated by efemp1.

Structural analysis of the stable form of fibroblast growth factor 2 - FGF2-STAB

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) is a signaling protein that plays a significant role in tissue development and repair. FGF2 binds to fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) alongside its co-factor heparin, which protects FGF2 from degradation. The binding between FGF2 and FGFRs induces intracellular signaling pathways such as RAS-MAPK, PI3K-AKT, and STAT. FGF2 has strong potential for application in cell culturing, wound healing, and cosmetics but the potential is severely limited by its low protein stability. The thermostable variant FGF2-STAB was constructed by computer-assisted protein engineering to overcome the natural limitation of FGF2. Previously reported characterization of FGF2-STAB revealed an enhanced ability to induce MAP/ERK signaling while having a lower dependence on heparin when compared with FGF2-wt. Here we report the crystal structure of FGF2-STAB solved at 1.3 Å resolution. Protein stabilization is achieved by newly formed hydrophobic interactions, polar contacts, and one additional hydrogen bond. The overall structure of FGF2-STAB is similar to FGF2-wt and does not reveal information on the experimentally observed lower dependence on heparin. A noticeable difference in flexibility in the receptor binding region can explain the differences in signaling between FGF2-STAB and its wild-type counterpart. Our structural analysis provided molecular insights into the stabilization and unique biological properties of FGF2-STAB.

The codon optimised gene produces an active human basic fibroblastic growth factor in rice cell suspension culture

The coding sequence of human basic fibroblast growth factor (hbFGF) was optimised for expression in rice. An expression cassette was constructed by fusing the PCR-amplified RAmy3D promoter, along with its 5'UTR, 3'UTR, and terminator sequences, to the codon-optimised hbFGF sequence. This cassette was inserted into the pCAMBIA1304 shuttle vector, which also contained the RAmy3D signal peptide. Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA 4404 was used to transform rice callus. Among the transformed lines, the callus expressing the highest level of bFGF (38.1 mg/kg fresh weight) was identified via ELISA and selected for establishing a cell suspension culture. Expression and secretion of the recombinant bFGF into the culture medium were observed three days after incubating the transgenic rice cells in sucrose-free medium. The presence of recombinant bFGF was confirmed through Western blot and SDS-PAGE analyses. Furthermore, the rice-derived bFGF effectively stimulated the proliferation of NIH/3T3 cells, demonstrating a comparable biological activity to that of commercial bFGF.

Potentiating effect of AMD3100 on bone morphogenetic protein-2 induced bone regeneration

BACKGROUND

AMD3100, a CXCR4 antagonist, is currently prescribed for activating the mobilization of hematopoietic stem cells. Recently, AMD3100 was shown to potentiate bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2)-induced bone formation by stimulating the trafficking of mesenchymal cells. However, optimization of the strategic combination of AMD3100 and BMP-2 has not yet been clearly established. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of AMD3100 on BMP-2-induced bone regeneration in vitro and in a mouse calvarial defect healing model.

METHODS

In vitro osteoblastic differentiation and cell migration after sequential treatments with AMD3100 and BMP-2 were analyzed by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, ALP staining, and calcium accumulation. Migration capacity was evaluated after treating mesenchymal cells with AMD3100 and/or BMP-2. A critical-size calvarial defect model was used to evaluate bone formation after sequential or continuous treatment with AMD3100 and BMP-2. The degree of bone formation in the defect was analyzed using micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) and histological staining.

RESULTS

Compared with single treatment using either AMD3100 or BMP-2 alone, sequential treatment with AMD3100 followed by BMP-2 on mesenchymal cells increased osteogenic differentiation. Application of AMD3100 and subsequent BMP-2 significantly activated cell migration on mesenchymal cell than BMP-2 alone or AMD3100 alone. Micro-CT and histomorphometric analysis showed that continuous intraperitoneal (IP) injection of AMD3100 resulted significantly increased new bone formation in BMP-2 loaded scaffold in calvarial defect than control groups without AMD3100 IP injection. Additionally, both single IP injection of AMD3100 and subsequent BMP-2 injection to the scaffold in calvarial defect showed pronounced new bone formation compared to continuous BMP-2 treatment without AMD3100 treatment.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that single or continuous injection of AMD3100 can potentiate BMP-2-induced osteoblastic differentiation and bone regeneration. This strategic combination of AMD3100 and BMP-2 may be a promising therapy for bone regeneration.

Therapeutic role of growth factors in treating diabetic wound

Wounds in diabetic patients, especially diabetic foot ulcers, are more difficult to heal compared with normal wounds and can easily deteriorate, leading to amputation. Common treatments cannot heal diabetic wounds or control their many complications. Growth factors are found to play important roles in regulating complex diabetic wound healing. Different growth factors such as transforming growth factor beta 1, insulin-like growth factor, and vascular endothelial growth factor play different roles in diabetic wound healing. This implies that a therapeutic modality modulating different growth factors to suit wound healing can significantly improve the treatment of diabetic wounds. Further, some current treatments have been shown to promote the healing of diabetic wounds by modulating specific growth factors. The purpose of this study was to discuss the role played by each growth factor in therapeutic approaches so as to stimulate further therapeutic thinking.

FGF/FGFR signaling in adrenocortical development and tumorigenesis: novel potential therapeutic targets in adrenocortical carcinoma

FGF/FGFR signaling regulates embryogenesis, angiogenesis, tissue homeostasis and wound repair by modulating proliferation, differentiation, survival, migration and metabolism of target cells. Understandably, compelling evidence for deregulated FGF signaling in the development and progression of different types of tumors continue to emerge and FGFR inhibitors arise as potential targeted therapeutic agents, particularly in tumors harboring aberrant FGFR signaling. There is first evidence of a dual role of the FGF/FGFR system in both organogenesis and tumorigenesis, of which this review aims to provide an overview. FGF-1 and FGF-2 are expressed in the adrenal cortex and are the most powerful mitogens for adrenocortical cells. Physiologically, they are involved in development and maintenance of the adrenal gland and bind to a family of four tyrosine kinase receptors, among which FGFR1 and FGFR4 are the most strongly expressed in the adrenal cortex. The repeatedly proven overexpression of these two FGFRs also in adrenocortical cancer is thus likely a sign of their participation in proliferation and vascularization, though the exact downstream mechanisms are not yet elucidated. Thus, FGFRs potentially offer novel therapeutic targets also for adrenocortical carcinoma, a type of cancer resistant to conventional antimitotic agents.

Collagen-binding fibroblast growth factor ameliorates liver fibrosis in murine bile duct ligation injury

Cholestatic liver injury, characterized by liver fibrosis, has increasingly become a global health problem, with no effective treatment available. Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) differentiate into myofibroblasts, leading to excessive deposition of the extracellular matrix (ECM), which is a feature of liver fibrosis. Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) has proven antifibrotic effects in chronic liver disease; however, the lack of an effective delivery system to the injury site reduces its therapeutic efficacy. The aim of this study was to assess the therapeutic effect of collagen-binding bFGF (CBD-bFGF) for the treatment of liver fibrosis in a murine bile duct ligation (BDL) model. We found that CBD-bFGF treatment significantly alleviated liver injury in the early phase of BDL injury, and was associated with decreased necroptotic cell death and inflammatory response. Moreover, CBD-bFGF had enhanced therapeutic effects for liver fibrosis on day 7 after surgery compared to those obtained with native bFGF treatment. In vitro, CBD-bFGF treatment notably inhibited TGF-β1-induced LX-2 cell activation, migration, and contraction compared with native bFGF. In conclusion, CBD-bFGF may be a promising treatment for hepatic fibrosis.

A bioinformatics-based immune-related prognostic index for lung adenocarcinoma that predicts patient response to immunotherapy and common treatments

Background

There is increasing evidence of the effectiveness of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy for the treatment of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). However, the benefits of ICB therapy vary among LUAD patients. Due to the research dimension, existing biomarkers, such as programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression and tumor mutation burden (TMB), could not reflect the complex tumor environment, and had low prediction accuracy of ICB. Therefore, we aimed to uncover a prognostic biomarker that could also predict whether a patient would benefit from ICB therapy and other common treatments from multiple dimensions, so as to improve the prediction accuracy of pre-treatment patients.

Methods

Based on the LUAD dataset retrieved from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, 50 immune-related hub genes were identified using weighted gene co-expression network analysis and univariate Cox regression analyses. An immune-related gene prognostic index (IRGPI) was constructed using a Cox proportional-hazards model based on 15 genes and validated using GSE72094 dataset. We tested its prognostic accuracy by Kaplan-Meier (K-M) survival curves of the two datasets and assessed its predictive power by comparing area under curve (AUC) of IRGPI with existing biomarkers. Subsequently, we analyzed the molecular and immune characteristics, and evaluated the benefits of ICB by PD-L1 expression and Tumor Immune Dysfunction and Exclusion (TIDE) analysis, predicted the inhibitory concentration 50 of common treatments drugs for two IRGPI score-related subgroups.

Results

Patients in the IRGPI-high subgroup had lower overall survival (OS) than patients in the IRGPI-low subgroup in K-M survival curve in two cohorts. And IRGPI has AUC values of 0.715, 0.724, and 0.743 in 1, 2, and 3 years, respectively. A higher tumor mutation burden and PD-L1 expression and the tumor microenvironment (TME) landscape demonstrated that IRGPI-high subgroup patients may respond better to ICB therapy. Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer (GDSC) analysis indicated that the IRGPI-high subgroup showed greater sensitivity to chemotherapy.

Conclusions

IRGPI is a prospective biomarker for evaluating whether a patient will benefit from ICB therapy and other treatments, and distinguishing patients with different molecular and immune characteristics.

Regeneration of emphysematous lungs using gelatin sheets that release basic fibroblast growth factor

PURPOSE

Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) induces regeneration and neovascularization of the lungs. We conducted this study to demonstrate the regeneration of emphysematous lungs achieved by gelatin sheets that slowly release bFGF into the visceral pleura in a canine model.

METHODS

Porcine pancreatic elastase was used to induce bilateral lower lobe pulmonary emphysema in dogs. Slow-release bFGF gelatin sheets were attached to the visceral pleura of the left lower lobe via thoracotomy. The subjects were divided into two groups: one treated with gelatin sheets containing slow-release bFGF (bFGF⁺ group, n = 5), and the other, treated with only gelatin sheets (bFGF^- group, n = 5). The subjects were euthanized after 28 days and histologic lung assessment was performed. The results were evaluated in terms of the mean linear intercept (MLI) and microvessel count.

RESULTS

The MLI was significantly shorter in the bFGF⁺ group than in the bFGF^- group; (110.0 ± 24.38 vs. 208.9 ± 33.08 μm; P = 0.0006). The microvessel count was not significantly different between the bFGF⁺ and bFGF^- groups (12.20 ± 3.007 vs. 5.35 ± 2.3425; P = 0.075); however, it was significantly higher in the bFGF-attached lungs than in the emphysema group (12.20 ± 3.007 vs. 4.57 ± 0.8896; P = 0.012).

CONCLUSIONS

Attaching gelatin sheets with slow-release bFGF to the visceral pleura induced lung regeneration and vascularization in a canine pulmonary emphysema model.

Systems biology of angiogenesis signaling: Computational models and omics

Angiogenesis is a highly regulated multiscale process that involves a plethora of cells, their cellular signal transduction, activation, proliferation, differentiation, as well as their intercellular communication. The coordinated execution and integration of such complex signaling programs is critical for physiological angiogenesis to take place in normal growth, development, exercise, and wound healing, while its dysregulation is critically linked to many major human diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and ocular disorders; it is also crucial in regenerative medicine. Although huge efforts have been devoted to drug development for these diseases by investigation of angiogenesis‐targeted therapies, only a few therapeutics and targets have proved effective in humans due to the innate multiscale complexity and nonlinearity in the process of angiogenic signaling. As a promising approach that can help better address this challenge, systems biology modeling allows the integration of knowledge across studies and scales and provides a powerful means to mechanistically elucidate and connect the individual molecular and cellular signaling components that function in concert to regulate angiogenesis. In this review, we summarize and discuss how systems biology modeling studies, at the pathway‐, cell‐, tissue‐, and whole body‐levels, have advanced our understanding of signaling in angiogenesis and thereby delivered new translational insights for human diseases.

This article is categorized under:

Cardiovascular Diseases > Computational Models

Cancer > Computational Models

Fibroblast growth factor 2 suppresses the expression of C-C motif chemokine 11 through the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway in human dental pulp-derived mesenchymal stem cells

The regulation of the mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) programming mechanism promises great success in regenerative medicine. Tissue regeneration has been associated not only with the differentiation of MSCs, but also with the microenvironment of the stem cell niche that involves various cytokines and immune cells in the tissue regeneration site. In the present study, fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), the principal growth factor for tooth development, dental pulp homeostasis and dentin repair, was reported to affect the expression of cytokines in human dental pulp-derived MSCs. FGF2 significantly inhibited the expression of chemokine C-C motif ligand 11 (CCL11) in a time- and dose-dependent manner in the SDP11 human dental pulp-derived MSC line. This inhibition was diminished following treatment with the AZD4547 FGF receptor (FGFR) inhibitor, indicating that FGF2 negatively regulated the expression of CCL11 in SDP11 cells. Furthermore, FGF2 activated the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) in SDP11 cells. The mechanism of the FGFR-downstream signaling pathway was then studied using the SB203580, U0126 and SP600125 inhibitors for p38 MAPK, ERK1/2, and JNK, respectively. Interestingly, only treatment with SP600125 blocked the FGF2-mediated suppression of CCL11. The present results suggested that FGF2 regulated the expression of cytokines and suppressed the expression of CCL11 via the JNK signaling pathway in human dental pulp-derived MSCs. The present findings could provide important insights into the association of FGF2 and CCL11 in dental tissue regeneration therapy.

FGF-2 promotes angiogenesis through a SRSF1/SRSF3/SRPK1-dependent axis that controls VEGFR1 splicing in endothelial cells

Background

Angiogenesis is the process by which new blood vessels arise from pre-existing ones. Fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2), a leading member of the FGF family of heparin-binding growth factors, contributes to normal as well as pathological angiogenesis. Pre-mRNA alternative splicing plays a key role in the regulation of cellular and tissular homeostasis and is highly controlled by splicing factors, including SRSFs. SRSFs belong to the SR protein family and are regulated by serine/threonine kinases such as SRPK1. Up to now, the role of SR proteins and their regulators in the biology of endothelial cells remains elusive, in particular upstream signals that control their expression.

Results

By combining 2D endothelial cells cultures, 3D collagen sprouting assay, a model of angiogenesis in cellulose sponges in mice and a model of angiogenesis in zebrafish, we collectively show that FGF-2 promotes proliferation, survival, and sprouting of endothelial cells by activating a SRSF1/SRSF3/SRPK1-dependent axis. In vitro, we further demonstrate that this FGF-2-dependent signaling pathway controls VEGFR1 pre-mRNA splicing and leads to the generation of soluble VEGFR1 splice variants, in particular a sVEGFR1-ex12 which retains an alternative last exon, that contribute to FGF-2-mediated angiogenic functions. Finally, we show that sVEGFR1-ex12 mRNA level correlates with that of FGF-2/FGFR1 in squamous lung carcinoma patients and that sVEGFR1-ex12 is a poor prognosis marker in these patients.

Conclusions

We demonstrate that FGF-2 promotes angiogenesis by activating a SRSF1/SRSF3/SRPK1 network that regulates VEGFR1 alternative splicing in endothelial cells, a process that could also contribute to lung tumor progression.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12915-021-01103-3.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes: Applications in Regenerative Medicine

Exosomes are a type of extracellular vesicles, produced within multivesicular bodies, that are then released into the extracellular space through a merging of the multivesicular body with the plasma membrane. These vesicles are secreted by almost all cell types to aid in a vast array of cellular functions, including intercellular communication, cell differentiation and proliferation, angiogenesis, stress response, and immune signaling. This ability to contribute to several distinct processes is due to the complexity of exosomes, as they carry a multitude of signaling moieties, including proteins, lipids, cell surface receptors, enzymes, cytokines, transcription factors, and nucleic acids. The favorable biological properties of exosomes including biocompatibility, stability, low toxicity, and proficient exchange of molecular cargos make exosomes prime candidates for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Exploring the functions and molecular payloads of exosomes can facilitate tissue regeneration therapies and provide mechanistic insight into paracrine modulation of cellular activities. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of exosome biogenesis, composition, and isolation methods. We also discuss emerging healing properties of exosomes and exosomal cargos, such as microRNAs, in brain injuries, cardiovascular disease, and COVID-19 amongst others. Overall, this review highlights the burgeoning roles and potential applications of exosomes in regenerative medicine.

Cytokine and Chemokine Profile Changes in Patients with Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration After Intravitreal Ranibizumab Injection for Choroidal Neovascularization

Objective

To investigate the concentrations of cytokine and chemokines profiling in aqueous humor for choroidal neovascularization (CNV) due to neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD) before and during Intravitreal injection of ranibizumab (IVR) and its relation with the disease’s active state.

Methods

The cytokine levels in aqueous humour were detected by the Bio-Plex^® 200 System and the Bio-Plex™ Human Cytokine Standard 27-Plex, Group I. Aqueous humour samples of experimental group were collected from 19 patients diagnosed nAMD at baseline and at 1 month after IVR. Aqueous humour samples of control group were collected from 20 patients undergoing cataract surgery.

Results

Aqueous humor levels of basic fibroblast growth factor (basic FGF) and RANTES were significantly lower in nAMD patients than in the control group (P=0.044 and P<0.001, respectively). Vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) was significantly higher in nAMD patients than in the control group (P < 0.001). The average Eotaxin levels were significantly higher in nAMD patients after IVR than before (P=0.03). Contrarily, the average VEGF-A levels were significantly lower in AMD patients after IVR than before (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

Angiogenic, growth factors and inflammatory are involved in the formation of neovascularization of AMD patients. IVR did not cause significant differences in any growth factors or inflammatory cytokines in nAMD patients with the exception of VEGF.

Neovascularization of engineered tissues for clinical translation: Where we are, where we should be?

One of the key challenges in engineering three-dimensional tissue constructs is the development of a mature microvascular network capable of supplying sufficient oxygen and nutrients to the tissue. Recent angiogenic therapeutic strategies have focused on vascularization of the constructed tissue, and its integration in vitro; these strategies typically combine regenerative cells, growth factors (GFs) with custom-designed biomaterials. However, the field needs to progress in the clinical translation of tissue engineering strategies. The article first presents a detailed description of the steps in neovascularization and the roles of extracellular matrix elements such as GFs in angiogenesis. It then delves into decellularization, cell, and GF-based strategies employed thus far for therapeutic angiogenesis, with a particularly detailed examination of different methods by which GFs are delivered in biomaterial scaffolds. Finally, interdisciplinary approaches involving advancement in biomaterials science and current state of technological development in fabrication techniques are critically evaluated, and a list of remaining challenges is presented that need to be solved for successful translation to the clinics.

Proangiogenic Effect of 2A-Peptide Based Multicistronic Recombinant Constructs Encoding VEGF and FGF2 Growth Factors

Coronary artery disease remains one of the primary healthcare problems due to the high cost of treatment, increased number of patients, poor clinical outcomes, and lack of effective therapy. Though pharmacological and surgical treatments positively affect symptoms and arrest the disease progression, they generally exhibit a limited effect on the disease outcome. The development of alternative therapeutic approaches towards ischemic disease treatment, especially of decompensated forms, is therefore relevant. Therapeutic angiogenesis, stimulated by various cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors, provides the possibility of restoring functional blood flow in ischemic tissues, thereby ensuring the regeneration of the damaged area. In the current study, based on the clinically approved plasmid vector pVax1, multigenic constructs were developed encoding vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), fibroblast growth factors (FGF2), and the DsRed fluorescent protein, integrated via picornaviruses' furin-2A peptide sequences. In vitro experiments demonstrated that genetically modified cells with engineered plasmid constructs expressed the target proteins. Overexpression of VEGF and FGF2 resulted in increased levels of the recombinant proteins. Concomitantly, these did not lead to a significant shift in the general secretory profile of modified HEK293T cells. Simultaneously, the secretome of genetically modified cells showed significant stimulating effects on the formation of capillary-like structures by HUVEC (endothelial cells) in vitro. Our results revealed that when the multicistronic multigene vectors encoding 2A peptide sequences are created, transient transgene co-expression is ensured. The results obtained indicated the mutual synergistic effects of the growth factors VEGF and FGF2 on the proliferation of endothelial cells in vitro. Thus, recombinant multicistronic multigenic constructs might serve as a promising approach for establishing safe and effective systems to treat ischemic diseases.

The Road Less Traveled? Unconventional Protein Secretion at Parasite-Host Interfaces

Protein secretion in eukaryotic cells is a well-studied process, which has been known for decades and is dealt with by any standard cell biology textbook. However, over the past 20 years, several studies led to the realization that protein secretion as a process might not be as uniform among different cargos as once thought. While in classic canonical secretion proteins carry a signal sequence, the secretory or surface proteome of several organisms demonstrated a lack of such signals in several secreted proteins. Other proteins were found to indeed carry a leader sequence, but simply circumvent the Golgi apparatus, which in canonical secretion is generally responsible for the modification and sorting of secretory proteins after their passage through the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). These alternative mechanisms of protein translocation to, or across, the plasma membrane were collectively termed “unconventional protein secretion” (UPS). To date, many research groups have studied UPS in their respective model organism of choice, with surprising reports on the proportion of unconventionally secreted proteins and their crucial roles for the cell and survival of the organism. Involved in processes such as immune responses and cell proliferation, and including far more different cargo proteins in different organisms than anyone had expected, unconventional secretion does not seem so unconventional after all. Alongside mammalian cells, much work on this topic has been done on protist parasites, including genera Leishmania, Trypanosoma, Plasmodium, Trichomonas, Giardia, and Entamoeba. Studies on protein secretion have mainly focused on parasite-derived virulence factors as a main source of pathogenicity for hosts. Given their need to secrete a variety of substrates, which may not be compatible with canonical secretion pathways, the study of mechanisms for alternative secretion pathways is particularly interesting in protist parasites. In this review, we provide an overview on the current status of knowledge on UPS in parasitic protists preceded by a brief overview of UPS in the mammalian cell model with a focus on IL-1β and FGF-2 as paradigmatic UPS substrates.

Microenvironment Influence of a Novel Bioengineered Wound Product, APIS®: A Preliminary In Vitro Analysis of Inflammatory Marker and Growth Factor Secretion

Objective

Preliminary biological activity assessment of a novel bioengineered wound product (APIS®, SweetBio, Inc., Memphis, TN, USA), a synthesis of gelatin, Manuka honey, and hydroxyapatite, with in vitro indications to protect, instill balance to, and progress the wound microenvironment. Approach. The biological activity the bioengineered wound product (BWP) elicits on human cells in vitro was assessed by evaluating matrix metalloproteinase- (MMP-) related proteins expressed by macrophages and secretion of growth factors in fibroblasts. Cells were cultured with no treatment, stimulated with lipopolysaccharides (LPS), or seeded directly on the BWP for 24 hours. An additional 72-hour time point for the BWP was assessed to determine if the BWP maintained its activity compared to itself at 24 hours. Cell culture supernatants were assayed to quantify secreted protein levels.

Results

MMP-9 secretion from macrophages seeded on the BWP were nondetectable (P < 0.01), while a tissue inhibitor of MMP (TIMP-1) was detected. This decreased the overall MMP-9/TIMP-1 ratio secreted from macrophages seeded on the BWP compared to the controls. Additionally, the secretion of prohealing growth factors such as basic fibroblast growth factor (FGFb) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was observed.

Conclusion

Results from this preliminary in vitro evaluation suggest that the BWP has the potential to instill balance to the wound microenvironment by reducing the MMP-9/TIMP-1 ratio secretion from macrophages and progress previously stalled chronic wounds towards healing by triggering the release of growth factors from fibroblasts.

Bleomycin induces epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition via bFGF/PI3K/ESRP1 signaling in pulmonary fibrosis

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fatal and chronic disease with a high rate of infection and mortality; however, its etiology and pathogenesis remain unclear. Studies have revealed that epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a crucial cellular event in IPF. Here, we identified that the pulmonary fibrosis inducer bleomycin simultaneously increased the expression of bFGF and TGF-β1 and inhibited epithelial-specific regulatory protein (ESRP1) expression in vivo and in vitro. In addition, in vitro experiments showed that bFGF and TGF-β1 down-regulated the expression of ESRP1 and that silencing ESRP1 promoted EMT in A549 cells. Notably, we determined that bFGF activates PI3K/Akt signaling, and treatment with the PI3K/Akt inhibitor LY294002 inhibited bleomycin-induced cell morphology changes and EMT. In addition, the effects of LY294002 on bleomycin-induced EMT were inhibited by ESRP1 silencing in A549 cells. Taken together, these findings suggest that bleomycin induced EMT through down-regulating ESRP1 by simultaneously increasing bFGF and TGF-β1 in pulmonary fibrosis. Additionally, our findings indicated that bFGF inhibits ESRP1 by activating PI3K/Akt signaling.

Growth Factors VEGF-A165 and FGF-2 as Multifunctional Biomolecules Governing Cell Adhesion and Proliferation

Vascular endothelial growth factor-A165 (VEGF-A165) and fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) are currently used for the functionalization of biomaterials designed for tissue engineering. We have developed a new simple method for heterologous expression and purification of VEGF-A165 and FGF-2 in the yeast expression system of Pichia pastoris. The biological activity of the growth factors was assessed in cultures of human and porcine adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ADSCs) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). When added into the culture medium, VEGF-A165 stimulated proliferation only in HUVECs, while FGF-2 stimulated the proliferation of both cell types. A similar effect was achieved when the growth factors were pre-adsorbed to polystyrene wells. The effect of our recombinant growth factors was slightly lower than that of commercially available factors, which was attributed to the presence of some impurities. The stimulatory effect of the VEGF-A165 on cell adhesion was rather weak, especially in ADSCs. FGF-2 was a potent stimulator of the adhesion of ADSCs but had no to negative effect on the adhesion of HUVECs. In sum, FGF-2 and VEGF-A165 have diverse effects on the behavior of different cell types, which maybe utilized in tissue engineering.

Engineering of Doxorubicin-Encapsulating and TRAIL-Conjugated Poly(RGD) Proteinoid Nanocapsules for Drug Delivery Applications

Proteinoids are non-toxic biodegradable polymers prepared by thermal step-growth polymerization of amino acids. Here, P(RGD) proteinoids and proteinoid nanocapsules (NCs) based on D-arginine, glycine, and L-aspartic acid were synthesized and characterized for targeted tumor therapy. Doxorubicin (Dox), a chemotherapeutic drug used for treatment of a wide range of cancers, known for its adverse side effects, was encapsulated during self-assembly to form Dox/P(RGD) NCs. In addition, tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), which can initiate apoptosis in most tumor cells but undergoes fast enzyme degradation, was stabilized by covalent conjugation to hollow P(RGD) NCs. The effect of polyethylene glycol (PEG) conjugation was also studied. Cytotoxicity tests on CAOV-3 ovarian cancer cells demonstrated that Dox/P(RGD) and TRAIL-P(RGD) NCs were as effective as free Dox and TRAIL with cell viability of 2% and 10%, respectively, while PEGylated NCs were less effective. Drug-bearing P(RGD) NCs offer controlled release with reduced side effects for improved therapy.

Fibroblast growth factor 2 accelerates the epithelial-mesenchymal transition in keratinocytes during wound healing process

In the wound healing process, the morphology of keratinocytes at the wound edge temporarily changes to a spindle morphology, which is thought to occur due to an epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT). Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) 2, also called basic FGF, has the potential to accelerate wound closure by activating vascular endothelial cells and fibroblasts. We examined the effects of FGF2 on keratinocyte morphology and EMT in wounded skin. Histological examination of murine wounds treated with FGF2 revealed that wound edge keratinocytes formed thickened and multilayered epithelia. In addition, we detected wound edge keratinocytes migrating individually toward the wound center. These migrating keratinocytes exhibited not only spindle morphology but also down-regulated E-cadherin and up-regulated vimentin expression, which is characteristic of EMT. In FGF2-treated wounds, a PCR array revealed the upregulation of genes related to EMT, including transforming growth factor (TGF) signaling. Further, FGF2-treated wound edge keratinocytes expressed EMT-associated transcription factors, including Snai2, and showed translocation of β-catenin from the cell membrane to the cytoplasm/nucleus. However, in vitro examination of keratinocytes revealed that FGF2 alone did not activate EMT in keratinocytes, but that FGF2 might promote EMT in combination with TGFβ1. These findings suggest that FGF2 treatment of wounds could promote keratinocyte EMT, accelerating wound closure.

Actomyosin and the MRTF-SRF pathway downregulate FGFR1 in mesenchymal stromal cells

Both biological and mechanical signals are known to influence cell proliferation. However, biological signals are mostly studied in two-dimensions (2D) and the interplay between these different pathways is largely unstudied. Here, we investigated the influence of the cell culture environment on the response to bFGF, a widely studied and important proliferation growth factor. We observed that human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs), but not fibroblasts, lose the ability to respond to soluble or covalently bound bFGF when cultured on microfibrillar substrates. This behavior correlated with a downregulation of FGF receptor 1 (FGFR1) expression of hMSCs on microfibrillar substrates. Inhibition of actomyosin or the MRTF/SRF pathway decreased FGFR1 expression in hMSCs, fibroblasts and MG63 cells. To our knowledge, this is the first time FGFR1 expression is shown to be regulated through a mechanosensitive pathway in hMSCs. These results add to the sparse literature on FGFR1 regulation and potentially aid designing tissue engineering constructs that better control cell proliferation.

Small Cell Lung Cancer from Traditional to Innovative Therapeutics: Building a Comprehensive Network to Optimize Clinical and Translational Research

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is an aggressive, complex disease with a distinct biology that contributes to its poor prognosis. Management of SCLC is still widely limited to chemotherapy and radiation therapy, and research recruitment still poses a considerable challenge. Here, we review the current standard of care for SCLC and advances made in utilizing immunotherapy. We also highlight research in the development of targeted therapies and emphasize the importance of a team-based approach to make clinical advances. Building an integrative network between an academic site and community practice sites optimizes biomarker and drug target discovery for managing and treating a difficult disease like SCLC.

Sustained release and protein stabilization reduce the growth factor dosage required for human pluripotent stem cell expansion

Translation of human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived therapies to the clinic demands scalable, cost-effective methods for cell expansion. Culture media currently used for hPSC expansion rely on high concentrations and frequent supplementation of recombinant growth factors due to their short half-life at physiological temperatures. Here, we developed a biomaterial strategy using mineral-coated microparticles (MCMs) to sustain delivery of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), a thermolabile protein critical for hPSC pluripotency and proliferation. We show that the MCMs stabilize bFGF against thermally induced activity loss and provide more efficient sustained release of active growth factor compared to polymeric carriers commonly used for growth factor delivery. Using a statistically driven optimization approach called Design of Experiments, we generated a bFGF-loaded MCM formulation that supported hPSC expansion over 25 passages without the need for additional bFGF supplementation to the media, resulting in greater than 80% reduction in bFGF usage compared to standard approaches. This materials-based strategy to stabilize and sustain delivery of a thermolabile growth factor has broad potential to reduce costs associated with recombinant protein supplements in scalable biomanufacturing of emerging cell therapies.

Astrocyte-derived extracellular vesicles: Neuroreparative properties and role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by neural cells play an essential role in brain homeostasis and the crosstalk between neural cells and the periphery. EVs are diverse, nano-sized vesicles, which transport proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids between cells over short and long expanses and hence are proficient for modulating the target cells. EVs released from neural cells are implicated in synaptic plasticity, neuron-glia interface, neuroprotection, neuroregeneration, and the dissemination of neuropathological molecules. This review confers the various properties of EVs secreted by astrocytes and their potential role in health and disease with a focus on evolving concepts. Naïve astrocytes shed EVs containing a host of neuroprotective compounds, which include fibroblast growth factor-2, vascular endothelial growth factor, and apolipoprotein-D. Stimulated astrocytes secrete EVs with neuroprotective molecules including heat shock proteins, synapsin 1, unique microRNAs, and glutamate transporters. Well-characterized astrocyte-derived EVs (ADEVs) generated in specific culture conditions and ADEVs that are engineered to carry the desired miRNAs or proteins are likely useful for treating brain injury and neurogenerative diseases. On the other hand, in conditions such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), stroke, Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and other neuroinflammatory conditions, EVs released by activated astrocytes appear to mediate or exacerbate the pathological processes. The examples include ADEVs spreading the dysregulated complement system in AD, mediating motoneuron toxicity in ALS, and stimulating peripheral leukocyte migration into the brain in inflammatory conditions. Strategies restraining the release of EVs by activated astrocytes or modulating the composition of ADEVs are likely beneficial for treating neurodegenerative diseases. Also, periodic analyses of ADEVs in the blood is useful for detecting astrocyte-specific biomarkers in different neurological conditions and for monitoring disease progression and remission with distinct therapeutic approaches.

Computer simulations of protein-membrane systems

The interactions between proteins and membranes play critical roles in signal transduction, cell motility, and transport, and they are involved in many types of diseases. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have greatly contributed to our understanding of protein-membrane interactions, promoted by a dramatic development of MD-related software, increasingly accurate force fields, and available computer power. In this chapter, we present available methods for studying protein-membrane systems with MD simulations, including an overview about the various all-atom and coarse-grained force fields for lipids, and useful software for membrane simulation setup and analysis. A large set of case studies is discussed.

IL-1-conferred gene expression pattern in ERα+ BCa and AR+ PCa cells is intrinsic to ERα- BCa and AR- PCa cells and promotes cell survival

Background

Breast (BCa) and prostate (PCa) cancers are hormone receptor (HR)-driven cancers. Thus, BCa and PCa patients are given therapies that reduce hormone levels or directly block HR activity; but most patients eventually develop treatment resistance. We have previously reported that interleukin-1 (IL-1) inflammatory cytokine downregulates ERα and AR mRNA in HR-positive (HR⁺) BCa and PCa cell lines, yet the cells can remain viable. Additionally, we identified pro-survival proteins and processes upregulated by IL-1 in HR⁺ BCa and PCa cells, that are basally high in HR⁻ BCa and PCa cells. Therefore, we hypothesize that IL-1 confers a conserved gene expression pattern in HR⁺ BCa and PCa cells that mimics conserved basal gene expression patterns in HR⁻ BCa and PCa cells to promote HR-independent survival and tumorigenicity.

Methods

We performed RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) for HR⁺ BCa and PCa cell lines exposed to IL-1 and for untreated HR⁻ BCa and PCa cell lines. We confirmed expression patterns of select genes by RT-qPCR and used siRNA and/or drug inhibition to silence select genes in the BCa and PCa cell lines. Finally, we performed Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) and used the gene ontology web-based tool, GOrilla, to identify signaling pathways encoded by our RNA-seq data set.

Results

We identified 350 genes in common between BCa and PCa cells that are induced or repressed by IL-1 in HR⁺ cells that are, respectively, basally high or low in HR⁻ cells. Among these genes, we identified Sequestome-1 (SQSTM1/p62) and SRY (Sex-Determining Region Y)-Box 9 (SOX9) to be essential for survival of HR⁻ BCa and PCa cell lines. Analysis of publicly available data indicates that p62 and SOX9 expression are elevated in HR-independent BCa and PCa sublines generated in vitro, suggesting that p62 and SOX9 have a role in acquired hormone receptor independence and treatment resistance. We also assessed HR⁻ cell line viability in response to the p62-targeting drug, verteporfin, and found that verteporfin is cytotoxic for HR⁻ cell lines.

Conclusions

Our 350 gene set can be used to identify novel therapeutic targets and/or biomarkers conserved among acquired (e.g. due to inflammation) or intrinsic HR-independent BCa and PCa.

Inhibition of FGFR2-Signaling Attenuates a Homology-Mediated DNA Repair in GIST and Sensitizes Them to DNA-Topoisomerase II Inhibitors

Deregulation of receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK)-signaling is frequently observed in many human malignancies, making activated RTKs the promising therapeutic targets. In particular, activated RTK-signaling has a strong impact on tumor resistance to various DNA damaging agents, e.g., ionizing radiation and chemotherapeutic drugs. We showed recently that fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR)-signaling might be hyperactivated in imatinib (IM)-resistant gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) and inhibition of this pathway sensitized tumor cells to the low doses of chemotherapeutic agents, such as topoisomerase II inhibitors. Here, we report that inhibition of FGFR-signaling in GISTs attenuates the repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which was evidenced by the delay in γ-H2AX decline after doxorubicin (Dox)-induced DNA damage. A single-cell gel electrophoresis (Comet assay) data showed an increase of tail moment in Dox-treated GIST cells cultured in presence of BGJ398, a selective FGFR1-4 inhibitor, thereby revealing the attenuated DNA repair. By utilizing GFP-based reporter constructs to assess the efficiency of DSBs repair via homologous recombination (HR) and non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ), we found for the first time that FGFR inhibition in GISTs attenuated the homology-mediated DNA repair. Of note, FGFR inhibition/depletion did not reduce the number of BrdU and phospho-RPA foci in Dox-treated cells, suggesting that inhibition of FGFR-signaling has no impact on the processing of DSBs. In contrast, the number of Dox-induced Rad51 foci were decreased when FGFR2-mediated signaling was interrupted/inhibited by siRNA FGFR2 or BGJ398. Moreover, Rad51 and -H2AX foci were mislocalized in FGFR-inhibited GIST and the amount of Rad51 was substantially decreased in -H2AX-immunoprecipitated complexes, thereby illustrating the defect of Rad51 recombinase loading to the Dox-induced DSBs. Finally, as a result of the impaired homology-mediated DNA repair, the increased numbers of hypodiploid (i.e., apoptotic) cells were observed in FGFR2-inhibited GISTs after Dox treatment. Collectively, our data illustrates for the first time that inhibition of FGF-signaling in IM-resistant GIST interferes with the efficiency of DDR signaling and attenuates the homology-mediated DNA repair, thus providing the molecular mechanism of GIST’s sensitization to DNA damaging agents, e.g., DNA-topoisomerase II inhibitors.

Biodistribution of Site-Specific PEGylated Fibroblast Growth Factor-2

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) is a small 18 kDa protein with clinical potential for ischemic heart disease, wound healing, and spinal cord injury. However, the therapeutic potential of systemic FGF-2 administration is challenged by its fast elimination. Therefore, we deployed genetic codon expansion to integrate an azide functionality to the FGF-2 N-terminus, which was site-directly decorated with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) through bioorthogonal strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC). PEGylated FGF-2 was as bioactive as wild-type FGF-2 as demonstrated by cell proliferation and Erk phosphorylation of fibroblasts. The PEGylated FGF-2 conjugate was radiolabeled with [¹¹¹In] Indium cation ([¹¹¹In]In³⁺) to study its biodistribution through noninvasive imaging by single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and by quantitative activity analysis of the respective organs in healthy mice. This study details the biodistribution pattern of site-specific PEGylated FGF-2 in tissues after intravenous (iv) administration compared to the unconjugated protein. Low accumulation of the PEGylated FGF-2 variant in the kidney and the liver was demonstrated, whereas specific uptake of PEGylated FGF-2 into the retina was significantly diminished. In conclusion, site-specific PEGylation of FGF-2 by SPAAC resulted in a superior outcome for the synthesis yield and in conjugates with excellent biological performances with a gain of half-life but reduced tissue access in vivo.

Ureterolysis with ureterotomy and omental sleeve wrap in patients with radiation induced pelvic retroperitoneal fibrosis

Introduction

Secondary retroperitoneal fibrosis (RPF) due to pelvic radiation alone or together with pelvic surgery is one of the causes of obstructive renal failure. Ureteral obstruction is caused by ischemic stricture and encasement by fibrotic tissue. Endo-ureterotomy alone, without vascular supply, is not successful in these cases.

Material and methods

We present eleven cases of ureteral obstruction due to radiation and surgery induced RPF. Seven patients had radiation therapy with or without radical hysterectomy and three patients had anterior resection of the rectum with pre-emptive radiation and one patient had anal cancer treated with local excision and radiation therapy. Nine of the eleven patients had bilateral ureteral obstruction. Open ('intubated') stented ureterotomy and omental sleeve wrap was performed. In one patient, Boari flap ureteroneocystostomy was necessary.

Results

Of the eleven patients (twenty renal units) we succeeded in nine patients (eighteen renal units). In two patients with bilateral ureteral obstruction, we were able to reestablish ureteral patency in only one renal unit each.

Conclusions

Ureterolysis with ureterotomy and omental sleeve wrap is a valid surgical approach for alleviation of ureteral ischemic obstruction due to secondary retroperitoneal fibrosis caused by radiation alone or together with pelvic surgery.

Anti-Angiogenic and Anti-Scarring Dual Action of an Anti-Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 Aptamer in Animal Models of Retinal Disease

Currently approved therapies for age-related macular degeneration (AMD) are inhibitors against vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which is a major contributor to the pathogenesis of neovascular AMD (nAMD). Intravitreal injections of anti-VEGF drugs have shown dramatic visual benefits for AMD patients. However, a significant portion of AMD patients exhibit an incomplete response to therapy and, over the extended management course, can lose vision, with the formation of submacular fibrosis as one risk factor. We investigated a novel target for AMD treatments, fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), which has been implicated in the pathophysiology of both angiogenesis and fibrosis in a variety of tissue and organ systems. The anti-FGF2 aptamer, RBM-007, was examined for treatment of nAMD in animal models. In in vivo studies conducted in mice and rats, RBM-007 was able to inhibit FGF2-induced angiogenesis, laser-induced choroidal neovascularization (CNV), and CNV with fibrosis. Pharmacokinetic studies of RBM-007 in the rabbit vitreous revealed high and relatively long-lasting profiles that are superior to other approved anti-VEGF drugs. The anti-angiogenic and anti-scarring dual action of RBM-007 holds promise as an additive or alternative therapy to anti-VEGF treatments for nAMD.

In vivo construction of lymphoid node by implantation of adipose-derived stromal cells with hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose hydrogel in BALB/c nude mice

Adipose-derived stromal cells have multilineage potential to differentiate into several specialized tissue types. Herein, we investigated whether ADSCs could differentiate into lymphoid node in vivo. Human ADSCs from routine liposuction were cultured in differentiation medium and were supplemented with transforming growth factor β1 (TGF)-β1 and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF). The induced hADSCs mixed with 13% (w/v) hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) were injected into BALB/c nude mice subcutaneously. Eight weeks later, nodules were found under the injected sites. Histology, immunohistochemistry, and species identification analysis confirmed that the nodules were lymphoid nodes that were derived from the injected hADSCs. Our experiment demonstrated that the hADSCs could differentiate into lymphocyte-like cells and form lymphoid nodes in vivo. TGF-β1 and bFGF might play important roles in the differentiation of hADSCs into lymphocyte-like cells. Our study might present an alternative approach for engineering immune organs and thus offer potential treatment for immunodeficiency diseases.

Isolation, Culture and Functional Characterization of Glia and Endothelial Cells From Adult Pig Brain

Primary cultures of glial and endothelial cells are important tools for basic and translational neuroscience research. Primary cell cultures are usually generated from rodent brain although considerable differences exist between human and rodent glia and endothelial cells. Because many translational research projects aim to identify mechanisms that eventually lead to diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to target human diseases, glia, and endothelial cultures are needed that better reflect the human central nervous system (CNS). Pig brain is easily accessible and, in many aspects, close to the human brain. We established an easy and cost-effective method to isolate and culture different primary glial and endothelial cells from adult pig brain. Oligodendrocyte, microglia, astrocyte, and endothelial primary cell cultures were generated from the same brain tissue and grown for up to 8 weeks. Primary cells showed lineage-specific morphology and expressed specific markers with a purity ranging from 60 to 95%. Cultured oligodendrocytes myelinated neurons and microglia secreted tumor necrosis factor alpha when induced with lipopolysaccharide. Endothelial cells showed typical tube formation when grown on Matrigel. Astrocytes enhanced survival of co-cultured neurons and were killed by Aquaporin-4 antibody positive sera from patients with Neuromyelitis optica. In summary, we established a new method for primary oligodendrocyte, microglia, endothelial and astrocyte cell cultures from pig brain that provide a tool for translational research on human CNS diseases.

Recent trends in predictive biomarkers for determining malignant potential of oral potentially malignant disorders

Despite of the tremendous advancements in the field of cancer prevention, detection and treatment, the overall prognosis of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) still remains poor. This can be partly imparted to the lack of early detection of oral potentially malignant disorders (OPMDs), especially those at a higher risk of progression into OSCC. Over years, various specific and non-specific markers have been introduced that could predict the malignant transformation of OPMDs; however detail information on these OPMD markers in a concise manner is lacking. Moreover, their use on daily clinical basis still remains questionable. With continuous research in the field of cytology and genomics, several contemporary biomarkers have been discovered that are not yet foregrounded and proved to be more promising than those used conventionally. Here, in the present paper, we overview several recently concluded predictive biomarkers with special emphasis on their role in molecular pathogenesis of OSCC transformation. These markers can be used for risk assessment of malignant transformation in patients with OPMDs as well as for prophylactic conciliation and fair management of the high-risk OPMD patient group.

Effects of Curcumin on Vessel Formation Insight into the Pro- and Antiangiogenesis of Curcumin

Curcumin is a compound extracted from the Curcuma longa L, which possesses a wide range of pharmacological effects. However, few studies have collected scientific evidence on its dual effect on angiogenesis. The present review gathered the fragmented information available in the literature to discuss the dual effect and possible mechanisms of curcumin on angiogenesis. Available information concerning the effect of curcumin on angiogenesis is compiled from scientific databases, including PubMed and Web of Science using the key term (curcumin and angiogenesis). The results were reviewed to identify relevant articles. Related literature demonstrated that curcumin has antiangiogenesis effect via regulating multiple factors, including proangiogenesis factor VEGF, MMPs, and FGF, both in vivo and in vitro, and could promote angiogenesis under certain circumstances via these factors. This paper provided a short review on bidirectional action of curcumin, which should be useful for further study and application of this compound that require further studies.

The Inhibitory Effect of Propylene Glycol Alginate Sodium Sulfate on Fibroblast Growth Factor 2-Mediated Angiogenesis and Invasion in Murine Melanoma B16-F10 Cells In Vitro

Melanoma is one of the most malignant and aggressive types of cancer worldwide. Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) is one of the critical regulators of melanoma angiogenesis and metastasis; thus, it might be an effective anti-cancer strategy to explore FGF2-targeting drug candidates from existing drugs. In this study, we evaluate the effect of the marine drug propylene glycol alginate sodium sulfate (PSS) on FGF2-mediated angiogenesis and invasion. The data shows that FGF2 selectively bound to PSS with high affinity. PSS inhibited FGF2-mediated angiogenesis in a rat aortic ring model and suppressed FGF2-mediated invasion, but not the migration of murine melanoma B16-F10 cells. The further mechanism study indicates that PSS decreased the expression of activated matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), and also suppressed their activity. In addition, PSS was found to decrease the level of Vimentin in B16-F10 cells, which is known to participate in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Notably, PSS did not elicit any changes in cancer cell viability. Based on the results above, we conclude that PSS might be a potential drug to regulate the tumor microenvironment in order to facilitate the recovery of melanoma patients.

Fibroblast Growth Factor-2 Binding to Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans Varies with Shear Stress in Flow-Adapted Cells

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), an important regulator of angiogenesis, binds to endothelial cell (EC) surface FGF receptors (FGFRs) and heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). FGF2 binding kinetics have been predominantly studied in static culture; however, the endothelium is constantly exposed to flow which may affect FGF2 binding. We therefore used experimental and computational techniques to study how EC FGF2 binding changes in flow. ECs adapted to 24 h of flow demonstrated biphasic FGF2-HSPG binding, with FGF2-HSPG complexes increasing up to 20 dynes/cm2 shear stress and then decreasing at higher shear stresses. To understand how adaptive EC surface remodeling in response to shear stress may affect FGF2 binding to FGFR and HSPG, we implemented a computational model to predict the relative effects of flow-induced surface receptor changes. We then fit the computational model to the experimental data using relationships between HSPG availability and FGF2-HSPG dissociation and flow that were developed from a basement membrane study, as well as including HSPG production. These studies suggest that FGF2 binding kinetics are altered in flow-adapted ECs due to changes in cell surface receptor quantity, availability, and binding kinetics, which may affect cell growth factor response.

GRP78/BIP/HSPA5 as a Therapeutic Target in Models of Parkinson's Disease: A Mini Review

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by selective loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta of the midbrain. Reports from postmortem studies in the human PD brain, and experimental PD models reveal that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is implicated in the pathogenesis of PD. In times of stress, the unfolded or misfolded proteins overload the folding capacity of the ER to induce a condition generally known as ER stress. During ER stress, cells activate the unfolded protein response (UPR) to handle increasing amounts of abnormal proteins, and recent evidence has demonstrated the activation of the ER chaperone GRP78/BiP (78 kDa glucose-regulated protein/binding immunoglobulin protein), which is important for proper folding of newly synthesized and partly folded proteins to maintain protein homeostasis. Although the activation of this protein is essential for the initiation of the UPR in PD, there are inconsistent reports on its expression in various PD models. Consequently, this review article aims to summarize current knowledge on neuroprotective agents targeting the expression of GRP78/BiP in the regulation of ER stress in experimental PD models.

MicroRNA-Regulated Rickettsial Invasion into Host Endothelium via Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 and Its Receptor FGFR1

Microvascular endothelial cells (ECs) represent the primary target cells during human rickettsioses and respond to infection via the activation of immediate–early signaling cascades and the resultant induction of gene expression. As small noncoding RNAs dispersed throughout the genome, microRNAs (miRNAs) regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally to govern a wide range of biological processes. Based on our recent findings demonstrating the involvement of fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) in facilitating rickettsial invasion into host cells and published reports suggesting miR-424 and miR-503 as regulators of FGF2/FGFR1, we measured the expression of miR-424 and miR-503 during R. conorii infection of human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMECs). Our results revealed a significant decrease in miR-424 and miR-503 expression in apparent correlation with increased expression of FGF2 and FGFR1. Considering the established phenomenon of endothelial heterogeneity and pulmonary and cerebral edema as the prominent pathogenic features of rickettsial infections, and significant pathogen burden in the lungs and brain in established mouse models of disease, we next quantified miR-424 and miR-503 expression in pulmonary and cerebral microvascular ECs. Again, R. conorii infection dramatically downregulated both miRNAs in these tissue-specific ECs as early as 30 min post-infection in correlation with higher FGF2/FGFR1 expression. Changes in the expression of both miRNAs and FGF2/FGFR1 were next confirmed in a mouse model of R. conorii infection. Furthermore, miR-424 overexpression via transfection of a mimic into host ECs reduced the expression of FGF2/FGFR1 and gave a corresponding decrease in R. conorii invasion, while an inhibitor of miR-424 had the expected opposite effect. Together, these findings implicate the rickettsial manipulation of host gene expression via regulatory miRNAs to ensure efficient cellular entry as the critical requirement to establish intracellular infection.

The role of FGF-2 in smoke-induced emphysema and the therapeutic potential of recombinant FGF-2 in patients with COPD

Although the positive effects of recombinant fibroblast growth factor-2 (rFGF-2) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) have been implicated in previous studies, knowledge of its role in COPD remains limited. The mechanism of FGF2 in a COPD mouse model and the therapeutic potential of rFGF-2 were investigated in COPD. The mechanism and protective effects of rFGF-2 were evaluated in cigarette smoke-exposed or elastase-induced COPD animal models. Inflammation was assessed in alveolar cells and lung tissues from mice. FGF-2 was decreased in the lungs of cigarette smoke-exposed mice. Intranasal use of rFGF-2 significantly reduced macrophage-dominant inflammation and alveolar destruction in the lungs. In the elastase-induced emphysema model, rFGF-2 improved regeneration of the lungs. In humans, plasma FGF-2 was decreased significantly in COPD compared with normal subjects (10 subjects, P = 0.037). The safety and efficacy of inhaled rFGF-2 use was examined in COPD patients, along with changes in respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function. A 2-week treatment with inhaled rFGF-2 in COPD (n = 6) resulted in significantly improved respiratory symptoms compared with baseline levels (P < 0.05); however, the results were not significant compared with the placebo. The pulmonary function test results of COPD improved numerically compared with those in the placebo, but the difference was not statistically significant. No serious adverse events occurred during treatment with inhaled rFGF-2. The loss of FGF-2 production is an important mechanism in the development of COPD. Inhaling rFGF-2 may be a new therapeutic option for patients with COPD because rFGF-2 decreases inflammation in lungs exposed to cigarette smoke.

The regulation of cytokine signaling by retinal determination gene network pathway in cancer

Tumor environment plays a pivotal role in determining cancer biology characteristics. Cytokine factors, as a critical component in tumor milieu, execute distinct functions in the process of tumorigenesis and progression via the autocrine or paracrine manner. The retinal determination gene network (RDGN), which mainly comprised DACH, SIX, and EYA family members, is required for the organ development in mammalian species. While the aberrant expression of RDGN is involved in the proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and metastasis of tumors via interacting with different cytokine-related signals, such as CXCL8, IL-6, TGF-β, FGF, and VEGF, in a cell- or tissue-dependent manner. Thus, joint detection of this pathway might be used as a potential biomarker for the stratification of target therapy and for the precision prediction of the prognosis of cancer patients.

Effects of the extracorporeal shock wave therapy on the skin: an experimental study

Extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) has been extensively studied for its multiple biological properties, and although it is widely applied in esthetical procedures, little is known about its effects on the epidermis and dermis. In this study, a histological and immunohistochemical study of the effects of ESWT was performed on rat skin. Forty-five female rats were treated with one or two sessions of ESWT and sacrificed on days 1, 7, 14, and 21 after treatment. The samples were histologically processed and then morphometric analyses were performed to assess the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous fat tissue thickness. Immunohistochemical reactions were also performed against the antibodies: basic fibroblastic growth factor (FGF2), its receptor (FGFR1), and α-smooth muscle actin. Slides were scanned and digitally assessed, to determine the microvessel density (MVD) and digital scoring of the immunohistochemical staining. The results showed that ESWT produced a significantly higher collagen content, MVD, and epidermis and dermis thickness than the control, non-treated group. Both in epidermis and dermis, FGF2 was overexpressed in the ESWT-treated groups, whereas FGFR1 was increased only in the group treated with two ESWT sessions at 21-days post-treatment. The ESWT-treated groups have also shown diminished thickness of subcutaneous fat tissue. In conclusion, ESWT induces neocollagenesis and neoangiogenesis, and upregulates the FGF2 expression, particularly in the groups treated with two sessions. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that overexpression of FGF2 on skins treated with ESWT seems to be a key role on its mechanism of action.

Current and emerging therapies for corneal neovascularization

The cornea is unique because of its complete avascularity. Corneal neovascularization (CNV) can result from a variety of etiologies including contact lens wear; corneal infections; and ocular surface diseases due to inflammation, chemical injury, and limbal stem cell deficiency. Management is focused primarily on the etiology and pathophysiology causing the CNV and involves medical and surgical options. Because inflammation is a key factor in the pathophysiology of CNV, corticosteroids and other anti-inflammatory medications remain the mainstay of treatment. Anti-VEGF therapies are gaining popularity to prevent CNV in a number of etiologies. Surgical options including vessel occlusion and ocular surface reconstruction are other options depending on etiology and response to medical therapy. Future therapies should provide more effective treatment options for the management of CNV.

A vaccine targeting basic fibroblast growth factor elicits a protective immune response against murine melanoma

Tumor growth and metastasis are closely related to angiogenesis. Basic fibroblast growth factor(bFGF) is an angiogenic factor, and up-regulated expression of bFGF plays a crucial role in the development and metastasis of melanoma. Therefore, in this study, we sought to achieve antitumor activity by immunity targeting bFGF which would inhibit tumor angiogenesis and simultaneously induce bFGF specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes to kill melanoma cells. A human bFGF protein was used as exogenous antigen, coupled with a saponin-liposome adjuvant formulation to enhance CTL response. The results showed that the immunity induced strong immune response and produced prominent anti-cancer activities. CD31 immunohistochemistry and alginate-encapsulated tumor cell assay displayed that tumor angiogenesis was effectively inhibited. Further, the higher production of IFN-γ and cytotoxic T lymphocyte killing assay suggested that the anti-cancer activities may mainly depend on cellular immune response, which could cause the inhibition of tumor angiogenesis and specific killing of tumor cells by bFGF-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes. We concluded that immunotherapy targeting bFGF may be a prominent strategy for melanoma, and that the adjuvant formulation of saponin-liposome is very desirable in enhancing cytotoxic T lymphocytes response.