Targeted Isolation of Antibodies Directed against Major Sites of SIV Env Vulnerability

Exploring the Impact of Airway Microbiome on Asthma Morbidity: A Focus on the "Constructing a 'Eubiosis Reinstatement Therapy' for Asthma-CURE" Project

The asthma pandemic imposes a huge burden on patients and health systems in both developed and developing countries. Despite available treatments, symptom control is generally suboptimal, and hospitalizations and deaths remain at unacceptably high levels. A pivotal aspect of asthma that warrants further exploration is the influence of the respiratory microbiome and virome in modulating disease activity. A plethora of studies report that the respiratory microbiome is characteristically dysbiotic in asthma. In addition, our data suggest that dysbiosis is also observed on the respiratory virome, partly characterized by the reduced abundance of bacteriophages (phages). Even though phages can naturally infect and control their bacterial prey, phage therapy has been grossly neglected in the Western world, although more recently it is more widely used as a novel tool against bacterial infections. However, it has never been used for tackling microbiome dysbiosis in human non-communicable diseases. This review provides an up-to-date understanding of the microbiome and virome's role within the airways in relation to asthma morbidity. It also advances the rationale and hypothesis for the CURE project. Specifically, the CURE project suggests that managing the respiratory microbiome through phage therapy is viable and may result in restoring eubiosis within the asthmatic airway. This entails controlling immune dysregulation and the clinical manifestation of the disease. To accomplish this goal, it is crucial to predict the effects of introducing specific phage mixtures into the intricate ecology of the airways and devise suitable interventions.

More than the Infinite Monkey Theorem: NHP Models in the Development of a Pediatric HIV Cure

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

An HIV cure that eliminates the viral reservoir or provides viral control without antiretroviral therapy (ART) is an urgent need in children as they face unique challenges, including lifelong ART adherence and the deleterious effects of chronic immune activation. This review highlights the importance of nonhuman primate (NHP) models in developing an HIV cure for children as these models recapitulate the viral pathogenesis and persistence.

RECENT FINDINGS

Several cure approaches have been explored in infant NHPs, although knowledge gaps remain. Broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) show promise for controlling viremia and delaying viral rebound after ART interruption but face administration challenges. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors hold the potential for sustained bNAb expression. Therapeutic vaccination induces immune responses against simian retroviruses but has yet to impact the viral reservoir. Combining immunotherapies with latency reversal agents (LRAs) that enhance viral antigen expression should be explored. Current and future cure approaches will require adaptation for the pediatric immune system and unique features of virus persistence, for which NHP models are fundamental to assess their efficacy.

A SMART method for isolating monoclonal antibodies from individual rhesus macaque memory B cells

Characterizing antigen-specific B cells is a critical component of vaccine and infectious disease studies in rhesus macaques (RMs). However, it is challenging to capture immunoglobulin variable (IgV) genes from individual RM B cells using 5' multiplex (MTPX) primers in nested PCR reactions. In particular, the diversity within RM IgV gene leader sequences necessitates large 5' MTPX primer sets to amplify IgV genes, decreasing PCR efficiency. To address this problem, we developed a switching mechanism at the 5' ends of the RNA transcript (SMART)-based method for amplifying IgV genes from single RM B cells to capture Ig heavy and light chain pairs. We demonstrate this technique by isolating simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) envelope-specific antibodies from single-sorted RM memory B cells. This approach has several advantages over existing methods for cloning antibodies from RMs. First, optimized PCR conditions and SMART 5' and 3' rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) reactions generate full-length cDNAs from individual B cells. Second, it appends synthetic primer binding sites to the 5' and 3' ends of cDNA during synthesis, allowing for PCR amplification of low-abundance antibody templates. Third, the nested PCR primer mixes are simplified by employing universal 5' primers, eliminating the need for complex 5' MTPX primer sets. We anticipate this method will enhance the isolation of antibodies from individual RM B cells, supporting the genetic and functional characterization of antigen-specific B cells.

AZD5582 plus SIV-specific antibodies reduce lymph node viral reservoirs in antiretroviral therapy-suppressed macaques

The main barrier to HIV cure is a persistent reservoir of latently infected CD4+ T cells harboring replication-competent provirus that fuels rebound viremia upon antiretroviral therapy (ART) interruption. A leading approach to target this reservoir involves agents that reactivate latent HIV proviruses followed by direct clearance of cells expressing induced viral antigens by immune effector cells and immunotherapeutics. We previously showed that AZD5582, an antagonist of inhibitor of apoptosis proteins and mimetic of the second mitochondrial-derived activator of caspases (IAPi/SMACm), induces systemic reversal of HIV/SIV latency but with no reduction in size of the viral reservoir. In this study, we investigated the effects of AZD5582 in combination with four SIV Env-specific Rhesus monoclonal antibodies (RhmAbs) ± N-803 (an IL-15 superagonist) in SIV-infected, ART-suppressed rhesus macaques. Here we confirm the efficacy of AZD5582 in inducing SIV reactivation, demonstrate enhancement of latency reversal when AZD5582 is used in combination with N-803 and show a reduction in total and replication-competent SIV-DNA in lymph-node-derived CD4+ T cells in macaques treated with AZD5582 + RhmAbs. Further exploration of this therapeutic approach may contribute to the goal of achieving an HIV cure.

A SMART method for efficiently isolating monoclonal antibodies from individual rhesus macaque memory B cells

Characterizing antigen-specific B cells is a critical component of vaccine and infectious disease studies in rhesus macaques (RMs). However, it is challenging to capture immunoglobulin variable (IgV) genes from individual RM B cells using 5' multiplex (MTPX) primers in nested PCR reactions. In particular, the diversity within RM IgV gene leader sequences necessitates the use of large 5' MTPX primer sets to amplify IgV genes, decreasing PCR efficiency. To address this problem, we developed a switching mechanism at the 5' ends of the RNA transcript (SMART)-based method for amplifying IgV genes from single RM B cells, providing unbiased capture of Ig heavy and light chain pairs for cloning antibodies. We demonstrate this technique by isolating simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) envelope-specific antibodies from single-sorted RM memory B cells. This approach has several advantages over existing methods for PCR cloning antibodies from RMs. First, optimized PCR conditions and SMART 5' and 3' rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) reactions generate full-length cDNAs from individual B cells. Second, it appends synthetic primer binding sites to the 5' and 3' ends of cDNA during synthesis, allowing for PCR amplification of low-abundance antibody templates. Third, universal 5' primers are employed to amplify the IgV genes from cDNA, simplifying the primer mixes in the nested PCR reactions and improving the recovery of matched heavy and light chain pairs. We anticipate this method will enhance the isolation of antibodies from individual RM B cells, supporting the genetic and functional characterization of antigen-specific B cells.

Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, infected cell binding and neutralization by antibodies to the SIV envelope glycoprotein

Antibodies specific for diverse epitopes of the simian immunodeficiency virus envelope glycoprotein (SIV Env) have been isolated from rhesus macaques to provide physiologically relevant reagents for investigating antibody-mediated protection in this species as a nonhuman primate model for HIV/AIDS. With increasing interest in the contribution of Fc-mediated effector functions to protective immunity, we selected thirty antibodies representing different classes of SIV Env epitopes for a comparison of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), binding to Env on the surface of infected cells and neutralization of viral infectivity. These activities were measured against cells infected with neutralization-sensitive (SIVmac316 and SIVsmE660-FL14) and neutralization-resistant (SIVmac239 and SIVsmE543-3) viruses representing genetically distinct isolates. Antibodies to the CD4-binding site and CD4-inducible epitopes were identified with especially potent ADCC against all four viruses. ADCC correlated well with antibody binding to virus-infected cells. ADCC also correlated with neutralization. However, several instances of ADCC without detectable neutralization or neutralization without detectable ADCC were observed. The incomplete correspondence between ADCC and neutralization shows that some antibody-Env interactions can uncouple these antiviral activities. Nevertheless, the overall correlation between neutralization and ADCC implies that most antibodies that are capable of binding to Env on the surface of virions to block infectivity are also capable of binding to Env on the surface of virus-infected cells to direct their elimination by ADCC.

Cryo-EM structures of prefusion SIV envelope trimer

Simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs) are lentiviruses that naturally infect non-human primates of African origin and seeded cross-species transmissions of HIV-1 and HIV-2. Here we report prefusion stabilization and cryo-EM structures of soluble envelope (Env) trimers from rhesus macaque SIV (SIVmac) in complex with neutralizing antibodies. These structures provide residue-level definition for SIV-specific disulfide-bonded variable loops (V1 and V2), which we used to delineate variable-loop coverage of the Env trimer. The defined variable loops enabled us to investigate assembled Env-glycan shields throughout SIV, which we found to comprise both N- and O-linked glycans, the latter emanating from V1 inserts, which bound the O-link-specific lectin jacalin. We also investigated in situ SIVmac-Env trimers on virions, determining cryo-electron tomography structures at subnanometer resolutions for an antibody-bound complex and a ligand-free state. Collectively, these structures define the prefusion-closed structure of the SIV-Env trimer and delineate variable-loop and glycan-shielding mechanisms of immune evasion conserved throughout SIV evolution.

Molecular insights into antibody-mediated protection against the prototypic simian immunodeficiency virus

SIVmac239 infection of macaques is a favored model of human HIV infection. However, the SIVmac239 envelope (Env) trimer structure, glycan occupancy, and the targets and ability of neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) to protect against SIVmac239 remain unknown. Here, we report the isolation of SIVmac239 nAbs that recognize a glycan hole and the V1/V4 loop. A high-resolution structure of a SIVmac239 Env trimer-nAb complex shows many similarities to HIV and SIVcpz Envs, but with distinct V4 features and an extended V1 loop. Moreover, SIVmac239 Env has a higher glycan shield density than HIV Env that may contribute to poor or delayed nAb responses in SIVmac239-infected macaques. Passive transfer of a nAb protects macaques from repeated intravenous SIVmac239 challenge at serum titers comparable to those described for protection of humans against HIV infection. Our results provide structural insights for vaccine design and shed light on antibody-mediated protection in the SIV model.

Broad coverage of neutralization-resistant SIV strains by second-generation SIV-specific antibodies targeting the region involved in binding CD4

Both SIV and SHIV are powerful tools for evaluating antibody-mediated prevention and treatment of HIV-1. However, owing to a lack of rhesus-derived SIV broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs), testing of bnAbs for HIV-1 prevention or treatment has thus far been performed exclusively in the SHIV NHP model using bnAbs from HIV-1-infected individuals. Here we describe the isolation and characterization of multiple rhesus-derived SIV bnAbs capable of neutralizing most isolates of SIV. Eight antibodies belonging to two clonal families, ITS102 and ITS103, which target unique epitopes in the CD4 binding site (CD4bs) region, were found to be broadly neutralizing and together neutralized all SIV strains tested. A rare feature of these bnAbs and two additional antibody families, ITS92 and ITS101, which mediate strain-specific neutralizing activity against SIV from sooty mangabeys (SIVsm), was their ability to achieve near complete (i.e. 100%) neutralization of moderately and highly neutralization-resistant SIV. Overall, these newly identified SIV bnAbs highlight the potential for evaluating HIV-1 prophylactic and therapeutic interventions using fully simian, rhesus-derived bnAbs in the SIV NHP model, thereby circumventing issues related to rapid antibody clearance of human-derived antibodies, Fc mismatch and limited genetic diversity of SHIV compared to SIV.

Antibodies that can bind to a virus and block infection are called neutralizing antibodies. In human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), antibodies that can block multiple strains of HIV circulating globally are known as broadly neutralizing antibodies. These broadly neutralizing antibodies have the potential to be used to treat HIV-infected individuals or to prevent HIV infection altogether. However, before these broadly neutralizing antibodies can safely be used in humans, they must first be tested in monkeys. Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), which causes an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-like illness in Asian macaques that is similar to AIDS in humans, makes it possible to perform pre-clinical testing in monkeys but requires the use of antibodies that are specific to SIV. Another important consideration for testing antibodies in monkeys is that, like HIV, there are many different strains of SIV and some of these are highly resistant to neutralization. In this study we used blood from SIV-infected macaques to isolate several antibodies that can neutralize multiple strains of SIV, including strains that are typically resistant to neutralization. These SIV broadly neutralizing antibodies closely resemble HIV broadly neutralizing antibodies, making it possible now to test antibody-based vaccines or therapies for HIV using the SIV nonhuman primate model of AIDS.

Immune inactivation of anti-simian immunodeficiency virus chimeric antigen receptor T cells in rhesus macaques

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapies are being investigated as potential HIV cures and designed to target HIV reservoirs. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) envelope allowed us to investigate the potency of single-chain variable fragment (scFv)-based anti-SIV CAR T cells. In vitro, CAR T cells expressing the scFv to both the variable loop 1 (V1) or V3 of the SIV envelope were highly potent at eliminating SIV-infected T cells. However, in preclinical studies, in vivo infusion of these CAR T cells in rhesus macaques (RMs) resulted in lack of expansion and no detectable in vivo antiviral activity. Injection of envelope-expressing antigen-presenting cells (APCs) 1 week post-CAR T cell infusion also failed to stimulate CAR T cell expansion in vivo. To investigate this in vitro versus in vivo discrepancy, we examined host immune responses directed at CAR T cells. A humoral immune response against the CAR scFv was detected post-infusion of the anti-SIV CAR T cells; anti-SIV IgG antibodies present in plasma of SIV-infected animals were associated with inhibited CAR T cell effector functions. These data indicate that lack of in vivo expansion and efficacy of CAR T cells might be due to antibodies blocking the interaction between the CAR scFv and its epitope.

APOBEC3F Constitutes a Barrier to Successful Cross-Species Transmission of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus SIVsmm to Humans

Simian immunodeficiency virus infecting sooty mangabeys (SIVsmm) has been transmitted to humans on at least nine occasions, giving rise to human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) groups A to I. SIVsmm isolates replicate in human T cells and seem capable of overcoming major human restriction factors without adaptation. However, only groups A and B are responsible for the HIV-2 epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa, and it is largely unclear whether adaptive changes were associated with spread in humans. To address this, we examined the sensitivity of infectious molecular clones (IMCs) of five HIV-2 strains and representatives of five different SIVsmm lineages to various APOBEC3 proteins. We confirmed that SIVsmm strains replicate in human T cells, albeit with more variable replication fitness and frequently lower efficiency than HIV-2 IMCs. Efficient viral propagation was generally dependent on intact vif genes, highlighting the need for counteraction of APOBEC3 proteins. On average, SIVsmm was more susceptible to inhibition by human APOBEC3D, -F, -G, and -H than HIV-2. For example, human APOBEC3F reduced infectious virus yield of SIVsmm by ∼80% but achieved only ∼40% reduction in the case of HIV-2. Functional and mutational analyses of human- and monkey-derived alleles revealed that an R128T polymorphism in APOBEC3F contributes to species-specific counteraction by HIV-2 and SIVsmm Vifs. In addition, a T84S substitution in SIVsmm Vif increased its ability to counteract human APOBEC3F. Altogether, our results confirm that SIVsmm Vif proteins show intrinsic activity against human APOBEC3 proteins but also demonstrate that epidemic HIV-2 strains evolved an increased ability to counteract this class of restriction factors during human adaptation. IMPORTANCE Viral zoonoses pose a significant threat to human health, and it is important to understand determining factors. SIVs infecting great apes gave rise to HIV-1. In contrast, SIVs infecting African monkey species have not been detected in humans, with one notable exception. SIVsmm from sooty mangabeys has crossed the species barrier to humans on at least nine independent occasions and seems capable of overcoming many innate defense mechanisms without adaptation. Here, we confirmed that SIVsmm Vif proteins show significant activity against human APOBEC3 proteins. Our analyses also revealed, however, that different lineages of SIVsmm are significantly more susceptible to inhibition by various human APOBEC3 proteins than HIV-2 strains. Mutational analyses suggest that an R128T substitution in APOBEC3F and a T84S change in Vif contribute to species-specific counteraction by HIV-2 and SIVsmm. Altogether, our results support that epidemic HIV-2 strains acquired increased activity against human APOBEC3 proteins to clear this restrictive barrier.

Vaccination with prefusion-stabilized respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein induces genetically and antigenically diverse antibody responses

An effective vaccine for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is an unrealized public health goal. A single dose of the prefusion-stabilized fusion (F) glycoprotein subunit vaccine (DS-Cav1) substantially increases serum-neutralizing activity in healthy adults. We sought to determine whether DS-Cav1 vaccination induces a repertoire mirroring the pre-existing diversity from natural infection or whether antibody lineages targeting specific epitopes predominate. We evaluated RSV F-specific B cell responses before and after vaccination in six participants using complementary B cell sequencing methodologies and identified 555 clonal lineages. DS-Cav1-induced lineages recognized the prefusion conformation of F (pre-F) and were genetically diverse. Expressed antibodies recognized all six antigenic sites on the pre-F trimer. We identified 34 public clonotypes, and structural analysis of two antibodies from a predominant clonotype revealed a common mode of recognition. Thus, vaccination with DS-Cav1 generates a diverse polyclonal response targeting the antigenic sites on pre-F, supporting the development and advanced testing of pre-F-based vaccines against RSV.

Evaluation of chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy in non-human primates infected with SHIV or SIV

Achieving a functional cure is an important goal in the development of HIV therapy. Eliciting HIV-specific cellular immune responses has not been sufficient to achieve durable removal of HIV-infected cells due to the restriction on effective immune responses by mutation and establishment of latent reservoirs. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells are an avenue to potentially develop more potent redirected cellular responses against infected T cells. We developed and tested a range of HIV- and SIV-specific chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell reagents based on Env-binding proteins. In general, SHIV/SIV CAR T cells showed potent viral suppression in vitro, and adding additional CAR molecules in the same transduction resulted in more potent viral suppression than single CAR transduction. Importantly, the primary determinant of virus suppression potency by CAR was the accessibility to the Env epitope, and not the neutralization potency of the binding moiety. However, upon transduction of autologous T cells followed by infusion in vivo, none of these CAR T cells impacted either acquisition as a test of prevention, or viremia as a test of treatment. Our study illustrates limitations of the CAR T cells as possible antiviral therapeutics.

Immunogenicity of prime-boost protein subunit vaccine strategies against SARS-CoV-2 in mice and macaques

SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are advancing into human clinical trials, with emphasis on eliciting high titres of neutralising antibodies against the viral spike (S). However, the merits of broadly targeting S versus focusing antibody onto the smaller receptor binding domain (RBD) are unclear. Here we assess prototypic S and RBD subunit vaccines in homologous or heterologous prime-boost regimens in mice and non-human primates. We find S is highly immunogenic in mice, while the comparatively poor immunogenicity of RBD is associated with limiting germinal centre and T follicular helper cell activity. Boosting S-primed mice with either S or RBD significantly augments neutralising titres, with RBD-focussing driving moderate improvement in serum neutralisation. In contrast, both S and RBD vaccines are comparably immunogenic in macaques, eliciting serological neutralising activity that generally exceed levels in convalescent humans. These studies confirm recombinant S proteins as promising vaccine candidates and highlight multiple pathways to achieving potent serological neutralisation.

Anti-V2 antibodies virus vulnerability revealed by envelope V1 deletion in HIV vaccine candidates

The efficacy of ALVAC-based HIV and SIV vaccines in humans and macaques correlates with antibodies to envelope variable region 2 (V2). We show here that vaccine-induced antibodies to SIV variable region 1 (V1) inhibit anti-V2 antibody-mediated cytotoxicity and reverse their ability to block V2 peptide interaction with the α₄β₇ integrin. SIV vaccines engineered to delete V1 and favor an α helix, rather than a β sheet V2 conformation, induced V2-specific ADCC correlating with decreased risk of SIV acquisition. Removal of V1 from the HIV-1 clade A/E A244 envelope resulted in decreased binding to antibodies recognizing V2 in the β sheet conformation. Thus, deletion of V1 in HIV envelope immunogens may improve antibody responses to V2 virus vulnerability sites and increase the efficacy of HIV vaccine candidates.

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HIV vaccine candidate protects against SIV_mac251 acquisition

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V1 deleted envelope immunogens with V2 in α-helical conformation are protective

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V2-specific ADCC as correlate of risk

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Anti-V1 antibodies interfere with V2-specific ADCC

Recapitulation of HIV-1 Env-antibody coevolution in macaques leading to neutralization breadth

Neutralizing antibodies elicited by HIV-1 coevolve with viral envelope proteins (Env) in distinctive patterns, in some cases acquiring substantial breadth. We report that primary HIV-1 envelope proteins-when expressed by simian-human immunodeficiency viruses in rhesus macaques-elicited patterns of Env-antibody coevolution very similar to those in humans, including conserved immunogenetic, structural, and chemical solutions to epitope recognition and precise Env-amino acid substitutions, insertions, and deletions leading to virus persistence. The structure of one rhesus antibody, capable of neutralizing 49% of a 208-strain panel, revealed a V2 apex mode of recognition like that of human broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) PGT145 and PCT64-35S. Another rhesus antibody bound the CD4 binding site by CD4 mimicry, mirroring human bNAbs 8ANC131, CH235, and VRC01. Virus-antibody coevolution in macaques can thus recapitulate developmental features of human bNAbs, thereby guiding HIV-1 immunogen design.

The V2 loop of HIV gp120 delivers costimulatory signals to CD4+ T cells through Integrin α4β7 and promotes cellular activation and infection

Acute HIV infection is characterized by rapid viral seeding of immunologic inductive sites in the gut followed by the severe depletion of gut CD4⁺ T cells. Trafficking of α₄β₇-expressing lymphocytes to the gut is mediated by MAdCAM, the natural ligand of α₄β₇ that is expressed on gut endothelial cells. MAdCAM signaling through α₄β₇ costimulates CD4⁺ T cells and promotes HIV replication. Similar to MAdCAM, the V2 domain of the gp120 HIV envelope protein binds to α₄β₇ In this study, we report that gp120 V2 shares with MAdCAM the capacity to signal through α₄β₇ resulting in CD4⁺ T cell activation and proliferation. As with MAdCAM-mediated costimulation, cellular activation induced by gp120 V2 is inhibited by anti-α₄β₇ monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). It is also inhibited by anti-V2 domain antibodies including nonneutralizing mAbs that recognize an epitope in V2 that has been linked to reduced risk of acquisition in the RV144 vaccine trial. The capacity of the V2 domain of gp120 to mediate signaling through α₄β₇ likely impacts early events in HIV infection. The capacity of nonneutralizing V2 antibodies to block this activity reveals a previously unrecognized mechanism whereby such antibodies might impact HIV transmission and pathogenesis.

Real-Time Killing Assays to Assess the Potency of a New Anti-Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cell

The success of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapies for treating leukemia has resulted in a booming interest for the technology. Expression of a CAR in T cells allows redirection of their natural cytolytic activity toward cells presenting a specific designated surface antigen. Although CAR T cell therapies have thus far shown promising results mostly in B cell malignancy trials, interest in their potential to treat other diseases is on the rise, including using CAR T cells to control human immunodeficiency virus infection. The assessment of CAR T cell potency toward specific targets in vitro is a critical preclinical step. In this study, we describe novel assays that monitor the cytotoxicity of candidate CAR T cells toward simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infected CD4 T cells. The assays involve live cell imaging using a fluorescence microscopy system that records in real time the disappearance or appearance of targets infected with SIV carrying a fluorescent protein gene. The assays are highly reproducible, and their rapid turn around and reduced cost present a significant advance regarding the efficient preclinical evaluation of CAR T cell constructs and are broadly applicable to potential human diseases that could benefit from CAR T cell therapy.

An Automated Fluorescence-Based Method to Isolate Bone Marrow-Derived Plasma Cells from Rhesus Macaques Using SIVmac239 SOSIP.664

Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection of Indian rhesus macaques (RMs) is one of the best-characterized animal models for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have shown promise for prevention and treatment of HIV infection. However, it has been difficult to isolate mAbs that potently neutralize the highly pathogenic SIVmac239 strain. This has been largely due to the low frequency of circulating B cells encoding neutralizing Abs. Here we describe a novel technique to isolate mAbs directly from bone marrow-derived, Ab-secreting plasma cells. We employed an automated micromanipulator to isolate single SIVmac239 SOSIP.664-specific plasma cells from the bone marrow of a SIVmac239-infected RM with serum neutralization titers against SIVmac239. After picking plasma cells, we obtained 44 paired Ab sequences. Ten of these mAbs were SIV specific. Although none of these mAbs neutralized SIVmac239, three mAbs completely neutralized the related SIVmac316 strain. The majority of these mAbs bound to primary rhesus CD4+ T cells infected with SIVmac239 and induced Ab-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. This method is a first step in successful isolation of antigen-specific bone marrow-derived plasma cells from RMs.

Sequencing B cell receptors from ferrets (Mustela putorius furo)

The domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) provides a critical animal model to study human respiratory diseases. However immunological insights are restricted due to a lack of ferret-specific reagents and limited genetic information about ferret B and T cell receptors. Here, variable, diversity and joining genes within the ferret kappa, lambda and heavy chain immunoglobulin loci were annotated using available genomic information. A multiplex PCR approach was derived that facilitated the recovery of paired heavy and light chain immunoglobulin sequences from single sorted ferret B cells, allowing validation of predicted germline gene sequences and the identification of putative novel germlines. Eukaryotic expression vectors were developed that enabled the generation of recombinant ferret monoclonal antibodies. This work advances the ferret as an informative immunological model for viral diseases by allowing the in-depth interrogation of antibody-based immunity.

Targeting lentiviral vectors to primordial germ cells (PGCs): An efficient strategy for generating transgenic chickens

Recent advances in avian transgenic studies highlight the possibility of utilizing lentiviral vectors as tools to generate transgenic chickens. However, low rates of gonadal chimerism and germ line transmission efficiency still limit the broad usage of this method in creating transgenic chickens. In this study, we implemented a simple strategy using modified lentiviral vectors targeted to chicken primordial germ cells (PGCs) to generate transgenic chickens. The lentiviral vectors were pseudotyped with a modified Sindbis virus envelope protein (termed M168) and conjugated with an antibody specific to PGC membrane proteins. We demonstrated that these optimized M168-pseudotyped lentiviral vectors conjugated with SSEA4 antibodies successfully targeted transduction of PGCs in vitro and in vivo. Compared with the control, 50.0%-66.7% of chicken embryos expressed green fluorescent protein (GFP) in gonads transduced by the M168-pseudotyped lentivirus. This improved the targeted transduction efficiency by 30.0%-46.7%. Efficient chimerism of exogenous genes was also observed. This targeting technology could improve the efficiency of germ line transmission and provide greater opportunities for transgenic poultry studies.

Antibody Lineages with Vaccine-Induced Antigen-Binding Hotspots Develop Broad HIV Neutralization

The vaccine-mediated elicitation of antibodies (Abs) capable of neutralizing diverse HIV-1 strains has been a long-standing goal. To understand how broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) can be elicited, we identified, characterized, and tracked five neutralizing Ab lineages targeting the HIV-1-fusion peptide (FP) in vaccinated macaques over time. Genetic and structural analyses revealed two of these lineages to belong to a reproducible class capable of neutralizing up to 59% of 208 diverse viral strains. B cell analysis indicated each of the five lineages to have been initiated and expanded by FP-carrier priming, with envelope (Env)-trimer boosts inducing cross-reactive neutralization. These Abs had binding-energy hotspots focused on FP, whereas several FP-directed Abs induced by immunization with Env trimer-only were less FP-focused and less broadly neutralizing. Priming with a conserved subregion, such as FP, can thus induce Abs with binding-energy hotspots coincident with the target subregion and capable of broad neutralization.

Mapping Polyclonal Antibody Responses in Non-human Primates Vaccinated with HIV Env Trimer Subunit Vaccines

Rational immunogen design aims to focus antibody responses to vulnerable sites on primary antigens. Given the size of these antigens, there is, however, potential for eliciting unwanted, off-target responses. Here, we use our electron microscopy polyclonal epitope mapping approach to describe the antibody specificities elicited by immunization of non-human primates with soluble HIV envelope trimers and subsequent repeated viral challenge. An increased diversity of epitopes recognized and the approach angle by which these antibodies bind constitute a hallmark of the humoral response in most protected animals. We also show that fusion peptide-specific antibodies are likely responsible for some neutralization breadth. Moreover, cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) analysis of a fully protected animal reveals a high degree of clonality within a subset of putatively neutralizing antibodies, enabling a detailed molecular description of the antibody paratope. Our results provide important insights into the immune response against a vaccine candidate that entered into clinical trials in 2019.

Induction of Transient Virus Replication Facilitates Antigen-Independent Isolation of SIV-Specific Monoclonal Antibodies

Structural characterization of the HIV-1 Envelope (Env) glycoprotein has facilitated the development of Env probes to isolate HIV-specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). However, preclinical studies have largely evaluated these virus-specific mAbs against chimeric viruses, which do not naturally infect non-human primates, in contrast to the unconstrained simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)mac239 clone. Given the paucity of native-like reagents for the isolation of SIV-specific B cells, we examined a method to isolate SIVmac239-specific mAbs without using Env probes. We first activated virus-specific B cells by inducing viral replication after the infusion of a CD8β-depleting mAb or withdrawal of antiretroviral therapy in SIVmac239-infected rhesus macaques. Following the rise in viremia, we observed 2- to 4-fold increases in the number of SIVmac239 Env-reactive plasmablasts in circulation. We then sorted these activated B cells and obtained 206 paired Ab sequences. After expressing 122 mAbs, we identified 14 Env-specific mAbs. While these Env-specific mAbs bound to both the SIVmac239 SOSIP.664 trimer and to infected primary rhesus CD4⁺ T cells, five also neutralized SIVmac316. Unfortunately, none of these mAbs neutralized SIVmac239. Our data show that this method can be used to isolate virus-specific mAbs without antigenic probes by inducing bursts of contemporary replicating viruses in vivo.

In Vivo Validation of the Viral Barcoding of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus SIVmac239 and the Development of New Barcoded SIV and Subtype B and C Simian-Human Immunodeficiency Viruses

Genetically barcoded viral populations are powerful tools for evaluating the overall viral population structure as well as assessing the dynamics and evolution of individual lineages in vivo over time. Barcoded viruses are generated by inserting a small, genetically unique tag into the viral genome, which is retained in progeny virus. We recently reported barcoding the well-characterized molecular clone simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) SIVmac239, resulting in a synthetic swarm (SIVmac239M) containing approximately 10,000 distinct viral clonotypes for which all genetic differences were within a 34-base barcode that could be tracked using next-generation deep sequencing. Here, we assessed the population size, distribution, and authenticity of individual viral clonotypes within this synthetic swarm using samples from 120 rhesus macaques infected intravenously. The number of replicating barcodes in plasma correlated with the infectious inoculum dose, and the primary viral growth rate was similar in all infected animals regardless of the inoculum size. Overall, 97% of detectable clonotypes in the viral stock were identified in the plasma of at least one infected animal. Additionally, we prepared a second-generation barcoded SIVmac239 stock (SIVmac239M2) with over 16 times the number of barcoded variants of the original stock and an additional barcoded stock with suboptimal nucleotides corrected (SIVmac239Opt5M). We also generated four barcoded stocks from subtype B and C simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) clones. These new SHIV clones may be particularly valuable models to evaluate Env-targeting approaches to study viral transmission or viral reservoir clearance. Overall, this work further establishes the reliability of the barcoded virus approach and highlights the feasibility of adapting this technique to other viral clones.IMPORTANCE We recently developed and published a description of a barcoded simian immunodeficiency virus that has a short random sequence inserted directly into the viral genome. This allows for the tracking of individual viral lineages with high fidelity and ultradeep sensitivity. This virus was used to infect 120 rhesus macaques, and we report here the analysis of the barcodes of these animals during primary infection. We found that the vast majority of barcodes were functional in vivo We then expanded the barcoding approach in a second-generation SIVmac239 stock (SIVmac239M2) with over 16 times the number of barcoded variants of the original stock and a barcoded stock of SIVmac239Opt5M whose sequence had 5 changes from the wild-type SIVmac239 sequence. We also generated 4 barcoded stocks from subtype B and C SHIV clones each containing a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 envelope. These virus models are functional and can be useful for studying viral transmission and HIV cure/reservoir research.

Isolation and Structure of an Antibody that Fully Neutralizes Isolate SIVmac239 Reveals Functional Similarity of SIV and HIV Glycan Shields

HIV- and SIV-envelope (Env) trimers are both extensively glycosylated, and antibodies identified to date have been unable to fully neutralize SIV_mac239. Here, we report the isolation, structure, and glycan interactions of antibody ITS90.03, a monoclonal antibody that completely neutralized the highly neutralization-resistant isolate, SIV_mac239. The co-crystal structure of a fully glycosylated SIV_mac239-gp120 core in complex with rhesus CD4 and the antigen-binding fragment of ITS90.03 at 2.5-Å resolution revealed that ITS90 recognized an epitope comprised of 45% glycan. SIV-gp120 core, rhesus CD4, and their complex could each be aligned structurally to their human counterparts. The structure revealed that glycans masked most of the SIV Env protein surface, with ITS90 targeting a glycan hole, which is occupied in ∼83% of SIV strains by glycan N238. Overall, the SIV glycan shield appears to functionally resemble its HIV counterpart in coverage of spike, shielding from antibody, and modulation of receptor accessibility.

Blocking α4β7 integrin binding to SIV does not improve virologic control

A study in nonhuman primates reported that infusions of an antibody against α₄β₇ integrin, in combination with antiretroviral therapy, showed consistent, durable control of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in rhesus macaques. The antibody used has pleiotropic effects, so we set out to gain insight into the underlying mechanism by comparing this treatment to treatment with non-neutralizing monoclonal antibodies against the SIV envelope glycoprotein that only block α₄β₇ binding to SIV Env but have no other host-directed effects. Similar to the initial study, we used an attenuated strain of SIV containing a stop codon in nef. The study used 30 macaques that all began antiretroviral therapy and then were divided into five groups to receive different antibody treatments. Unlike the published report, we found no sustained virologic control by these treatments in vivo.

CD8β Depletion Does Not Prevent Control of Viral Replication or Protection from Challenge in Macaques Chronically Infected with a Live Attenuated Simian Immunodeficiency Virus

We evaluated the contribution of CD8αβ+ T cells to control of live-attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus (LASIV) replication during chronic infection and subsequent protection from pathogenic SIV challenge. Unlike previous reports with a CD8α-specific depleting monoclonal antibody (mAb), the CD8β-specific mAb CD8β255R1 selectively depleted CD8αβ+ T cells without also depleting non-CD8+ T cell populations that express CD8α, such as natural killer (NK) cells and γδ T cells. Following infusion with CD8β255R1, plasma viremia transiently increased coincident with declining peripheral CD8αβ+ T cells. Interestingly, plasma viremia returned to predepletion levels even when peripheral CD8αβ+ T cells did not. Although depletion of CD8αβ+ T cells in the lymph node (LN) was incomplete, frequencies of these cells were 3-fold lower (P = 0.006) in animals that received CD8β255R1 than in those that received control IgG. It is possible that these residual SIV-specific CD8αβ+ T cells may have contributed to suppression of viremia during chronic infection. We also determined whether infusion of CD8β255R1 in the LASIV-vaccinated animals increased their susceptibility to infection following intravenous challenge with pathogenic SIVmac239. We found that 7/8 animals infused with CD8β255R1, and 3/4 animals infused with the control IgG, were resistant to SIVmac239 infection. These results suggest that infusion with CD8β255R1 did not eliminate the protection afforded to LASIV vaccination. This provides a comprehensive description of the impact of CD8β255R1 infusion on the immunological composition in cynomolgus macaques, compared to an isotype-matched control IgG, while showing that the control of LASIV viremia and protection from challenge can occur even after CD8β255R1 administration.IMPORTANCE Studies of SIV-infected macaques that deplete CD8+ T cells in vivo with monoclonal antibodies have provided compelling evidence for their direct antiviral role. These studies utilized CD8α-specific mAbs that target both the major (CD8αβ+) and minor (CD8αα+) populations of CD8+ T cells but additionally deplete non-CD8+ T cell populations that express CD8α, such as NK cells and γδ T cells. In the current study, we administered the CD8β-specific depleting mAb CD8β255R1 to cynomolgus macaques chronically infected with a LASIV to selectively deplete CD8αβ+ T cells without removing CD8αα+ lymphocytes. We evaluated the impact on control of virus replication and protection from pathogenic SIVmac239 challenge. These results underscore the utility of CD8β255R1 for studying the direct contribution of CD8αβ+ T cells in various disease states.

Star nanoparticles delivering HIV-1 peptide minimal immunogens elicit near-native envelope antibody responses in nonhuman primates

Peptide immunogens provide an approach to focus antibody responses to specific neutralizing sites on the HIV envelope protein (Env) trimer or on other pathogens. However, the physical characteristics of peptide immunogens can limit their pharmacokinetic and immunological properties. Here, we have designed synthetic “star” nanoparticles based on biocompatible N-[(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide] (HPMA)-based polymer arms extending from a poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimer core. In mice, these star nanoparticles trafficked to lymph nodes (LNs) by 4 hours following vaccination, where they were taken up by subcapsular macrophages and then resident dendritic cells (DCs). Immunogenicity optimization studies revealed a correlation of immunogen density with antibody titers. Furthermore, the co-delivery of Env variable loop 3 (V3) and T-helper peptides induced titers that were 2 logs higher than if the peptides were given in separate nanoparticles. Finally, we performed a nonhuman primate (NHP) study using a V3 glycopeptide minimal immunogen that was structurally optimized to be recognized by Env V3/glycan broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs). When administered with a potent Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7/8 agonist adjuvant, these nanoparticles elicited high antibody binding titers to the V3 site. Similar to human V3/glycan bnAbs, certain monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) elicited by this vaccine were glycan dependent or targeted the GDIR peptide motif. To improve affinity to native Env trimer affinity, nonhuman primates (NHPs) were boosted with various SOSIP Env proteins; however, significant neutralization was not observed. Taken together, this study provides a new vaccine platform for administration of glycopeptide immunogens for focusing immune responses to specific bnAb epitopes.

Synthetic polymer-based nanoparticles effectively deliver HIV Env glycopeptide immunogens to lymph nodes and stimulate B cell lineages with characteristics resembling broadly neutralizing antibodies, in nonhuman primates.

IFI16 Targets the Transcription Factor Sp1 to Suppress HIV-1 Transcription and Latency Reactivation

The interferon γ-inducible protein 16 (IFI16) is known as immune sensor of retroviral DNA intermediates. We show that IFI16 restricts HIV-1 independently of immune sensing by binding and inhibiting the host transcription factor Sp1 that drives viral gene expression. This antiretroviral activity and ability to bind Sp1 require the N-terminal pyrin domain and nuclear localization of IFI16, but not the HIN domains involved in DNA binding. Highly prevalent clade C HIV-1 strains are more resistant to IFI16 and less dependent on Sp1 than other HIV-1 subtypes. Furthermore, inhibition of Sp1 by IFI16 or pharmacologically by Mithramycin A suppresses reactivation of latent HIV-1 in CD4+ T cells. Finally, IFI16 also inhibits retrotransposition of LINE-1, known to engage Sp1, and murine IFI16 homologs restrict Friend retrovirus replication in mice. Thus, IFI16 restricts retroviruses and retrotransposons by interfering with Sp1-dependent gene expression, and evasion from this restriction may facilitate spread of HIV-1 subtype C.

Stabilization of the V2 loop improves the presentation of V2 loop-associated broadly neutralizing antibody epitopes on HIV-1 envelope trimers

A successful HIV-1 vaccine will likely need to elicit broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) that target the envelope glycoprotein (Env) spike on the virus. Native-like recombinant Env trimers of the SOSIP design now serve as a platform for achieving this challenging goal. However, SOSIP trimers usually do not bind efficiently to the inferred germline precursors of bNAbs (gl-bNAbs). We hypothesized that the inherent flexibilities of the V1 and V2 variable loops in the Env trimer contribute to the poor recognition of gl-bNAb epitopes at the trimer apex that extensively involve V2 residues. To reduce local V2 flexibility and improve the binding of V2-dependent bNAbs and gl-bNAbs, we designed BG505 SOSIP.664 trimer variants containing newly created disulfide bonds intended to stabilize the V2 loop in an optimally antigenic configuration. The first variant, I184C/E190C, contained a new disulfide bond within the V2 loop, whereas the second variant, E153C/R178C, had a new disulfide bond that cross-linked V2 and V1. The resulting engineered native-like trimer variants were both more reactive with and were neutralized by V2 bNAbs and gl-bNAbs, a finding that may be valuable in the design of germline targeting and boosting trimer immunogens to create an antigenic conformation optimal for HIV vaccine development.

Vectored delivery of anti-SIV envelope targeting mAb via AAV8 protects rhesus macaques from repeated limiting dose intrarectal swarm SIVsmE660 challenge

Gene based delivery of immunoglobulins promises to safely and durably provide protective immunity to individuals at risk of acquiring infectious diseases such as HIV. We used a rhesus macaque animal model to optimize delivery of naturally-arising, autologous anti-SIV neutralizing antibodies expressed by Adeno-Associated Virus 8 (AAV8) vectors. Vectored transgene expression was confirmed by quantitation of target antibody abundance in serum and mucosal surfaces. We tested the expression achieved at varying doses and numbers of injections. Expression of the transgene reached a saturation at about 2 x 10¹² AAV8 genome copies (gc) per needle-injection, a physical limitation that may not scale clinically into human trials. In contrast, expression increased proportionately with the number of injections. In terms of anti-drug immunity, anti-vector antibody responses were universally strong, while those directed against the natural transgene mAb were detected in only 20% of animals. An anti-transgene antibody response was invariably associated with loss of detectable plasma expression of the antibody. Despite having atypical glycosylation profiles, transgenes derived from AAV-directed muscle cell expression retained full functional activity, including mucosal accumulation, in vitro neutralization, and protection against repeated limiting dose SIVsmE660 swarm challenge. Our findings demonstrate feasibility of a gene therapy-based passive immunization strategy against infectious disease, and illustrate the potential for the nonhuman primate model to inform clinical AAV-based approaches to passive immunization.

Antibodies are the humoral component of an immune response against an invading pathogen or vaccine immunogen. For challenging vaccine targets, as an alternative to active vaccination to induce the immune system to generate antibodies, current research is exploring the delivery of these proteins to populations at high risk of infection as prophylactics against infectious diseases, like HIV, RSV, and Ebola, amongst others. Passive vaccination via purified protein will require periodic reinjection to retain protective levels in subjects, adding a barrier to large scale coverage. Alternatively, delivery of antibodies using gene therapy may provide a one-time passive vaccination alternative. This strategy comes with its own hurdles, including anti-vector immunity, anti-drug immunity, physical limitations of vector uptake and the need to confirm antibody functionality. To date, many passive vaccinations strategies remain untested in humans. Non-human primate models of infection are frequently useful for predicting the success of vaccine candidates or concepts. Here, we characterize and optimize a rhesus macaque model for the delivery of anti-viral antibodies via the gene therapy vector adeno-associated virus. Lastly, we demonstrate the ability of the mAbs to protect against viral challenge. Our work demonstrates the feasibility and utility of vectored delivery of antibody transgenes in rhesus macaques. We hope this model of antibody delivery may be applied to various disease models in non-human primates and will inform clinical trial design of passive vaccination against infectious diseases.

A high throughput lentivirus sieving assay identifies neutralization resistant Envelope sequences and predicts in vivo sieving

An effective prophylactic vaccine against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) will likely require a potent antibody response that can neutralize the virus at the mucosal portal of entry. The elicitation of potent broadly-neutralizing anti-sera will be an iterative process, optimizing candidates that only block a fraction of potential viral strains. This effect, termed "sieving", is evidence of a partially efficacious vaccine. Understanding the mechanisms of resistance of the breakthrough viruses is important for improving vaccines. We developed a high-throughput assay that can be used on vaccine-elicited antisera or monoclonal antibodies. Using the SIVsmE660 swarm stock and sera from a large NHP vaccine/challenge study, our in vitro sieving assay identified the same viral subspecies as in the animal study-those with a canonical C1 amino acid variants conferring global neutralization resistance to antibodies. Using a genetically divergent swarm stock, we identified five other amino acid variants that confer global resistance; the C1 mutations in this stock were not selected, also in agreement with in vivo challenge studies. Thus, the in vitro sieving assay can be used with genetically diverse challenge stocks to predict the coverage of a vaccine-elicited sera and possibly inform candidate vaccine development efforts.

Select gp120 V2 domain specific antibodies derived from HIV and SIV infection and vaccination inhibit gp120 binding to α4β7

The GI tract is preferentially targeted during acute/early HIV-1 infection. Consequent damage to the gut plays a central role in HIV pathogenesis. The basis for preferential targeting of gut tissues is not well defined. Recombinant proteins and synthetic peptides derived from HIV and SIV gp120 bind directly to integrin α4β7, a gut-homing receptor. Using both cell-surface expressed α4β7 and a soluble α4β7 heterodimer we demonstrate that its specific affinity for gp120 is similar to its affinity for MAdCAM (its natural ligand). The gp120 V2 domain preferentially engages extended forms of α4β7 in a cation -sensitive manner and is inhibited by soluble MAdCAM. Thus, V2 mimics MAdCAM in the way that it binds to α4β7, providing HIV a potential mechanism to discriminate between functionally distinct subsets of lymphocytes, including those with gut-homing potential. Furthermore, α4β7 antagonists developed for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases, block V2 binding to α4β7. A 15-amino acid V2 -derived peptide is sufficient to mediate binding to α4β7. It includes the canonical LDV/I α4β7 binding site, a cryptic epitope that lies 7-9 amino acids amino terminal to the LDV/I, and residues K169 and I181. These two residues were identified in a sieve analysis of the RV144 vaccine trial as sites of vaccine -mediated immune pressure. HIV and SIV V2 mAbs elicited by both vaccination and infection that recognize this peptide block V2-α4β7 interactions. These mAbs recognize conformations absent from the β- barrel presented in a stabilized HIV SOSIP gp120/41 trimer. The mimicry of MAdCAM-α4β7 interactions by V2 may influence early events in HIV infection, particularly the rapid seeding of gut tissues, and supports the view that HIV replication in gut tissue is a central feature of HIV pathogenesis.

Importance of Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibodies Targeting Multiple Antigenic Sites on the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Spike Glycoprotein To Avoid Neutralization Escape

Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) causes a highly lethal pulmonary infection with ∼35% mortality. The potential for a future pandemic originating from animal reservoirs or health care-associated events is a major public health concern. There are no vaccines or therapeutic agents currently available for MERS-CoV. Using a probe-based single B cell cloning strategy, we have identified and characterized multiple neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) specifically binding to the receptor-binding domain (RBD) or S1 (non-RBD) regions from a convalescent MERS-CoV-infected patient and from immunized rhesus macaques. RBD-specific MAbs tended to have greater neutralizing potency than non-RBD S1-specific MAbs. Six RBD-specific and five S1-specific MAbs could be sorted into four RBD and three non-RBD distinct binding patterns, based on competition assays, mapping neutralization escape variants, and structural analysis. We determined cocrystal structures for two MAbs targeting the RBD from different angles and show they can bind the RBD only in the "out" position. We then showed that selected RBD-specific, non-RBD S1-specific, and S2-specific MAbs given prophylactically prevented MERS-CoV replication in lungs and protected mice from lethal challenge. Importantly, combining RBD- and non-RBD MAbs delayed the emergence of escape mutations in a cell-based virus escape assay. These studies identify MAbs targeting different antigenic sites on S that will be useful for defining mechanisms of MERS-CoV neutralization and for developing more effective interventions to prevent or treat MERS-CoV infections.IMPORTANCE MERS-CoV causes a highly lethal respiratory infection for which no vaccines or antiviral therapeutic options are currently available. Based on continuing exposure from established reservoirs in dromedary camels and bats, transmission of MERS-CoV into humans and future outbreaks are expected. Using structurally defined probes for the MERS-CoV spike glycoprotein (S), the target for neutralizing antibodies, single B cells were sorted from a convalescent human and immunized nonhuman primates (NHPs). MAbs produced from paired immunoglobulin gene sequences were mapped to multiple epitopes within and outside the receptor-binding domain (RBD) and protected against lethal MERS infection in a murine model following passive immunization. Importantly, combining MAbs targeting distinct epitopes prevented viral neutralization escape from RBD-directed MAbs. These data suggest that antibody responses to multiple domains on CoV spike protein may improve immunity and will guide future vaccine and therapeutic development efforts.

Intranasal Live Influenza Vaccine Priming Elicits Localized B Cell Responses in Mediastinal Lymph Nodes

Pandemic live attenuated influenza vaccines (pLAIV) prime subjects for a robust neutralizing antibody response upon subsequent administration of a pandemic inactivated subunit vaccine (pISV). However, a difference was not detected in H5-specific memory B cells in the peripheral blood between pLAIV-primed and unprimed subjects prior to pISV boost. To investigate the mechanism underlying pLAIV priming, we vaccinated groups of 12 African green monkeys (AGMs) with H5N1 pISV or pLAIV alone or H5N1 pLAIV followed by pISV and examined immunity systemically and in local draining lymph nodes (LN). The AGM model recapitulated the serologic observations from clinical studies. Interestingly, H5N1 pLAIV induced robust germinal center B cell responses in the mediastinal LN (MLN). Subsequent boosting with H5N1 pISV drove increases in H5-specific B cells in the axillary LN, spleen, and circulation in H5N1 pLAIV-primed animals. Thus, H5N1 pLAIV primes localized B cell responses in the MLN that are recalled systemically following pISV boost. These data provide mechanistic insights for the generation of robust humoral responses via prime-boost vaccination.IMPORTANCE We have previously shown that pandemic live attenuated influenza vaccines (pLAIV) prime for a rapid and robust antibody response on subsequent administration of inactivated subunit vaccine (pISV). This is observed even in individuals who had undetectable antibody (Ab) responses following the initial vaccination. To define the mechanistic basis of pLAIV priming, we turned to a nonhuman primate model and performed a detailed analysis of B cell responses in systemic and local lymphoid tissues following prime-boost vaccination with pLAIV and pISV. We show that the nonhuman primate model recapitulates the serologic observations from clinical studies. Further, we found that pLAIVs induced robust germinal center B cell responses in the mediastinal lymph node. Subsequent boosting with pISV in pLAIV-primed animals resulted in detection of B cells in the axillary lymph nodes, spleen, and peripheral blood. We demonstrate that intranasally administered pLAIV elicits a highly localized germinal center B cell response in the mediastinal lymph node that is rapidly recalled following pISV boost into germinal center reactions at numerous distant immune sites.

Truncating the gp41 Cytoplasmic Tail of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Decreases Sensitivity to Neutralizing Antibodies without Increasing the Envelope Content of Virions

An incomplete understanding of native human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) envelope glycoproteins (Envs) impedes the development of structural models of Env and vaccine design. This shortcoming is due in part to the low number of Env trimers on virus particles. For SIV, this low expression level can be counteracted by truncating the cytoplasmic tail (CT) of Env. CT truncation has been shown to increase Env incorporation into the virion and is commonly used in vaccine and imaging studies, but its effects on viral antigenicity have not been fully elucidated. To study the effects of a CT truncation of Env in viruses in similar genetic contexts, we introduced stop codons into the CT of a SIVsmE660 molecular clone and two neutralizing antibody (NAb) escape variants. These viruses shared 98% sequence identity in Env but were characterized as either tier 1 (sensitive to neutralization), tier 2 (moderately resistant to neutralization), or tier 3 (resistant to neutralization). However, the introduction of premature stop codons in Env at position Q741/Q742 converted all three transfection-derived viruses to a tier 3-like phenotype, and these viruses were uniformly resistant to neutralization by sera from infected macaques and monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). These changes in neutralization sensitivity were not accompanied by an increase in either the virion Env content of infection-derived viruses or the infectivity of transfection-derived viruses in human cells, suggesting that CT mutations may result in global changes to the Env conformation. Our results demonstrate that some CT truncations can affect viral antigenicity and, as such, may not be suitable surrogate models of native HIV/SIV Env.IMPORTANCE Modifications to the SIV envelope protein (Env) are commonly used in structural and vaccine studies to stabilize and increase the expression of Env, often without consideration of effects on antigenicity. One such widespread modification is the truncation of the Env C-terminal tail. Here, we studied the effects of a particular cytoplasmic tail truncation in three SIVsm strains that have highly similar Env sequences but exhibit different sensitivities to neutralizing antibodies. After truncation of the Env CT, these viruses were all very resistant to neutralization by sera from infected macaques and monoclonal antibodies. The viruses with a truncated Env CT also did not exhibit the desired and typical increase in Env expression. These results underscore the importance of carefully evaluating the use of truncated Env as a model in HIV/SIV vaccine and imaging studies and of the continued need to find better models of native Env that contain fewer modifications.

Nonhuman primate models for the evaluation of HIV-1 preventive vaccine strategies: model parameter considerations and consequences

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Nonhuman primate (NHP) models of AIDS are powerful systems for evaluating HIV vaccine approaches in vivo. Authentic features of HIV-1 transmission, dissemination, target cell tropism, and pathogenesis, and aspects of anti-HIV-1 immune responses, can be recapitulated in NHPs provided the appropriate, specific model parameters are considered. Here, we discuss key model parameter options and their implications for HIV-1 vaccine evaluation.

RECENT FINDINGS

With the availability of several different NHP host species/subspecies, different challenge viruses and challenge stock production methods, and various challenge routes and schemata, multiple NHP models of AIDS exist for HIV vaccine evaluation. The recent development of multiple new challenge viruses, including chimeric simian-human immunodeficiency viruses and simian immunodeficiency virus clones, improved characterization of challenge stocks and production methods, and increased insight into specific challenge parameters have resulted in an increase in the number of available models and a better understanding of the implications of specific study design choices.

SUMMARY

Recent progress and technical developments promise new insights into basic disease mechanisms and improved models for better preclinical evaluation of interventions to prevent HIV transmission.

Tfh cells and HIV bnAbs, an immunodominance model of the HIV neutralizing antibody generation problem

The generation of HIV bnAbs may be one of the greatest feats of the human immune system and our best hope of finally creating an HIV vaccine. The striking amount of somatic hypermutation in HIV bnAbs led to the hypothesis that T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and germinal centers (GC) play a critical role in the ability of the immune system to generate these uncommon antibodies. In this review, we first summarize what is known about the immunological process of HIV bnAb development, the challenges of eliciting bnAbs via immunizations, and the putative central roles of Tfh cells and GC in the generation of HIV bnAbs. Next, we explore factors that have impeded our understanding of the GC and Tfh-cell processes involved in bnAb generation, including the difficulty of quantifying antigen-specific GC Tfh cells and the difficulty of tracking GC in human and non-human primate vaccine studies. Finally, we discuss antibody immunodominance pertaining to neutralizing antibody generation and the GC response, propose models to explain the negative effects of immunodominance on neutralizing antibody generation, and consider means of optimizing Tfh and GC responses to potentially overcome these problems.

Analysis of SIVmac Envelope-Specific Antibodies Selected Through Phage Display

We have constructed a single chain fragment variable (scFv) phage display library from a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected rhesus macaque that developed unusually high-titer neutralizing antibody responses against tier-3, neutralization-resistant SIVmac239. The library was screened using trimeric (gp140) and monomeric (gp120) forms of the SIVmac239 envelope (Env) glycoprotein. We also cloned variable-heavy and variable-light (VH-VL) antibody fragments from seven previously described rhesus macaque B-cell lines (BLCLs) that produce SIV gp120-specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Thirty-two gp140-specific mAbs were selected along with 20 gp120-specific ones. gp120-specific mAbs were only from the VH4 family, while gp41-specific mAbs were primarily from VH1, followed by VH4 and VH3. Rhesus macaque BLCL-derived mAbs belonged primarily to the VH4 family of antibodies followed by VH3 and a smaller number of VH1s. A preferential VH combination with Vλ light chain was observed with phage display-selected SIV Env-specific mAbs (gp120 and gp140), but not with BLCL-derived antibodies or the unpanned library. None of the tested antibodies had detectable neutralizing activity against tier-3 SIVmac239. The majority of gp120-specifc mAbs potently neutralized tier-1 SIVmac316 with 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values below 1 μg/ml. For gp140-specific antibodies, which were all specific for the gp41-subunit, 2 out of 11 tested neutralized SIVmac316 (IC50 of 7 and 5 μg/ml, respectively). These data suggest an order of preferential VH segment usage for SIV-specific antibodies in rhesus macaques. These antibodies will be useful in assessing the contribution of non-neutralizing antibodies to inhibition of SIV infection in vitro and in vivo.

DNA prime/protein boost vaccination elicits robust humoral response in rhesus macaques using oligomeric simian immunodeficiency virus envelope and Advax delta inulin adjuvant

The partial success of the RV144 trial underscores the importance of envelope-specific antibody responses for an effective HIV-1 vaccine. Oligomeric HIV-1 envelope proteins delivered with a potent adjuvant are expected to elicit strong antibody responses with broad neutralization specificity. To test this hypothesis, two SIV envelope proteins were formulated with delta inulin-based adjuvant (Advax) and used to immunize nonhuman primates. Oligomeric gp140-gp145 from SIVmac251 and SIVsmE660 was purified to homogeneity. Oligomers showed high-affinity interaction with CD4 and were highly immunogenic in rabbits, inducing Tier 2 SIV-neutralizing antibodies. The immunogenicity of an oligomeric Env DNA prime and protein boost together with Advax was evaluated in Chinese rhesus macaques. DNA administration elicited antibodies to both envelopes, and titres were markedly enhanced following homologous protein boosts via intranasal and intramuscular routes. Strong antibody responses were detected against the V1 and V2 domains of gp120. During peak immune responses, a low to moderate level of neutralizing activity was detected against Tier 1A/1B SIV isolates, with a moderate level noted against a Tier 2 isolate. Increased serum antibody affinity to SIVmac251 gp140 and generation of Env-specific memory B cells were observed in the immunized macaques. Animals were subjected to low-dose intravaginal challenge with SIVmac251 one week after the last protein boost. One out of three immunized animals was protected from infection. Although performed with a small number of macaques, this study demonstrates the utility of oligomeric envelopes formulated with Advax in eliciting broad antibody responses with the potential to provide protection against SIV transmission.

Nonhuman Primate Models for Studies of AIDS Virus Persistence During Suppressive Combination Antiretroviral Therapy

Nonhuman primate (NHP) models of AIDS represent a potentially powerful component of the effort to understand in vivo sources of AIDS virus that persist in the setting of suppressive combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) and to develop and evaluate novel strategies for more definitive treatment of HIV infection (i.e., viral eradication "cure", or sustained off-cART remission). Multiple different NHP models are available, each characterized by a particular NHP species, infecting virus, and cART regimen, and each with a distinct capacity to recapitulate different aspects of HIV infection. Given these different biological characteristics, and their associated strengths and limitations, different models may be preferred to address different questions pertaining to virus persistence and cure research, or to evaluate different candidate intervention approaches. Recent developments in improved cART regimens for use in NHPs, new viruses, a wider array of sensitive virologic assay approaches, and a better understanding of pathogenesis should allow even greater contributions from NHP models to this important area of HIV research in the future.

Increased T cell breadth and antibody response elicited in prime-boost regimen by viral vector encoded homologous SIV Gag/Env in outbred CD1 mice

BACKGROUND

A major obstacle for the development of HIV vaccines is the virus' worldwide sequence diversity. Nevertheless, the presence of T cell epitopes within conserved regions of the virus' structural Gag protein and conserved structures in the envelope (env) sequence raises the possibility that cross-reactive responses may be induced by vaccination. In this study, the aim was to investigate the importance of antigenic match on immunodominance and breadth of obtainable T cell responses.

METHODS

Outbred CD1 mice were immunized with either heterologous (SIVmac239 and HIV-1 clade B consensus) or homologous (SIVmac239) gag sequences using adenovirus (Ad5) and MVA vectors. Env (SIVmac239) was co-encoded in the vectors to study the induction of antibodies, which is a primary target of current HIV vaccine designs. All three vaccines were designed as virus-encoded virus-like particle vaccines. Antibody responses were analysed by ELISA, avidity ELISA, and neutralization assay. T cell responses were determined by intracellular cytokine staining of splenocytes.

RESULTS

The homologous Env/Gag prime-boost regimen induced higher Env binding antibodies, and induced stronger and broader Gag specific CD8+ T cell responses than the homologous Env/heterologous Gag prime-boost regimen. Homologous Env/heterologous Gag immunization resulted in selective boosting of Env specific CD8+ T cell responses and consequently a paradoxical decreased recognition of variant sequences including conserved elements of p24 Gag.

CONCLUSIONS

These results contrast with related studies using Env or Gag as the sole antigen and suggest that prime-boost immunizations based on homologous SIVmac239 Gag inserts is an efficient component of genetic VLP vaccines-both for induction of potent antibody responses and cross-reactive CD8+ T cell responses.

Derivation and Characterization of Pathogenic Transmitted/Founder Molecular Clones from Simian Immunodeficiency Virus SIVsmE660 and SIVmac251 following Mucosal Infection

Currently available simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infectious molecular clones (IMCs) and isolates used in nonhuman primate (NHP) models of AIDS were originally derived from infected macaques during chronic infection or end stage disease and may not authentically recapitulate features of transmitted/founder (T/F) genomes that are of particular interest in transmission, pathogenesis, prevention, and treatment studies. We therefore generated and characterized T/F IMCs from genetically and biologically heterogeneous challenge stocks of SIVmac251 and SIVsmE660. Single-genome amplification (SGA) was used to identify full-length T/F genomes present in plasma during acute infection resulting from atraumatic rectal inoculation of Indian rhesus macaques with low doses of SIVmac251 or SIVsmE660. All 8 T/F clones yielded viruses that were infectious and replication competent in vitro, with replication kinetics similar to those of the widely used chronic-infection-derived IMCs SIVmac239 and SIVsmE543. Phenotypically, the new T/F virus strains exhibited a range of neutralization sensitivity profiles. Four T/F virus strains were inoculated into rhesus macaques, and each exhibited typical SIV replication kinetics. The SIVsm T/F viruses were sensitive to TRIM5α restriction. All T/F viruses were pathogenic in rhesus macaques, resulting in progressive CD4(+) T cell loss in gastrointestinal tissues, peripheral blood, and lymphatic tissues. The animals developed pathological immune activation; lymphoid tissue damage, including fibrosis; and clinically significant immunodeficiency leading to AIDS-defining clinical endpoints. These T/F clones represent a new molecular platform for the analysis of virus transmission and immunopathogenesis and for the generation of novel "bar-coded" challenge viruses and next-generation simian-human immunodeficiency viruses that may advance the HIV/AIDS vaccine agenda.

IMPORTANCE

Nonhuman primate research has relied on only a few infectious molecular clones for a myriad of diverse research projects, including pathogenesis, preclinical vaccine evaluations, transmission, and host-versus-pathogen interactions. With new data suggesting a selected phenotype of the virus that causes infection (i.e., the transmitted/founder virus), we sought to generate and characterize infectious molecular clones from two widely used simian immunodeficiency virus lineages (SIVmac251 and SIVsmE660). Although the exact requirements necessary to be a T/F virus are not yet fully understood, we generated cloned viruses with all the necessary characteristic of a successful T/F virus. The cloned viruses revealed typical acute and set point viral-load dynamics with pathological immune activation, lymphoid tissue damage progressing to significant immunodeficiency, and AIDS-defining clinical endpoints in some animals. These T/F clones represent a new molecular platform for studies requiring authentic T/F viruses.