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Kokori E, Olatunji G, Mokuolu A, Akinoso A, Olunlade I, Bonu IS, Alabi BO, Oguaju JC, Aderinto N. Influenza A(H1N2)v: global impact, emerging threats and preventive measures. Ann Med Surg (Lond) 2024; 86:2388-2390. [PMID: 38694368 PMCID: PMC11060236 DOI: 10.1097/ms9.0000000000001948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Kokori
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Ilorin, Ilorin
| | | | - Ayomikun Mokuolu
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Ilorin, Ilorin
| | - Aminat Akinoso
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Ilorin, Ilorin
| | - Ibukun Olunlade
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Ilorin, Ilorin
| | | | | | | | - Nicholas Aderinto
- Department of Medicine, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria
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Gu G, Liu C, Lee SH, Chun Choi LS, Wilson MT, Pfeiffer DU, Go YY. Detection of a reassortant swine H1N2 influenza A virus from pigs in Hong Kong. Virol Sin 2024; 39:343-346. [PMID: 38309471 DOI: 10.1016/j.virs.2024.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Guoqian Gu
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Congnuan Liu
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Song Hao Lee
- Center for Applied One Health Research and Policy Advice, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Lewis Sze Chun Choi
- Center for Applied One Health Research and Policy Advice, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Michael T Wilson
- Center for Applied One Health Research and Policy Advice, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Dirk U Pfeiffer
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; Center for Applied One Health Research and Policy Advice, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Yun Young Go
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, 143-701, Republic of Korea.
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Sohrabi MA, Zare-Mirakabad F, Ghidary SS, Saadat M, Sadegh-Zadeh SA. A novel data augmentation approach for influenza A subtype prediction based on HA proteins. Comput Biol Med 2024; 172:108316. [PMID: 38503091 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2024.108316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Influenza, a pervasive viral respiratory illness, remains a significant global health concern. The influenza A virus, capable of causing pandemics, necessitates timely identification of specific subtypes for effective prevention and control, as highlighted by the World Health Organization. The genetic diversity of influenza A virus, especially in the hemagglutinin protein, presents challenges for accurate subtype prediction. This study introduces PreIS as a novel pipeline utilizing advanced protein language models and supervised data augmentation to discern subtle differences in hemagglutinin protein sequences. PreIS demonstrates two key contributions: leveraging pre-trained protein language models for influenza subtype classification and utilizing supervised data augmentation to generate additional training data without extensive annotations. The effectiveness of the pipeline has been rigorously assessed through extensive experiments, demonstrating a superior performance with an impressive accuracy of 94.54% compared to the current state-of-the-art model, the MC-NN model, which achieves an accuracy of 89.6%. PreIS also exhibits proficiency in handling unknown subtypes, emphasizing the importance of early detection. Pioneering the classification of HxNy subtypes solely based on the hemagglutinin protein chain, this research sets a benchmark for future studies. These findings promise more precise and timely influenza subtype prediction, enhancing public health preparedness against influenza outbreaks and pandemics. The data and code underlying this article are available in https://github.com/CBRC-lab/PreIS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Amin Sohrabi
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Zare-Mirakabad
- Computational Biology Research Center (CBRC), Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeed Shiri Ghidary
- Department of Computing, School of Digital, Technologies, and Arts, Staffordshire University, Stoke-On-Trent, UK
| | - Mahsa Saadat
- Computational Biology Research Center (CBRC), Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed-Ali Sadegh-Zadeh
- Department of Computing, School of Digital, Technologies, and Arts, Staffordshire University, Stoke-On-Trent, UK.
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Liu M, van Kuppeveld FJM, de Haan CAM, de Vries E. Gradual adaptation of animal influenza A viruses to human-type sialic acid receptors. Curr Opin Virol 2023; 60:101314. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2023.101314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023]
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Introductions of Human-Origin Seasonal H3N2, H1N2 and Pre-2009 H1N1 Influenza Viruses to Swine in Brazil. Viruses 2023; 15:v15020576. [PMID: 36851790 PMCID: PMC9966956 DOI: 10.3390/v15020576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In South America, the evolutionary history of influenza A virus (IAV) in swine has been obscured by historically low levels of surveillance, and this has hampered the assessment of the zoonotic risk of emerging viruses. The extensive genetic diversity of IAV in swine observed globally has been attributed mainly to bidirectional transmission between humans and pigs. We conducted surveillance in swine in Brazil during 2011-2020 and characterized 107 H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 IAVs. Phylogenetic analysis based on HA and NA segments revealed that human seasonal IAVs were introduced at least eight times into swine in Brazil since the mid-late 1980s. Our analyses revealed three genetic clades of H1 within the 1B lineage originated from three distinct spillover events, and an H3 lineage that has diversified into three genetic clades. The N2 segment from human seasonal H1N2 and H3N2 viruses was introduced into swine six times and a single introduction of an N1 segment from the human H1N1 virus was identified. Additional analysis revealed further reassortment with H1N1pdm09 viruses. All these introductions resulted in IAVs that apparently circulate only in Brazilian herds. These results reinforce the significant contributions of human IAVs to the genetic diversity of IAV in swine and reiterate the importance of surveillance of IAV in pigs.
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High-throughput droplet-based analysis of influenza A virus genetic reassortment by single-virus RNA sequencing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2211098120. [PMID: 36730204 PMCID: PMC9963642 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2211098120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The segmented RNA genome of influenza A viruses (IAVs) enables viral evolution through genetic reassortment after multiple IAVs coinfect the same cell, leading to viruses harboring combinations of eight genomic segments from distinct parental viruses. Existing data indicate that reassortant genotypes are not equiprobable; however, the low throughput of available virology techniques does not allow quantitative analysis. Here, we have developed a high-throughput single-cell droplet microfluidic system allowing encapsulation of IAV-infected cells, each cell being infected by a single progeny virion resulting from a coinfection process. Customized barcoded primers for targeted viral RNA sequencing enabled the analysis of 18,422 viral genotypes resulting from coinfection with two circulating human H1N1pdm09 and H3N2 IAVs. Results were highly reproducible, confirmed that genetic reassortment is far from random, and allowed accurate quantification of reassortants including rare events. In total, 159 out of the 254 possible reassortant genotypes were observed but with widely varied prevalence (from 0.038 to 8.45%). In cells where eight segments were detected, all 112 possible pairwise combinations of segments were observed. The inclusion of data from single cells where less than eight segments were detected allowed analysis of pairwise cosegregation between segments with very high confidence. Direct coupling analysis accurately predicted the fraction of pairwise segments and full genotypes. Overall, our results indicate that a large proportion of reassortant genotypes can emerge upon coinfection and be detected over a wide range of frequencies, highlighting the power of our tool for systematic and exhaustive monitoring of the reassortment potential of IAVs.
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Daniels RS, McCauley JW. The health of influenza surveillance and pandemic preparedness in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. J Gen Virol 2023; 104. [PMID: 36800222 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic is the first to have emerged when Next Generation Sequencing was readily available and it has played the major role in following evolution of the causative agent, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2. Response to the pandemic was greatly facilitated though use of existing influenza surveillance networks: World Health Organization (WHO) Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS), focussing largely on human influenza, and the OFFLU network of expertise on avian influenza established by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH). Data collection/deposition platforms associated with these networks, notably WHO's FluNet and the Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data (GISAID) were/are being used intensely. Measures introduced to combat COVID-19 resulted in greatly decreased circulation of human seasonal influenza viruses for approximately 2 years, but circulation continued in the animal sector with an upsurge in the spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza subtype H5N1 with large numbers of wild bird deaths, culling of many poultry flocks and sporadic spill over into mammalian species, including humans, thereby increasing pandemic risk potential. While there are proposals/implementations to extend use of GISRS and GISAID to other infectious disease agents (e.g. Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Monkeypox), there is need to ensure that influenza surveillance is maintained and improved in both human and animal sectors in a sustainable manner to be truly prepared (early detection) for the next influenza pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney Stuart Daniels
- Worldwide Influenza Centre (WIC), The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - John William McCauley
- Worldwide Influenza Centre (WIC), The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
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Kamel MN, Mahmoud SH, Moatasim Y, El Taweel A, Shehata M, Shehata MR, AbdElSalam ET, Ali MA, Mostafa A. Immunogenicity and effectiveness of a bivalent influenza A/H1N2 vaccine strain against seasonal human influenza A viruses in mice. J Genet Eng Biotechnol 2022; 20:155. [PMID: 36331680 PMCID: PMC9636361 DOI: 10.1186/s43141-022-00436-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Background Recent studies and reports have documented the ability of the co-circulating seasonal influenza A/H1N1 (ancestor: 2009 pandemic H1N1) and A/H3N2 to exchange their genetic segments, generating a novel H1N2 strain in different geographical localities around the world with an ability to infect human. This raises concerns and triggers alarms to develop a multivalent vaccine that can protect against the documented H1- and H3-type human influenza A viruses (IAVs). Results Here, we generated a PR8-based vaccine strain that carries the HA gene segment from the contemporary H1N1 virus while the NA gene segment was derived from a currently circulating influenza A/H3N2 strain. A recombinant PR8-based H1N2 vaccine strain (rgH1N2), engineered by reassortment between influenza A/H1N1 and A/H3N2 to mimic the documented human influenza A/H1N2, was used for immunization to provoke immunogenicity and cross-antigenicity against the H1- and H3-type human IAVs and was evaluated for its immunogenicity and effectiveness in mice. Following challenge infection of rgH1N2-vaccinated mice with contemporary influenza A/H1N1 and A/H3N2, results revealed that rgH1N2-vaccinated mice showed less viral shedding, more survival, and less body weight loss compared to control unvaccinated groups and vaccinated mice with rgH1N1 and rgH3N2. Conclusions This study highlights the applicability of the PR8-based H1N2 vaccine strain to protect against seasonal IAVs and emphasizes the role of both surface proteins, HA and NA, to stimulate protective and neutralizing antibodies against circulating influenza A/H1N1 and A/H3N2 strains.
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Nabakooza G, Galiwango R, Frost SDW, Kateete DP, Kitayimbwa JM. Molecular Epidemiology and Evolutionary Dynamics of Human Influenza Type-A Viruses in Africa: A Systematic Review. Microorganisms 2022; 10:900. [PMID: 35630344 PMCID: PMC9145646 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10050900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Genomic characterization of circulating influenza type-A viruses (IAVs) directs the selection of appropriate vaccine formulations and early detection of potentially pandemic virus strains. However, longitudinal data on the genomic evolution and transmission of IAVs in Africa are scarce, limiting Africa's benefits from potential influenza control strategies. We searched seven databases: African Journals Online, Embase, Global Health, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science according to the PRISMA guidelines for studies that sequenced and/or genomically characterized Africa IAVs. Our review highlights the emergence and diversification of IAVs in Africa since 1993. Circulating strains continuously acquired new amino acid substitutions at the major antigenic and potential N-linked glycosylation sites in their hemagglutinin proteins, which dramatically affected vaccine protectiveness. Africa IAVs phylogenetically mixed with global strains forming strong temporal and geographical evolution structures. Phylogeographic analyses confirmed that viral migration into Africa from abroad, especially South Asia, Europe, and North America, and extensive local viral mixing sustained the genomic diversity, antigenic drift, and persistence of IAVs in Africa. However, the role of reassortment and zoonosis remains unknown. Interestingly, we observed substitutions and clades and persistent viral lineages unique to Africa. Therefore, Africa's contribution to the global influenza ecology may be understated. Our results were geographically biased, with data from 63% (34/54) of African countries. Thus, there is a need to expand influenza surveillance across Africa and prioritize routine whole-genome sequencing and genomic analysis to detect new strains early for effective viral control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Nabakooza
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology, Makerere University, Old Mulago Hill Road, P.O. Box 7072, Kampala 256, Uganda;
- UVRI Centre of Excellence in Infection and Immunity Research and Training (MUII-Plus), Makerere University, Plot No: 51-59 Nakiwogo Road, P.O. Box 49, Entebbe 256, Uganda; (R.G.); (J.M.K.)
| | - Ronald Galiwango
- UVRI Centre of Excellence in Infection and Immunity Research and Training (MUII-Plus), Makerere University, Plot No: 51-59 Nakiwogo Road, P.O. Box 49, Entebbe 256, Uganda; (R.G.); (J.M.K.)
- Centre for Computational Biology, Uganda Christian University, Plot 67-173, Bishop Tucker Road, P.O. Box 4, Mukono 256, Uganda
- African Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics and Data Intensive Sciences, Infectious Diseases Institute, Makerere University, Kampala 256, Uganda
| | - Simon D. W. Frost
- Microsoft Research, Redmond, 14820 NE 36th Street, Washington, DC 98052, USA;
- London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), University of London, Keppel Street, Bloomsbury, London WC1E7HT, UK
| | - David P. Kateete
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology, Makerere University, Old Mulago Hill Road, P.O. Box 7072, Kampala 256, Uganda;
- UVRI Centre of Excellence in Infection and Immunity Research and Training (MUII-Plus), Makerere University, Plot No: 51-59 Nakiwogo Road, P.O. Box 49, Entebbe 256, Uganda; (R.G.); (J.M.K.)
| | - John M. Kitayimbwa
- UVRI Centre of Excellence in Infection and Immunity Research and Training (MUII-Plus), Makerere University, Plot No: 51-59 Nakiwogo Road, P.O. Box 49, Entebbe 256, Uganda; (R.G.); (J.M.K.)
- Centre for Computational Biology, Uganda Christian University, Plot 67-173, Bishop Tucker Road, P.O. Box 4, Mukono 256, Uganda
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Yang JR, Kuo CY, Yu IL, Kung FY, Wu FT, Lin JS, Liu MT. Human infection with a reassortant swine-origin influenza A(H1N2)v virus in Taiwan, 2021. Virol J 2022; 19:63. [PMID: 35392932 PMCID: PMC8988477 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-022-01794-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Influenza A virus infections occur in different species, causing mild-to-severe symptoms that lead to a heavy disease burden. H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 are major subtypes of swine influenza A viruses in pigs and occasionally infect humans. Methods A case infected by novel influenza virus was found through laboratory surveillance system for influenza viruses. Clinical specimens were tested by virus culture and/or real-time RT–PCR. The virus was identified and characterized by gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Results In 2021, for the first time in Taiwan, an influenza A(H1N2)v virus was isolated from a 5-year old girl who was suffering from fever, runny nose and cough. The isolated virus was designated A/Taiwan/1/2021(H1N2)v. Full-genome sequencing and phylogenetic analyses revealed that A/Taiwan/1/2021(H1N2)v is a novel reassortant virus containing hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) gene segments derived from swine influenza A(H1N2) viruses that may have been circulating in Taiwan for decades, and the other 6 internal genes (PB2, PB2, PA, NP, M and NS) are from human A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses. Conclusion Notably, the HA and NA genes of A/Taiwan/1/2021(H1N2)v separately belong to specific clades that are unique for Taiwanese swine and were proposed to be introduced from humans in different time periods. Bidirectional transmission between humans and swine contributes to influenza virus diversity and poses the next pandemic threat. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12985-022-01794-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Rong Yang
- Center for Diagnostics and Vaccine Development, Centers for Disease Control, No. 161, Kun-Yang Street, Taipei, 11561, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chuan-Yi Kuo
- Center for Diagnostics and Vaccine Development, Centers for Disease Control, No. 161, Kun-Yang Street, Taipei, 11561, Taiwan, ROC
| | - I-Ling Yu
- Center for Diagnostics and Vaccine Development, Centers for Disease Control, No. 161, Kun-Yang Street, Taipei, 11561, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Fang-Yen Kung
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Fang-Tzy Wu
- Center for Diagnostics and Vaccine Development, Centers for Disease Control, No. 161, Kun-Yang Street, Taipei, 11561, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jen-Shiou Lin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ming-Tsan Liu
- Center for Diagnostics and Vaccine Development, Centers for Disease Control, No. 161, Kun-Yang Street, Taipei, 11561, Taiwan, ROC.
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Hossain MG, Akter S, Dhole P, Saha S, Kazi T, Majbauddin A, Islam MS. Analysis of the Genetic Diversity Associated With the Drug Resistance and Pathogenicity of Influenza A Virus Isolated in Bangladesh From 2002 to 2019. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:735305. [PMID: 34603265 PMCID: PMC8484749 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.735305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The subtype prevalence, drug resistance- and pathogenicity-associated mutations, and the distribution of the influenza A virus (IAV) isolates identified in Bangladesh from 2002 to 2019 were analyzed using bioinformatic tools. A total of 30 IAV subtypes have been identified in humans (4), avian species (29), and environment (5) in Bangladesh. The predominant subtypes in human and avian species are H1N1/H3N2 and H5N1/H9N2, respectively. However, the subtypes H5N1/H9N2 infecting humans and H3N2/H1N1 infecting avian species have also been identified. Among the avian species, the maximum number of subtypes (27) have been identified in ducks. A 3.56% of the isolates showed neuraminidase inhibitor (NAI) resistance with a prevalence of 8.50, 1.33, and 2.67% in avian species, humans, and the environment, respectively, the following mutations were detected: V116A, I117V, D198N, I223R, S247N, H275Y, and N295S. Prevalence of adamantane-resistant IAVs was 100, 50, and 30.54% in humans, the environment, and avian species, respectively, the subtypes H3N2, H1N1, H9N2, and H5N2 were highly prevalent, with the subtype H5N1 showing a comparatively lower prevalence. Important PB2 mutations such D9N, K526R, A588V, A588I, G590S, Q591R, E627K, K702R, and S714R were identified. A wide range of IAV subtypes have been identified in Bangladesh with a diversified genetic variation in the NA, M2, and PB2 proteins providing drug resistance and enhanced pathogenicity. This study provides a detailed analysis of the subtypes, and the host range of the IAV isolates and the genetic variations related to their proteins, which may aid in the prevention, treatment, and control of IAV infections in Bangladesh, and would serve as a basis for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Golzar Hossain
- Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
| | - Sharmin Akter
- Department of Physiology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
| | - Priya Dhole
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, PA, United States
| | - Sukumar Saha
- Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
| | - Taheruzzaman Kazi
- Department of Regenerative Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Abir Majbauddin
- Department of Regenerative Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Md Sayeedul Islam
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
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Komadina N, Sullivan SG, Leder K, McVernon J. Likelihood of prior exposure to circulating influenza viruses resulting in cross-protection by CD8+ T cells against emergent H3N2v swine viruses infecting humans. J Med Virol 2021; 94:567-574. [PMID: 34449904 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.27299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Outbreaks of influenza in swine can result in potential threats to human public health. A notable occurrence was the emergence of swine-origin H1N1 influenza viruses in 2009. Since then, there have been several documented outbreaks of swine-origin influenza infecting humans in several countries. Sustained events have occurred when H1N1v, H1N2v, and H3N2v swine-origin viruses have infected humans visiting agricultural shows in the US. The predominant H3N2v viruses gained the matrix protein from the A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses, with reported human-to-human transmission raising fears of another pandemic. Current vaccines do not induce secondary cell-mediated immune responses, which may provide cross-protection against novel influenza A subtypes, however, population susceptibility to infection with seasonal influenza is likely to be influenced by cross-reactive CD8+ T-cells directed towards immunogenic peptides derived from viral proteins. This study involved a retrospective review of historical influenza viruses circulating in human populations from 1918 to 2020 to identify evidence of prior circulation of H3N3v immunogenic CD8+ T-cells peptides found in the NP and M1 proteins. We found evidence of prior circulation of H3N2v NP and M1 immunogenic peptides in historical influenza viruses. This provides insight into the population context in which influenza viruses emerge and may help inform immunogenic peptide selection for cytotoxic T-cell lymphocytes (CTL)-inducing influenza vaccines. Next-generation vaccines capable of eliciting CD8+ T-cell-mediated cross-protective immunity may offer a long-term alternative strategy for influenza vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Komadina
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, Royal Melbourne Hospital at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sheena G Sullivan
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, Royal Melbourne Hospital and the Department of Infectious Diseases, The University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Karin Leder
- School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Victorian Infectious Diseases Services, Royal Melbourne Hospital at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jodie McVernon
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Epidemiology Unit, Royal Melbourne Hospital at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Modelling and Simulation Unit, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Everett HE, Nash B, Londt BZ, Kelly MD, Coward V, Nunez A, van Diemen PM, Brown IH, Brookes SM. Interspecies Transmission of Reassortant Swine Influenza A Virus Containing Genes from Swine Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 and A(H1N2) Viruses. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 26:273-281. [PMID: 31961298 PMCID: PMC6986826 DOI: 10.3201/eid2602.190486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 (pH1N1) virus has become established in swine in the United Kingdom and currently co-circulates with previously enzootic swine influenza A virus (IAV) strains, including avian-like H1N1 and human-like H1N2 viruses. During 2010, a swine influenza A reassortant virus, H1N2r, which caused mild clinical disease in pigs in the United Kingdom, was isolated. This reassortant virus has a novel gene constellation, incorporating the internal gene cassette of pH1N1-origin viruses and hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes of swine IAV H1N2 origin. We investigated the pathogenesis and infection dynamics of the H1N2r isolate in pigs (the natural host) and in ferrets, which represent a human model of infection. Clinical and virologic parameters were mild in both species and both intraspecies and interspecies transmission was observed when initiated from either infected pigs or infected ferrets. This novel reassortant virus has zoonotic and reverse zoonotic potential, but no apparent increased virulence or transmissibility, in comparison to pH1N1 viruses.
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14
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Trebbien R, Koch A, Nielsen L, Kur DK, Westerström P, Krause TG. A case of reassortant seasonal influenza A(H1N2) virus, Denmark, April 2019. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 24. [PMID: 31290388 PMCID: PMC6628757 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2019.24.27.1900406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A reassortant influenza A subtype H1N2 virus with gene segments from seasonal A(H1N1)pdm09 virus (HA, MP, NP, NS, PA, PB1 and PB2) and seasonal A(H3N2) virus (NA) was identified in a routine surveillance sample in Denmark. The patient recovered fully. This is the second reassortant influenza A(H1N2) virus identified in Europe in the 2018/19 influenza season, with the first case being detected December 2018 in Sweden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramona Trebbien
- National Influenza Center, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anders Koch
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Prevention, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lene Nielsen
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Herlev Hospital, Copenhagen University, Herlev, Denmark
| | - Dår Kristian Kur
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, North Zealand Hospital, Hillerød, Denmark
| | - Pontus Westerström
- Department of Pulmonary and Infectious Diseases, North Zealand Hospital, Hillerød, Denmark
| | - Tyra Grove Krause
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Prevention, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
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15
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Park MS, Kim JI, Bae JY, Park MS. Animal models for the risk assessment of viral pandemic potential. Lab Anim Res 2020; 36:11. [PMID: 32337177 PMCID: PMC7175453 DOI: 10.1186/s42826-020-00040-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pandemics affect human lives severely and globally. Experience predicts that there will be a pandemic for sure although the time is unknown. When a viral epidemic breaks out, assessing its pandemic risk is an important part of the process that characterizes genomic property, viral pathogenicity, transmission in animal model, and so forth. In this review, we intend to figure out how a pandemic may occur by looking into the past influenza pandemic events. We discuss interpretations of the experimental evidences resulted from animal model studies and extend implications of viral pandemic potentials and ingredients to emerging viral epidemics. Focusing on the pandemic potential of viral infectious diseases, we suggest what should be assessed to prevent global catastrophes from influenza virus, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, dengue and Zika viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mee Sook Park
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Viral Diseases, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea 02841
| | - Jin Il Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Viral Diseases, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea 02841
| | - Joon-Yong Bae
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Viral Diseases, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea 02841
| | - Man-Seong Park
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Viral Diseases, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea 02841
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16
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Ivan FX, Zhou X, Lau SH, Rashid S, Teo JSM, Lee HK, Koay ES, Chan KP, Leo YS, Chen MIC, Kwoh CK, Chow VT. Molecular insights into evolution, mutations and receptor-binding specificity of influenza A and B viruses from outpatients and hospitalized patients in Singapore. Int J Infect Dis 2020; 90:84-96. [PMID: 31669593 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2019.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study compared the genomes of influenza viruses that caused mild infections among outpatients and severe infections among hospitalized patients in Singapore, and characterized their molecular evolution and receptor-binding specificity. METHODS The complete genomes of influenza A/H1N1, A/H3N2 and B viruses that caused mild infections among outpatients and severe infections among inpatients in Singapore during 2012-2015 were sequenced and characterized. Using various bioinformatics approaches, we elucidated their evolutionary, mutational and structural patterns against the background of global and vaccine strains. RESULTS The phylogenetic trees of the 8 gene segments revealed that the outpatient and inpatient strains overlapped with representative global and vaccine strains. We observed a cluster of inpatients with A/H3N2 strains that were closely related to vaccine strain A/Texas/50/2012(H3N2). Several protein sites could accurately discriminate between outpatient versus inpatient strains, with site 221 in neuraminidase (NA) achieving the highest accuracy for A/H3N2. Interestingly, amino acid residues of inpatient but not outpatient isolates at those sites generally matched the corresponding residues in vaccine strains, except at site 145 of hemagglutinin (HA). This would be especially relevant for future surveillance of A/H3N2 strains in relation to their antigenicity and virulence. Furthermore, we observed a trend in which the HA proteins of influenza A/H3N2 and A/H1N1 exhibited enhanced ability to bind both avian and human host cell receptors. In contrast, the binding ability to each receptor was relatively stable for the HA of influenza B. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our findings extend our understanding of the molecular and structural evolution of influenza virus strains in Singapore within the global context of these dynamic viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fransiskus X Ivan
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Xinrui Zhou
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Suk Hiang Lau
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Shamima Rashid
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Jasmine S M Teo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hong Kai Lee
- Molecular Diagnosis Centre, National University Hospital, Singapore; Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore
| | - Evelyn S Koay
- Molecular Diagnosis Centre, National University Hospital, Singapore; Department of Pathology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kwai Peng Chan
- Department of Pathology, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore
| | - Yee Sin Leo
- National Centre for Infectious Diseases, Singapore
| | - Mark I C Chen
- National Centre for Infectious Diseases, Singapore; Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chee Keong Kwoh
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
| | - Vincent T Chow
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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17
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Meijer A, Swaan CM, Voerknecht M, Jusic E, van den Brink S, Wijsman LA, Voordouw BC, Donker GA, Sleven J, Dorigo-Zetsma WW, Svraka S, van Boven M, Haverkate MR, Timen A, van Dissel JT, Koopmans MP, Bestebroer TM, Fouchier RA. Case of seasonal reassortant A(H1N2) influenza virus infection, the Netherlands, March 2018. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 23. [PMID: 29667576 PMCID: PMC6836195 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2018.23.15.18-00160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
A seasonal reassortant A(H1N2) influenza virus harbouring genome segments from seasonal influenza viruses A(H1N1)pdm09 (HA and NS) and A(H3N2) (PB2, PB1, PA, NP, NA and M) was identified in March 2018 in a 19-months-old patient with influenza-like illness (ILI) who presented to a general practitioner participating in the routine sentinel surveillance of ILI in the Netherlands. The patient recovered fully. Further epidemiological and virological investigation did not reveal additional cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Meijer
- Department Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.,Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Corien M Swaan
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Martin Voerknecht
- General practitioner participating in the Primary Care Database sentinel surveillance coordinated by NIVEL Netherlands institute for health services research, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Edin Jusic
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Sharon van den Brink
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Lisa A Wijsman
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Bettie Cg Voordouw
- Department Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.,Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Gé A Donker
- Coordinator NIVEL Primary Care Database sentinel surveillance, NIVEL Netherlands institute for health services research, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jacqueline Sleven
- Municipal Health Services 'Gooi en Vechtstreek', Bussum, the Netherlands
| | | | - Sanela Svraka
- Central Bacteriology and Serology Laboratory, Tergooi Hospitals, Hilversum, the Netherlands
| | - Michiel van Boven
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Manon R Haverkate
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Aura Timen
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Jaap T van Dissel
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Marion Pg Koopmans
- Department Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Theo M Bestebroer
- Department Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ron Am Fouchier
- Department Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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18
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Goneau LW, Mehta K, Wong J, L'Huillier AG, Gubbay JB. Zoonotic Influenza and Human Health-Part 1: Virology and Epidemiology of Zoonotic Influenzas. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2018; 20:37. [PMID: 30069735 DOI: 10.1007/s11908-018-0642-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Zoonotic influenza viruses are those that cross the animal-human barrier and can cause disease in humans, manifesting from minor respiratory illnesses to multiorgan dysfunction. They have also been implicated in the causation of deadly pandemics in recent history. The increasing incidence of infections caused by these viruses worldwide has necessitated focused attention to improve both diagnostic as well as treatment modalities. In this first part of a two-part review, we describe the structure of zoonotic influenza viruses, the relationship between mutation and pandemic capacity, pathogenesis of infection, and also discuss history and epidemiology. RECENT FINDINGS We are currently witnessing the fifth and the largest wave of the avian influenza A(H7N9) epidemic. Also in circulation are a number of other zoonotic influenza viruses, including avian influenza A(H5N1) and A(H5N6); avian influenza A(H7N2); and swine influenza A(H1N1)v, A(H1N2)v, and A(H3N2)v viruses. Most recently, the first human case of avian influenza A(H7N4) infection has been documented. By understanding the virology and epidemiology of emerging zoonotic influenzas, we are better prepared to face a new pandemic. However, continued effort is warranted to build on this knowledge in order to efficiently combat the constant threat posed by the zoonotic influenza viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- L W Goneau
- Public Health Ontario Laboratory, 661 University Avenue, Suite 1701, Toronto, ON, M5G 1M1, Canada.,University of Toronto, 27 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A1, Canada
| | - K Mehta
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Paediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - J Wong
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Paediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Paediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Paediatrics, North York General Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - A G L'Huillier
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Paediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - J B Gubbay
- Public Health Ontario Laboratory, 661 University Avenue, Suite 1701, Toronto, ON, M5G 1M1, Canada. .,University of Toronto, 27 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A1, Canada. .,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Paediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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19
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Abstract
Influenza viruses undergo rapid antigenic evolution and reassortment, resulting in annual epidemics and the occasional pandemics. Exposure to influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) antigen, either through vaccination or infection, induces an antibody response able to recognize only the homologous antigenic subtype. However, atypical antibody responses recognizing non-homologous influenza subtypes have been reported during infection and vaccination. Here, we review the incidence of these phenomena in published literature and discuss the potential mechanisms underlying them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalton Hermans
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53715, USA
| | - Richard J Webby
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Sook-San Wong
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
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20
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Vasin AV, Petrova-Brodskaya AV, Plotnikova MA, Tsvetkov VB, Klotchenko SA. EVOLUTIONARY DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL DOMAINS OF INFLUENZA A VIRUS NS1 PROTEIN. Vopr Virusol 2017; 62:246-258. [PMID: 36494956 DOI: 10.18821/0507-4088-2017-62-6-246-258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) NS1 protein is one of the key viral factors responsible for virus-host interactions. NS1 counteracts host antiviral defense, participates in the processing and export of cellular mRNAs, regulates the activity of viral RNA polymerase and the expression of viral genes, and influences the cellular signaling systems. Multiple NS1 functions are carried out due to the interactions with cellular factors, the number of which exceeds one hundred. It is noteworthy that only two segments of IAV genome - NS and NP - did not undergo reassortment and evolved in the course of genetic drift, beginning with the pandemic of 1918 to the present. This fact may indicate the importance of NS1 and its numerous interactions with cellular factors in the interspecific adaptation of the virus. The review presents data on the evolution of the human IAV NS1 protein and analysis of the amino acid substitutions in the main structural and functional domains of NS1 protein during evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Vasin
- Research Institute of Influenza.,Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University
| | - A V Petrova-Brodskaya
- Research Institute of Influenza.,Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University
| | | | - V B Tsvetkov
- Research Institute of Influenza.,A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences.,Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine
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21
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Turcotte MM, Araki H, Karp DS, Poveda K, Whitehead SR. The eco-evolutionary impacts of domestication and agricultural practices on wild species. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 372:rstb.2016.0033. [PMID: 27920378 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Agriculture is a dominant evolutionary force that drives the evolution of both domesticated and wild species. However, the various mechanisms of agriculture-induced evolution and their socio-ecological consequences are not often synthetically discussed. Here, we explore how agricultural practices and evolutionary changes in domesticated species cause evolution in wild species. We do so by examining three processes by which agriculture drives evolution. First, differences in the traits of domesticated species, compared with their wild ancestors, alter the selective environment and create opportunities for wild species to specialize. Second, selection caused by agricultural practices, including both those meant to maximize productivity and those meant to control pest species, can lead to pest adaptation. Third, agriculture can cause non-selective changes in patterns of gene flow in wild species. We review evidence for these processes and then discuss their ecological and sociological impacts. We finish by identifying important knowledge gaps and future directions related to the eco-evolutionary impacts of agriculture including their extent, how to prevent the detrimental evolution of wild species, and finally, how to use evolution to minimize the ecological impacts of agriculture.This article is part of the themed issue 'Human influences on evolution, and the ecological and societal consequences'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin M Turcotte
- Center for Adaptation to a Changing Environment, CHN G35.1, Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zürich, Universitätstrasse 16, Zürich 8092, Switzerland
| | - Hitoshi Araki
- Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 0608589, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Daniel S Karp
- Institute for Resources, Environment, and Sustainability, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T1Z4
| | - Katja Poveda
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Comstock Hall 4117, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Susan R Whitehead
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Comstock Hall 4117, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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22
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Bui CM, Chughtai AA, Adam DC, MacIntyre CR. An overview of the epidemiology and emergence of influenza A infection in humans over time. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 75:15. [PMID: 28352464 PMCID: PMC5366997 DOI: 10.1186/s13690-017-0182-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
In recent years multiple novel influenza A strains have emerged in humans. We reviewed publically available data to summarise epidemiological characteristics of distinct avian influenza viruses known to cause human infection and describe changes over time. Most recently identified zoonotic strains have emerged in China (H7N9, H5N6, H10N8) – these strains have occurred mostly in association with visiting a live bird market. Most zoonotic AIVs and swine influenza variants typically cause mild infections in humans however severe illness and fatalities are associated with zoonotic H5N6, H10N8, H7N9 and H5N1 serotypes, and the H1N1 1918 Spanish Influenza. The changing landscape of avian influenza globally indicates a need to reassess the risk of a pandemic influenza outbreak of zoonotic origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chau Minh Bui
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Abrar Ahmad Chughtai
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Dillon Charles Adam
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
| | - C Raina MacIntyre
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia.,College of Public Service & Community Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ USA
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23
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Bravo-Vasquez N, Karlsson EA, Jimenez-Bluhm P, Meliopoulos V, Kaplan B, Marvin S, Cortez V, Freiden P, Beck MA, Hamilton-West C, Schultz-Cherry S. Swine Influenza Virus (H1N2) Characterization and Transmission in Ferrets, Chile. Emerg Infect Dis 2017; 23:241-251. [PMID: 28098524 PMCID: PMC5324791 DOI: 10.3201/eid2302.161374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Phylogenetic analysis of the influenza hemagglutinin gene (HA) has suggested that commercial pigs in Chile harbor unique human seasonal H1-like influenza viruses, but further information, including characterization of these viruses, was unavailable. We isolated influenza virus (H1N2) from a swine in a backyard production farm in Central Chile and demonstrated that the HA gene was identical to that in a previous report. Its HA and neuraminidase genes were most similar to human H1 and N2 viruses from the early 1990s and internal segments were similar to influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 virus. The virus replicated efficiently in vitro and in vivo and transmitted in ferrets by respiratory droplet. Antigenically, it was distinct from other swine viruses. Hemagglutination inhibition analysis suggested that antibody titers to the swine Chilean H1N2 virus were decreased in persons born after 1990. Further studies are needed to characterize the potential risk to humans, as well as the ecology of influenza in swine in South America.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Pedro Jimenez-Bluhm
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Victoria Meliopoulos
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Bryan Kaplan
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Shauna Marvin
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Valerie Cortez
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Pamela Freiden
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Melinda A. Beck
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
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24
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Resende PC, Born PS, Matos AR, Motta FC, Caetano BC, Debur MDC, Riediger IN, Brown D, Siqueira MM. Whole-Genome Characterization of a Novel Human Influenza A(H1N2) Virus Variant, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 2017; 23:152-154. [PMID: 27983507 PMCID: PMC5176240 DOI: 10.3201/eid2301.161122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the characterization of a novel reassortant influenza A(H1N2) virus not previously reported in humans. Recovered from a a pig farm worker in southeast Brazil who had influenza-like illness, this virus is a triple reassortant containing gene segments from subtypes H1N2 (hemagglutinin), H3N2 (neuraminidase), and pandemic H1N1 (remaining genes).
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MESH Headings
- Adolescent
- Animal Husbandry
- Animals
- Brazil
- Female
- Genome, Viral
- Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus/genetics
- Humans
- Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/genetics
- Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/isolation & purification
- Influenza A Virus, H1N2 Subtype/genetics
- Influenza A Virus, H1N2 Subtype/isolation & purification
- Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype/genetics
- Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype/isolation & purification
- Influenza, Human/diagnosis
- Influenza, Human/virology
- Neuraminidase/genetics
- Orthomyxoviridae Infections/veterinary
- Orthomyxoviridae Infections/virology
- Reassortant Viruses/genetics
- Reassortant Viruses/isolation & purification
- Swine
- Swine Diseases/virology
- Workforce
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25
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Komadina N, Quiñones-Parra SM, Kedzierska K, McCaw JM, Kelso A, Leder K, McVernon J. High conservation level of CD8(+) T cell immunogenic regions within an unusual H1N2 human influenza variant. J Med Virol 2016; 88:1725-32. [PMID: 26950895 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Current seasonal influenza vaccines require regular updates due to antigenic drift causing loss of effectiveness and therefore providing little or no protection against novel influenza A subtypes. Next generation vaccines capable of eliciting CD8(+) T cell (CTL) mediated cross-protective immunity may offer a long-term alternative strategy. However, measuring pre- and existing levels of CTL cross-protection in humans is confounded by differences in infection histories across individuals. During 2000-2003, H1N2 viruses circulated persistently in the human population for the first time and we hypothesized that the viral nucleoprotein (NP) contained novel CTL epitopes that may have contributed to the survival of the viruses. This study describes the immunogenic NP peptides of H1N1, H2N2, and H3N2 influenza viruses isolated from humans over the past century, 1918-2003, by comparing this historical dataset to reference NP peptides from H1N2 that circulated in humans during 2000-2003. Observed peptides sequences ranged from highly conserved (15%) to highly variable (12%), with variation unrelated to reported immunodominance. No unique NP peptides which were exclusive to the H1N2 viruses were noted. However, the virus had inherited the NP from a recently emerged H3N2 variant containing novel peptides, which may have assisted its persistence. Any advantage due to this novelty was subsequently lost with emergence of a newer H3N2 variant in 2003. Our approach has potential to provide insight into the population context in which influenza viruses emerge, and may help to inform immunogenic peptide selection for CTL-inducing influenza vaccines. J. Med. Virol. 88:1725-1732, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Komadina
- World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,The Peter Doherty Institute of Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Sergio M Quiñones-Parra
- The Peter Doherty Institute of Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Australia.,The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Katherine Kedzierska
- The Peter Doherty Institute of Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Australia.,The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - James M McCaw
- The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Anne Kelso
- World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,The Peter Doherty Institute of Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Australia.,The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Karin Leder
- Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Victorian Infectious Diseases Services, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jodie McVernon
- The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia
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26
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Mackay IM, Arden KE. MERS coronavirus: diagnostics, epidemiology and transmission. Virol J 2015; 12:222. [PMID: 26695637 PMCID: PMC4687373 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-015-0439-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 11/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The first known cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), associated with infection by a novel coronavirus (CoV), occurred in 2012 in Jordan but were reported retrospectively. The case first to be publicly reported was from Jeddah, in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Since then, MERS-CoV sequences have been found in a bat and in many dromedary camels (DC). MERS-CoV is enzootic in DC across the Arabian Peninsula and in parts of Africa, causing mild upper respiratory tract illness in its camel reservoir and sporadic, but relatively rare human infections. Precisely how virus transmits to humans remains unknown but close and lengthy exposure appears to be a requirement. The KSA is the focal point of MERS, with the majority of human cases. In humans, MERS is mostly known as a lower respiratory tract (LRT) disease involving fever, cough, breathing difficulties and pneumonia that may progress to acute respiratory distress syndrome, multiorgan failure and death in 20% to 40% of those infected. However, MERS-CoV has also been detected in mild and influenza-like illnesses and in those with no signs or symptoms. Older males most obviously suffer severe disease and MERS patients often have comorbidities. Compared to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), another sometimes- fatal zoonotic coronavirus disease that has since disappeared, MERS progresses more rapidly to respiratory failure and acute kidney injury (it also has an affinity for growth in kidney cells under laboratory conditions), is more frequently reported in patients with underlying disease and is more often fatal. Most human cases of MERS have been linked to lapses in infection prevention and control (IPC) in healthcare settings, with approximately 20% of all virus detections reported among healthcare workers (HCWs) and higher exposures in those with occupations that bring them into close contact with camels. Sero-surveys have found widespread evidence of past infection in adult camels and limited past exposure among humans. Sensitive, validated reverse transcriptase real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-rtPCR)-based diagnostics have been available almost from the start of the emergence of MERS. While the basic virology of MERS-CoV has advanced over the past three years, understanding of the interplay between camel, environment, and human remains limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian M Mackay
- Department of Health, Public and Environmental Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Archerfield, QLD, Australia.
- The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.
- Queensland University of Technology, George St, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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Rith S, Chin S, Sar B, Y P, Horm SV, Ly S, Buchy P, Dussart P, Horwood PF. Natural co-infection of influenza A/H3N2 and A/H1N1pdm09 viruses resulting in a reassortant A/H3N2 virus. J Clin Virol 2015; 73:108-111. [PMID: 26590689 PMCID: PMC4674902 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2015.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Revised: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite annual co-circulation of different subtypes of seasonal influenza, co-infections between different viruses are rarely detected. These co-infections can result in the emergence of reassortant progeny. STUDY DESIGN We document the detection of an influenza co-infection, between influenza A/H3N2 with A/H1N1pdm09 viruses, which occurred in a 3 year old male in Cambodia during April 2014. Both viruses were detected in the patient at relatively high viral loads (as determined by real-time RT-PCR CT values), which is unusual for influenza co-infections. As reassortment can occur between co-infected influenza A strains we isolated plaque purified clonal viral populations from the clinical material of the patient infected with A/H3N2 and A/H1N1pdm09. RESULTS Complete genome sequences were completed for 7 clonal viruses to determine if any reassorted viruses were generated during the influenza virus co-infection. Although most of the viral sequences were consistent with wild-type A/H3N2 or A/H1N1pdm09, one reassortant A/H3N2 virus was isolated which contained an A/H1N1pdm09 NS1 gene fragment. The reassortant virus was viable and able to infect cells, as judged by successful passage in MDCK cells, achieving a TCID50 of 10(4)/ml at passage number two. There is no evidence that the reassortant virus was transmitted further. The co-infection occurred during a period when co-circulation of A/H3N2 and A/H1N1pdm09 was detected in Cambodia. CONCLUSIONS It is unclear how often influenza co-infections occur, but laboratories should consider influenza co-infections during routine surveillance activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sareth Rith
- Institut Pasteur in Cambodia, Institut Pasteur International Network, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Savuth Chin
- National Institute of Public Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Borann Sar
- National Institute of Public Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cambodia Office, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Phalla Y
- Institut Pasteur in Cambodia, Institut Pasteur International Network, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Srey Viseth Horm
- Institut Pasteur in Cambodia, Institut Pasteur International Network, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sovann Ly
- Communicable Disease Department, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Philippe Buchy
- Institut Pasteur in Cambodia, Institut Pasteur International Network, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Philippe Dussart
- Institut Pasteur in Cambodia, Institut Pasteur International Network, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Paul F Horwood
- Institut Pasteur in Cambodia, Institut Pasteur International Network, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
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28
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Qiao C, Liu L, Yang H, Chen Y, Xu H, Chen H. Novel triple reassortant H1N2 influenza viruses bearing six internal genes of the pandemic 2009/H1N1 influenza virus were detected in pigs in China. J Clin Virol 2014; 61:529-34. [PMID: 25467861 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2014.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The pandemic A/H1N1 influenza viruses emerged in both Mexico and the United States in March 2009, and were transmitted efficiently in the human population. Transmissions of the pandemic 2009/H1N1 virus from humans to poultry and other species of mammals were reported from several continents during the course of the 2009 H1N1 pandemic. Reassortant H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 viruses containing genes of the pandemic 2009/H1N1 viruses appeared in pigs in some countries. STUDY DESIGN In winter of 2012, a total of 2600 nasal swabs were collected from healthy pigs in slaughterhouses located throughout 10 provinces in China. The isolated viruses were subjected to genetic and antigenic analysis. Two novel triple-reassortant H1N2 influenza viruses were isolated from swine in China in 2012, with the HA gene derived from Eurasian avian-like swine H1N1, the NA gene from North American swine H1N2, and the six internal genes from the pandemic 2009/H1N1 viruses. The two viruses had similar antigenic features and some significant changes in antigenic characteristics emerged when compared to the previously identified isolates. CONCLUSION We inferred that the novel reassortant viruses in China may have arisen from the accumulation of the three types of influenza viruses, which further indicates that swine herds serve as "mixing vessels" for influenza viruses. Influenza virus reassortment is an ongoing process, and our findings highlight the urgent need for continued influenza surveillance among swine herds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanling Qiao
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, PR China
| | - Liping Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, PR China
| | - Huanliang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, PR China
| | - Yan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, PR China
| | - Huiyang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, PR China
| | - Hualan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, PR China.
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Schaefer R, Rech RR, Gava D, Cantão ME, da Silva MC, Silveira S, Zanella JRC. A human-like H1N2 influenza virus detected during an outbreak of acute respiratory disease in swine in Brazil. Arch Virol 2014; 160:29-38. [PMID: 25209152 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-014-2223-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 08/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Passive monitoring for detection of influenza A viruses (IAVs) in pigs has been carried out in Brazil since 2009, detecting mostly the A(H1N1)pdm09 influenza virus. Since then, outbreaks of acute respiratory disease suggestive of influenza A virus infection have been observed frequently in Brazilian pig herds. During a 2010-2011 influenza monitoring, a novel H1N2 influenza virus was detected in nursery pigs showing respiratory signs. The pathologic changes were cranioventral acute necrotizing bronchiolitis to subacute proliferative and purulent bronchointerstitial pneumonia. Lung tissue samples were positive for both influenza A virus and A(H1N1)pdm09 influenza virus based on RT-qPCR of the matrix gene. Two IAVs were isolated in SPF chicken eggs. HI analysis of both swine H1N2 influenza viruses showed reactivity to the H1δ cluster. DNA sequencing was performed for all eight viral gene segments of two virus isolates. According to the phylogenetic analysis, the HA and NA genes clustered with influenza viruses of the human lineage (H1-δ cluster, N2), whereas the six internal gene segments clustered with the A(H1N1)pdm09 group. This is the first report of a reassortant human-like H1N2 influenza virus derived from pandemic H1N1 virus causing an outbreak of respiratory disease in pigs in Brazil. The emergence of a reassortant IAV demands the close monitoring of pigs through the full-genome sequencing of virus isolates in order to enhance genetic information about IAVs circulating in pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rejane Schaefer
- Embrapa Swine and Poultry, Genetic and Animal Health Laboratory, Rodovia BR153, Km 110, Concórdia, SC, CEP 89700-000, Brazil,
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Abstract
The challenge of increasing swine production and a rising number of novel and known swine influenza viruses has prompted a considerable boost in research into how and why pigs have become such significant hosts for influenza viruses. The ecology of influenza A viruses is rather complicated, involving multiple host species and a segmented genome. Wild aquatic birds are the reservoir for the majority of influenza A viruses, but novel influenza viruses were recently identified in bats. Occasionally, influenza A viruses can be transmitted to mammals from avian species and this event could lead to the generation of human pandemic strains. Swine are thought to be "mixing vessels" because they are susceptible to infection with both avian and mammalian influenza viruses; and novel influenza viruses can be generated in pigs by reassortment. At present, it is difficult to predict which viruses might cause a human pandemic. Therefore, both human and veterinary research needs to give more attention to the potential cross-species transmission capacity of influenza A viruses.
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