Effect of age on the pathogenesis of duck tembusu virus in Cherry Valley ducks

Mouse models of Tembusu virus infection for differentiating between cluster 2.1 and 2.2 isolates

Tembusu virus (TMUV) cluster 2.1 and 2.2 strains are known to produce lethal neurological disease in mice inoculated by intracerebral (ic) route. Here, we report the comparative clinicopathological findings following experimental infections of 3-week-old BALB/c and Kunming mice with cluster 2.1 isolate H and cluster 2.2 isolate Y. When infected by the subcutaneous (sc) route, both isolates failed to induce disease in mice. When infected by the ic route, both isolates caused lethal neurological disease in mice, with isolate H presenting markedly higher neurovirulence than isolate Y. Further studies with the Kunming mouse model showed that following sc inoculation, both H and Y isolates failed to replicate in brain and spleen, and that following ic inoculation, isolate H replicated to higher levels in brain and spleen than isolate Y. The findings may help to explain non-neuroinvasive property of clusters 2.1 and 2.2 and suggest that enhanced neurovirulence of cluster 2.1 relative to cluster 2.2 is associated with more efficient replication in the central nervous system and in the periphery. Moreover, isolate H induced significantly higher levels of IFN-β, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, Ifit1, and Ifit2 expression relative to isolate Y, indicating a positive correlation between TMUV neurovirulence and magnitude of antiviral innate immune response. The present work demonstrates that the mouse models allow to differentiate between cluster 2.1 and 2.2 isolates and provides mechanistic insights into TMUV-induced disease.

Dynamics of immune responses following duck Tembusu virus infection in adult laying ducks reveal the effect of age-related immune variation on disease severity

Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV), an emerging avian pathogenic flavivirus, is notably associated with neurological disorders and acute egg drop syndrome in ducks. We previously demonstrated that the susceptibility of ducks to DTMUV infection varies significantly with age, with younger ducks (4-week-old) exhibiting more severe disease than older ducks (27-week-old). However, the immunological mechanisms underlying these age-related differences in disease severity remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the dynamics of immune responses following DTMUV infection in adult laying ducks (27-week-old) and compared them to our previous findings on young ducks (4 weeks old). The numbers of T helper, cytotoxic T, B, and non-T and B lymphocytes, as well as neutralizing antibody levels, were measured in parallel with DTMUV loads in the blood and target organs. Our results revealed that the number of non-T and B lymphocytes/myeloid cells in 27-week-old adult laying ducks infected with DTMUV remained consistently stable throughout the observation period, in contrast to findings in 4-week-old younger ducks, where myeloid cell responses were implicated in disease progression. Regarding lymphocyte responses, unlike in 4-week-old younger ducks, only cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses in 27-week-old older ducks showed a significant negative correlation with the reduction of viremia and viral loads in target organs, indicating their role in controlling viral replication in older ducks. Additionally, 27-week-old adult laying ducks infected with DTMUV exhibited high levels of neutralizing antibodies, which were significantly correlated with reduced viral loads in blood and target organs. Overall, the presence of robust DTMUV-specific neutralizing antibody and CTL responses, along with a finely tuned myeloid cell response likely plays a significant role in controlling severe neurological outcomes in 27-week-old adult laying ducks. This study highlights the age-related differences in immune responses following DTMUV infection, which potentially contribute to the varying disease severity among ducks of different ages. Understanding the interplay between the host and DTMUV provides significant implications for disease management strategies and vaccine development.

Duck Tembusu virus in North Vietnam: epidemiological and genetic analysis reveals novel virus strains

Tembusu virus (TMUV) is an important infectious disease, causing economic losses in duck production. Since the first report of TMUV infection in Vietnam in 2020, the disease has persisted and affected poultry production in the country. This study conducted epidemiological and genetic characterization of the viral strains circulating in north Vietnam based on 130 pooled tissue samples collected in six provinces/cities during 2021. The TMUV genome was examined using conventional PCR. The results indicated that 21 (16.15%) samples and 9 (23.68%) farms were positive for the viral genome. The positive rate was 59.26% for ducks at ages 2-4 weeks, which was significantly higher than for ducks at ages >4 weeks and < 2 weeks. Genetic analysis of the partial envelope gene (891 bp) sequences indicated that the five Vietnamese TMUVs shared 99.55-100% nucleotide identity, while the rates were in the range 99.59-100% based on the pre-membrane gene sequences (498 bp). The five Vietnamese TMUV strains obtained formed a novel single subcluster. These strains were closely related to Chinese strains and differed from the vaccine strain, suggesting that Vietnamese TMUV strains were field viruses. It needs to be further studied on vaccine development to prevent effects of TMUV infection on poultry production across Vietnam.

Pathogenicity and Interspecies Transmission of Cluster 3 Tembusu Virus Strain TMUV HQ-22 Isolated from Geese

Since 2010, the Tembusu virus (TMUV) has been highly prevalent in China, causing significant economic losses to the poultry industry. In 2022, a suspected outbreak of TMUV occurred at a goose farm located in Anhui Province. A strain of TMUV, TMUV HQ-22, was isolated from the infected geese. Phylogenetic analysis using the E gene of the HQ-22 strain demonstrated its affiliation with cluster 3, a less commonly reported cluster in comparison to the main circulating cluster, cluster 2. Through a comparison of the envelope (E) protein of HQ-22 with other typical TMUV strains, a mutation at the 157th amino acid position was identified, wherein valine (V) in cluster 3 changed to alanine (A), a characteristic that is unique to cluster 2. These findings highlight the diversity and complexity of the TMUV strains circulating in China. In our experimental analysis, an injection of TMUV HQ-22 into the muscles of 3-day-old goslings resulted in severe neurological symptoms and a mortality rate of 60%. Similarly, the intracranial or intranasal infection of 3-week-old ICR mice with TMUV HQ-22 led to severe neurological symptoms and respective mortality rates of 100% or 10%. In summary, our study isolated a TMUV strain, TMUV HQ-22, from geese that belongs to cluster 3 and exhibits significant pathogenicity in both goslings and ICR mice. These results emphasize the genetic diversity of the TMUV circulating in China and expand the host range beyond mosquitoes to include ducks, chickens, geese, and even mice. It is crucial to not underestimate the risk of TMUV infection in mammals, warranting our utmost attention.

Bacillus subtilis expressing duck Tembusu virus E protein induces immune protection in ducklings

Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) is an infectious disease that emerged in China in 2010. It has caused serious economic losses to the poultry industry and may pose a threat to public health. We aimed to develop a new Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis)-based oral vaccine to control DTMUV transmission among poultry; to this end, we constructed a B. subtilis strain that can secrete DTMUV E protein. Ducklings were orally immunized, and serum antibodies, mucosal antibodies, and splenic cytokines were detected. The results showed that, in addition to high levels of specific IgG, there were also high levels of specific secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) in ducklings orally treated with recombinant B. subtilis. In addition, the levels of IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-10 in spleens were significantly boosted by recombinant B. subtilis. Recombinant B. subtilis could effectively enhance ducklings resistance to DTMUV and significantly reduce viral load (p<0.01), along with pathological damage in the brain, heart, and spleen. This is the first study to apply a B. subtilis live-vector vaccine platform for DTMUV disease prevention and control, and our results suggest that B. subtilis expressing DTMUV E protein may be a candidate vaccine against DTMUV.

Pathogenesis of Cluster 1 Duck Tembusu Virus in Ducks Reveals the Impact of Viral Genotype on Pathogenicity and Disease Severity

Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV), an emerging avian pathogenic flavivirus, causes severe neurological disorders and acute egg drop syndrome in ducks. Currently, several clusters of DTMUV, including clusters 1, 2, and 3, have been identified and caused outbreaks in Asia. However, most of the DTMUV pathogenesis evaluation has mainly focused on cluster 2, while limited information is available on the pathogenesis of other DTMUV clusters, particularly cluster 1. In this study, the pathogenesis of a cluster 1 DTMUV was investigated in Cherry Valley ducks and compared to our previously reported cluster 2.1 DTMUV. Our results demonstrated that cluster 1 DTMUV was generally less pathogenic than cluster 2.1 DTMUV in ducks as evidenced by slower body weight loss, lower morbidity and mortality rates, and milder pathological changes. Concordantly, delayed viremia, reduced viral loads in blood and tissues, and shorter shedding period with lower viral loads were also observed in cluster 1 DTMUV inoculated ducks compared with those reported in cluster 2.1 DTMUV. In addition, we also found that cluster 1 DTMUV exhibited significant antigenic difference compared to cluster 2.1 DTMUV. Altogether, our findings suggest distinct pathogenicity and antigenicity between cluster 1 and 2.1 DTMUVs in ducks, highlighting the potential association between DTMUV genotype and pathogenicity/disease severity. This study enhances our understanding of DTMUV pathogenesis in ducks and provides useful information for the design and development of effective DTMUV vaccines.

Study on the Protective Immunity Induced by Pseudotyped Baculovirus Expressing the E Protein of Tembusu Virus in Ducklings

The Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV), a pathogenic flavivirus, has been causing significant economic losses in the Chinese poultry industry since 2010. This virus can severely decrease egg production and inhibit the growth of laying ducks and ducklings. While many vaccines have been developed to prevent DTMUV infection, fresh outbreaks continue to occur, as few effective vaccines are available. The E glycoprotein of DTMUV is the primary target for inducing protective immunity in the natural host. Therefore, we conducted an investigation and successfully developed a recombinant baculovirus containing the DTMUV E gene. Ducklings were then vaccinated with the purified protein derived from this virus as a potential vaccine candidate. Our findings demonstrated that the E glycoprotein of DTMUV was highly expressed in Sf9 cells. The vaccination of ducklings with the recombinant baculovirus Bac-E resulted in the induction of strong humoral and cellular immune responses. Most significantly, we observed that the vaccine provided 100% protective immunity against lethal challenges with the DTMUV YY5 strain.

A novel live attenuated duck Tembusu virus vaccine targeting N7 methyltransferase protects ducklings against pathogenic strains

Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV), an emerging pathogenic flavivirus, causes markedly decreased egg production in laying duck and neurological dysfunction and death in ducklings. Vaccination is currently the most effective means for prevention and control of DTMUV. In previous study, we have found that methyltransferase (MTase) defective DTMUV is attenuated and induces a higher innate immunity. However, it is not clear whether MTase-deficient DTMUV can be used as a live attenuated vaccine (LAV). In this study, we investigated the immunogenicity and immunoprotection of N7-MTase defective recombinant DTMUV K61A, K182A and E218A in ducklings. These three mutants were highly attenuated in both virulence and proliferation in ducklings but still immunogenic. Furthermore, a single-dose immunization with K61A, K182A or E218A could induce robust T cell responses and humoral immune responses, which could protect ducks from the challenge of a lethal-dose of DTMUV-CQW1. Together, this study provides an ideal strategy to design LAVs for DTMUV by targeting N7-MTase without changing the antigen composition. This attenuated strategy targeting N7-MTase may apply to other flaviviruses.

An Antibody Neutralization Determinant on Domain III and the First α-Helical Domain in the Stem-Anchor Region of Tembusu Virus Envelope Protein

Previous studies identified three neutralizing epitopes on domains I, II, and III of the Tembusu virus (TMUV) envelope (E). More evidence is needed to understand the molecular basis of Ab-mediated neutralization and protection against TMUV. In this study, we observed a neutralizing mAb, 6C8, that neutralized TMUV infection primarily by inhibiting cell attachment. In immunofluorescence assays, 6C8 recognized the premembrane and E proteins coexpressed in HEK-293T cells, but failed to react with premembrane or E expressed individually. Epitope mapping identified nine E protein residues positioned on BC/EF loops and F/G strands in domain III and the first α-helical domain in the stem region. Further investigation with mutant viruses showed that 6C8 pressure resulted in mutations at residues 330 of BC loop and 409 of the first α-helical domain, although 6C8 only exhibited a moderate neutralizing activity in BHK-21 cells and a weak protective activity in BALB/c mice and Shaoxing duck models. Mutations A330S and T409M conferred high- and low-level 6C8 resistance, respectively, whereas the combination of A330S and T409M mutations conferred moderate-level 6C8 resistance. As a result, a quasispecies comprising three groups of antigenic variants appeared in BHK-21 cell–derived viral stocks after repeated passages of TMUV strain Y in the presence of 6C8 treatment. Taken together, these findings have raised a concern about Ab-induced antigenic variations in vivo, and they have revealed information concerning the conformational structure of the 6C8 epitope and its role in constraint on antigenic variations. The present work contributes to a better understanding of the complexity of the TMUV immunogen.

The difference in CD4+ T cell immunity between high- and low-virulence Tembusu viruses is mainly related to residues 151 and 304 in the envelope protein

Tembusu virus (TMUV) can result in a severe disease affecting domestic ducks. The role of T cells in protection from TMUV infection and the molecular basis of T cell-mediated protection against TMUV remain largely uncharacterized. Here, we used the high-virulence TMUV strain Y and the low-virulence TMUV strain PS to investigate the protective role for TMUV-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells. When tested in a 5-day-old Pekin duck model, Y and PS induced comparable levels of neutralizing antibody, whereas Y elicited significantly stronger cellular immune response relative to PS. Using a duck adoptive transfer model, we showed that both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells provided significant protection from TMUV-related disease, with CD8⁺ T cell conferring more robust protection to recipient ducklings. For TMUV, CD4⁺ T cells mainly provided help for neutralizing antibody response, whereas CD8⁺ T cells mainly mediated viral clearance from infected tissues. The difference in T cell immunity between Y and PS was primarily attributed to CD4⁺ T cells; adoptive transfer of Y-specific CD4⁺ T cells resulted in significantly enhanced protective ability, neutralizing antibody response, and viral clearance from the brain relative to PS-specific CD4⁺ T cells. Further investigations with chimeric viruses, mutant viruses, and their parental viruses identified two mutations (T151A and R304M) in the envelope (E) protein that contributed significantly to TMUV-specific CD4⁺ T cell-mediated protective ability and neutralizing antibody response, with more beneficial effects being conferred by R304M. These data indicate T cell-mediated immunity is important for protection from disease, for viral clearance from tissues, and for the production of neutralizing antibodies, and that the difference in CD4⁺T cell immunity between high- and low-virulence TMUV strains is primarily related to residues 151 and 304 in the E protein.

Antibody prophylaxis against Tembusu virus-associated disease

Earlier studies have shown that Tembusu virus (TMUV) can elicit high levels of neutralizing antibodies, but the ability of antibodies to protect against TMUV-associated disease and to inhibit replication of TMUV in vivo remains to be investigated. Here, we tested the prophylactic efficacy of TMUV immune serum directly using a 2-day-old Pekin duck model. Passive administration of the immune serum prior to challenge protected ducklings against morbidity and mortality, substantially reduced TMUV-caused tissue injury, and significantly decreased TMUV levels in the periphery and central nervous system. These findings demonstrate that antibodies play a dominant protective role in controlling TMUV-associated disease.

Dynamics of cellular and humoral immune responses following duck Tembusu virus infection in ducks

Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV), an emerging avian pathogenic flavivirus, causes severe neurological disorders and acute egg drop syndrome in ducks. However, the effects of DTMUV on duck immunological components and functions remain largely unknown. In this study, the dynamics of cellular and humoral immune responses of DTMUV-infected ducks were investigated. The numbers of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T, B and non-T and B lymphocytes as well as the levels of neutralizing antibodies were quantified in parallel with DTMUV loads in blood and target organs. Our results demonstrated that DTMUV infection caused severe losses of non-T and B lymphocyte/myeloid cell subpopulation, and reduction in phagocytic activity during 3-5 days after infection. We also found that the numbers of T and B cells were increased during the first week of DTMUV infection. A significant negative correlation between the levels of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T, B and non-T and B lymphocytes and viral loads in blood and target organ (spleen) was observed during the early phase of infection. Additionally, DTMUV infection induced an early and robust neutralizing antibody response, which was associated with DTMUV-specific IgM and IgG responses. The presence of neutralizing antibody also correlated with reduction of viremia and viral load in spleen. Overall, DTMUV elicited both cellular and humoral immune responses upon infection, in which the magnitude of these responses was correlated with reduction of viremia and viral loads in the target organ (spleen). The results suggested the critical role of both cellular and humoral immunity against DTMUV infection. This study expands our understanding of the immunological events following DTMUV infection in ducks. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Decreased virulence of duck Tembusu virus harboring a mutant NS2A with impaired interaction with STING and IFNβ induction

Our previous studies revealed that duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) NS2A inhibited IFNβ signaling pathway by competitively binding to STING with TBK1, leading to reducing the phosphorylation of TBK1. Herein, we found that the 114-143 aa region of NS2A is critical for its interaction with STING and suppression of STING-mediated IFNβ signaling. We further identified the amino acids at positions L129, N130, L139, R140 and F143 of NS2A critical for NS2A-STING interaction. Subsequently, single residue substitution in the NS2A protein was introduced into the DTMUV replicon and infectious clone. The replicons with NS2A L129A and L130A mutations significantly inhibited viral genome RNA replication. The rDTMUV NS2A L129A, L139A and R140A mutant viruses yielded significantly lower titer levels than WT in both BHK-21 and DEF cells, with much more obvious effect on the viral genome level, and infectious virions formed outside of infected cells. Especially, the rDTMUV L129A mutant showed a significantly lower mortality in both embryos and ducks than WT. All NS2A-mutants decreased the weight gain of infected ducklings and reduced the viral loads in the spleen relative to WT. However, no significant differences of viral loads were observed in the blood, thymus, or liver. Our findings extend our previous study on the immune evasion role of flavivirus NS2A protein. The targeted therapy of disabling the viral strategies developed for evading innate defense can be applied to the development of attenuated flaviviruses.

A quasispecies in a BHK-21 cell-derived virulent Tembusu virus strain contains three groups of variants with distinct virulence phenotypes

Previous studies resulted in the isolation of a low-virulence plaque-purified variant from the third passage (P3) in BHK-21 cells of a Tembusu virus (TMUV) isolate, suggesting the presence of viral quasispecies in the P3 culture. To confirm this notion, the fourth passage virus (P4) was prepared by infecting BHK-21 cells with P3 for isolation of more variants. We isolated 10 plaque-purified viruses. Comparative genome sequence analysis identified six of the 10 viruses as genetically different variants, which harbored a total of eight amino acid differences in the envelope, NS1, NS3, and NS5 proteins. When tested in a 2-day-old Pekin duck model, P4 caused 80 % mortality, belonging to a high-virulence TMUV strain. Out of the six genetically different variants, two presented high-virulence, one exhibited moderate-virulence, and three displayed low-virulence, causing 60 %-70 %, 40 %, and 10 % mortalities, respectively. These results demonstrate that P4 contains at least three groups of variants with distinct virulence phenotypes. Analysis of links between the eight residues and virulence of the six variants identified NS1 protein residue 183 and NS5 protein residues 275 and/or 287 as novel determinants of TMUV virulence. The analysis also provided a new clue for future studies on the molecular basis of TMUV virulence in terms of genetic interaction of different proteins. Overall, our study provides direct evidence to suggest that TMUV exists in in vitro culture of a virulent isolate as a quasispecies, which may enhance our understanding of molecular mechanism of TMUV virulence.

Mapping of a unique epitope on domain III of the envelope protein of Tembusu virus

We recently developed a Tembusu virus (TMUV)-specific monoclonal antibody (MAb) 12F11, which was found to recognize a long amino acid sequence between residues 8 and 77 of domain III of the envelope protein (EDIII). Here, the epitope recognized by MAb 12F11 was mapped using alanine substitutions combined with dissociation constant analysis. The findings, and prediction of tertiary structure of TMUV EDIII, showed that the MAb 12F11 epitope contained one critical residue and 13 peripheral residues. Moreover, the antigenic site was shown to span four loops (N-terminal region, AB, BC, and CD) and three β-strands (A, B, and D). The present work contributes to the understanding of antigenic structure of TMUV envelope protein.

Glycosylation on envelope glycoprotein of duck Tembusu virus affects virus replication in vitro and contributes to the neurovirulence and pathogenicity in vivo

Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV), an emergent flavivirus, causes domestic waterfowls to suffer from severe egg-drop syndrome and fatal encephalitis, greatly threatens duck production globally. Like other mosquito-borne flaviviruses, the envelope (E) protein of all DTMUV strains was N-glycosylated at the amino acid position 154. Thus far, the biological roles of DTMUV E glycosylation have remained largely unexplored. Herein, we demonstrated the key roles of E glycosylation in the replication and pathogenicity of DTMUV in ducks by characterizing the reverse-genetics-derived DTMUV wild-type MC strain and MC bearing mutations (N154Q and N154I) that abolish the E glycosylation. Our data showed that the disruption of E glycosylation could substantially impair virus attachment, entry, and infectivity in DEFs and C6/36 cells. Notably, ducks inoculated intracerebrally with the wild-type virus exhibited severe disease onset. In contrast, those inoculated with mutant viruses were mildly affected as manifested by minimal weight loss, no mortality, lower viral loads in the various tissues, and reduced brain lesions. Attenuated phenotypes of the mutant viruses might be partly associated with lower inflammatory cytokines expression in the brains of infected ducks. Our study offers the first evidence that E glycosylation is vital for DTMUV replication, pathogenicity, and neurovirulence in vivo.

Motif C in nonstructural protein 5 of duck Tembusu virus is essential for viral proliferation

Nonstructural protein 5 (NS5) is required for duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) genome replication, and the GDD motif in motif C is considered the hallmark of RdRp. However, the role of GDD-adjacent amino acids in motif C in viral proliferation is still unclear. To explore the role of motif C in the virus life cycle, DTMUV infectious clones and replicons were used to study the basic characteristics of rDTMUV through mutation of the amino acids in motif C. The replicon replication capability, virus titer, virus copy number, virulence and viral loads in organs were compared. Our results showed that V671A and V672A in motif C impaired DTMUV RNA replication in the replication system. Using an infectious clone system of DTMUV, we further demonstrated that the mutations of these two sites decreased viral titer and delayed the times of CPE appearance and duck embryo death. An in vivo study suggested that rDTMUV and DTMUV caused no obvious differences in ducklings. Similar clinical signs, including splenomegaly with hyperemia and hemorrhage dots of the thymus, were observed. There was no obvious difference in tissue viral loads between wild-type (rDTMUV-WT) and rDTMUV-NS5-V671A or rDTMUV-NS5-V672A. Determining the role of motif C can help in improving the understanding of the mechanism underlying DTMUV proliferation.

Replication/Assembly Defective Avian Flavivirus With Internal Deletions in the Capsid Can Be Used as an Approach for Living Attenuated Vaccine

Avian Tembusu virus (TMUV) is a novel flavivirus causing severe egg drop and fatal encephalitis in avian in Asia. In the present study, we screened the structural and functional requirements of TMUV capsid protein (CP) for viral morphogenesis using reverse genetics methods in combination with replicon packaging assays. TMUV-CP showed dramatic functional and structural flexibility, and even though 44 residues were removed from the N-terminus, it was still capable of packaging replicon RNA; in addition, 33 residues were deleted from the C-terminus (containing nearly the entire α4-helix), and infectious particles were still produced, although α4-α4’ is supposedly vital for CP dimerization and nucleocapsid formation. We further analyzed two mutants (ΔC20-43 and ΔC64-96 viruses) with relatively large deletions that still replicated well in BHK-21 cells. Our data indicate that internal deletions within CP impaired viral replication or assembly, resulting in attenuated virus proliferation in cells and attenuated virulence in duck embryos, and these deletion mutations are quite stable in cell culture. An in vivo assay indicated that both ΔC20-43 virus and ΔC64-96 virus were highly attenuated in ducklings but still immunogenic. Single-dose immunization with ΔC20-43 virus or ΔC64-96 virus could protect ducklings from a lethal challenge with good antigen clearance. Together, our data shed light on replication/assembly defective TMUV with internal deletions in CP and provide an effective approach to attenuate viral virulence in live vaccines without changing the antigen composition.

Substantial Attenuation of Virulence of Tembusu Virus Strain PS Is Determined by an Arginine at Residue 304 of the Envelope Protein

The Tembusu virus (TMUV) PS strain, derived by several passages and plaque purifications in BHK-21 cells, displays markedly lower virulence in Pekin ducklings relative to a natural isolate of TMUV, but the potential virulence determinants and the in vivo mechanisms for substantial virulence attenuation of the passage variant remain unknown. Here, we constructed a series of chimeric and mutant viruses and assessed their virulence using a 2-day-old Pekin duckling model. We showed that residue 304 in the envelope (E) protein is the molecular determinant of TMUV virulence. Further investigations with mutant and parental viruses demonstrated that acquisition of positive charges at E protein residue 304 plays a critical role in substantial attenuation of neurovirulence and neuroinvasiveness, which is linked to enhanced binding affinity for glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). In Pekin ducklings infected by subcutaneous inoculation, an Arg at residue 304 in the E protein was shown to contribute to more rapid virus clearance from the circulation, markedly reduced viremia, and significantly decreased viral growth in the extraneural tissues and the central nervous system, relative to a Met at the corresponding residue. These findings suggest that the in vivo mechanism of virulence attenuation of the TMUV passage variant closely resembles that proposed previously for GAG-binding variants of other flaviviruses. Overall, our study provides insight into the molecular basis of TMUV virulence and the in vivo consequences of acquisition of a GAG-binding determinant at residue 304 in the E protein of TMUV.IMPORTANCE TMUV-related disease emerged in 2010 and has a significant economic impact on the duck industry. Although the disease was originally recognized to affect adult ducks, increasing evidence has shown that TMUV also causes severe disease of young ducklings. It is, therefore, essential to investigate the pathogenesis of TMUV infection in a young duckling model. The significance of our studies is in identifying E protein residue Arg304 as the molecular determinant for TMUV virulence and in clarifying the crucial role of positive charges at E protein residue 304 in virulence attenuation of a TMUV passage variant. These data will greatly enhance our understanding of the pathogenesis of TMUV infection in ducklings and have implications for development of a safe and efficient vaccine.

Analysis of Tembusu virus infection of human cell lines and human induced pluripotent stem cell derived hepatocytes

Tembusu virus (TMUV) causes disease in poultry, especially in ducks, resulting in abnormality in egg production and with high morbidity and mortality, resulting in great loss in duck farming industry in China and Southeast Asia. Previous studies on the pathogenesis of TMUV infection have been mostly conducted in poultry, with a few studies being undertaken in mice. While TMUV does not cause disease in humans, it has been reported that antibodies against TMUV have been found in serum samples from duck farmers, and thus data on TMUV infection in humans is limited, and the pathogenesis is unclear. In this study we investigated the cell tropism and potential susceptibility of humans to TMUV using several human cell lines. The results showed that human nerve and liver cell lines were both highly susceptible and permissive, while human kidney cells were susceptible and permissive, albeit to a lower degree. In addition, human muscle cells, lung epithelial cells, B-cells, T-cells and monocytic cells were largely refractory to TMUV infection. This data suggests that liver, neuron and kidney are potential target organs during TMUV infection in humans, consistent with what has been found in animal studies.

The Neutralizing Antibody Response Elicited by Tembusu Virus Is Affected Dramatically by a Single Mutation in the Stem Region of the Envelope Protein

Tembusu virus (TMUV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that most commonly affects adult breeder and layer ducks. However, a TMUV-caused neurological disease has also been found in ducklings below 7 weeks of age, highlighting the need to develop a safe vaccine for young ducklings. In this study, a plaque-purified PS TMUV strain was attenuated by serial passage in BHK-21 cells. Using 1-day-old Pekin ducklings as a model, the virus was confirmed to be attenuated sufficiently after 180 passages, whereas the neutralizing antibody response elicited by the 180th passage virus (PS180) was substantially impaired compared with PS. The findings suggest that sufficient attenuation results in loss of immunogenicity in the development of the live-attenuated TMUV vaccine. Comparative sequence analysis revealed that PS180 acquired one mutation (V41M) in prM and four mutations (T70A, Y176H, K313R, and F408L) in the envelope (E) protein. To identify the amino acid substitution(s) associated with loss of immunogenicity of PS180, we rescued parental viruses, rPS and rPS180, and produced mutant viruses, rPS180-M41V, rPS180-A70T, rPS180-H176Y, rPS180-R313K, rPS180-L408F, and rPS180-M5, which contained residue 41V in prM, residues 70T, 176Y, 313K, and 408F in E, and combination of the five residues, respectively, of PS in the backbone of the rPS180 genome. The neutralizing antibody response elicited by rPS180-L408F and rPS180-M5 was significantly higher than those by other mutant viruses and comparable to that by rPS. Furthermore, we produced mutant virus rPS-F408L, which contained residue 408L of PS180 in the backbone of the rPS genome. The F408L mutation conferred significantly decreased neutralizing antibody response to rPS-F408L, which was comparable to that elicited by rPS180. Based on homologous modeling, residue 408 was predicted to be located within the first helical domain of the stem region of the E protein (EH1). Together, these data demonstrate that a single mutation within the EH1 domain exerts a dramatical impact on the TMUV neutralizing antibody response. The present work may enhance our understanding of molecular basis of the TMUV neutralizing antibody response, and provides an important step for the development of a safe and efficient live-attenuated TMUV vaccine.

Pathogenicity of a Jinding duck-origin cluster 2.1 isolate of Tembusu virus in 3-week-old Pekin ducklings

Tembusu virus (TMUV) infection most commonly affects breeder and layer ducks during laying period, and can also affect young ducks below 7 weeks of age. Here, we report our investigation of a TMUV-caused fatal disease of Jingding ducklings (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) in Northeast China. The disease resulted in mortalities of up to 40 % in 2 to 4-week-old ducks, up to 25 % in 5 to 6-week-old ducks, and less than 10 % in 7 to 8-week-old ducks. Using a TMUV-specific reverse transcription-PCR assay, all 44 ducks collected from 10 different farms were found positive for TMUV. Phylogenetic analysis of the E nucleotide sequence revealed that five of the six TMUV strains detected from three young ducks and three laying ducks were grouped within cluster 2.1. Inoculation of the liver sample of a 40-day-old sick duck in BHK-21 cells resulted in isolation of cluster 2.1 TMUV strain H. In experimental infections performed using 3-week-old Pekin ducklings (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) (n = 30; 10 birds/group), high mortality (60 %) was caused by strain H, in sharp contrast with a very low mortality (10 %) caused by strain Y which was isolated during outbreaks of the TMUV-related disease of young Jinding ducks in 2014 in the same region. These findings clearly demonstrated that the cluster 2.1 TMUV strain H is more pathogenic for 3-week-old ducklings as compared to the cluster 2.2 TMUV strain Y. The present study may enhance our understanding of pathogenicity of TMUV in young ducks, and will stimulate further studies on the pathogenesis of TMUV infection.

Differently Expression Analysis and Function Prediction of Long Non-coding RNAs in Duck Embryo Fibroblast Cells Infected by Duck Tembusu Virus

Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV), the causative agent of egg-drop syndrome, has caused substantial economic losses to duck industry. DTMUV infection leads to profound changes of host cells, including transcriptome and proteome. However, the lncRNA expression profile and the biological function of lncRNA have not been revealed. Therefore, DTMUV was used to inoculate duck embryo fibroblast cells (DEFs) for high-throughput RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq). The results showed that 34 and 339 differently expressed lncRNAs were, respectively, identified at 12 and 24 h post-infection (hpi). To analyze their biological functions, target genes in cis were searched and the regulatory network was formed. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis revealed that the target genes were strongly associated with immune system, signaling molecular and interaction, endocrine system, and signal transduction. The differently expressed lncRNAs were selected and verified by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Our study, for the first time, analyzed a comprehensive lncRNA expression profile in DEFs following DTMUV infection. The analysis provided a view on the important roles of lncRNAs in gene regulation and DTMUV infection.

Innate immune responses to duck Tembusu virus infection

The disease caused by duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) is characterized by severe egg-drop in laying ducks. Currently, the disease has spread to most duck-raising areas in China, leading to great economic losses in the duck industry. In the recent years, DTMUV has raised some concerns, because of its expanding host range and increasing pathogenicity, as well as the potential threat to public health. Innate immunity is crucial for defending against invading pathogens in the early stages of infection. Recently, studies on the interaction between DTMUV and host innate immune response have made great progress. In the review, we provide an overview of DTMUV and summarize current advances in our understanding of the interaction between DTMUV and innate immunity, including the host innate immune responses to DTMUV infection through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), signaling transducer molecules, interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), and the immune evasion strategies employed by DTMUV. The aim of the review is to gain an in-depth understanding of DTMUV pathogenesis to facilitate future studies.

Heterologous prime-boost: an important candidate immunization strategy against Tembusu virus

BACKGROUND

Tembusu virus (TMUV), a newly emerging pathogenic flavivirus, spreads rapidly between ducks, causing massive economic losses in the Chinese duck industry. Vaccination is the most effective method to prevent TMUV. Therefore, it is urgent to look for an effective vaccine strategy against TMUV. Heterologous prime-boost regimens priming with vaccines and boosting with recombinant adenovirus vaccines have been proven to be successful strategies for protecting against viruses in experimental animal models.

METHODS

In this study, heterologous and homologous prime-boost strategies using an attenuated salmonella vaccine and a recombinant adenovirus vaccine expressing prM-E or the E gene of TMUV were evaluated to protect ducks against TMUV infection for the first time, including priming and boosting with the attenuated salmonella vaccine, priming and boosting with the recombinant adenovirus vaccine, and priming with the attenuated salmonella vaccine and boosting with the recombinant adenovirus vaccine. Humoral and cellular immune responses were detected and evaluated. We then challenged the ducks with TMUV at 12 days after boosting to assay for clinical symptoms, mortality, viral loads and histopathological lesions after these different strategies.

RESULTS

Compared with the homologous prime-boost strategies, the heterologous prime-boost regimen produced higher levels of neutralizing antibodies and IgG antibodies against TMUV. Additionally, it could induce higher levels of IFN-γ than homologous prime-boost strategies in the later stage. Interestingly, the heterologous prime-boost strategy induced higher levels of IL-4 in the early stage, but the IL-4 levels gradually decreased and were even lower than those induced by the homologous prime-boost strategy in the later stage. Moreover, the heterologous prime-boost strategy could efficiently protect ducks, with low viral titres, no clinical symptoms and histopathological lesions in this experiment after challenge with TMUV, while slight clinical symptoms and histopathological lesions were observed with the homologous prime-boost strategies.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicated that the heterologous prime-boost strategy induced higher levels of humoral and cellular immune responses and better protection against TMUV infection in ducks than the homologous prime-boost strategies, suggesting that the heterologous prime-boost strategy is an important candidate for the design of a novel vaccine strategy against TMUV.

Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Neuro-Immune Interactions in Duck Tembusu Virus-Infected Brain

The duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus. It causes severe symptoms of egg-drop, as well as neurological symptoms and brain damage in ducks. However, the specific molecular mechanisms of DTMUV-induced neurovirulence and host responses in the brain remain obscure. To better understand the host-pathogen and neuro-immune interactions of DTMUV infection, we conducted high-throughput RNA-sequencing to reveal the transcriptome profiles of DTMUV-infected duck brain. Totals of 117, 212, and 150 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified at 12, 24, and 48 h post infection (hpi). Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses uncovered genes and pathways related to the nervous system and immune responses in duck brain. Neuro-related genes, including WNT3A, GATA3, and CHRNA6, were found to be significantly downregulated. RIG-I-like receptors (DHX58, IFIH1) and Toll-like receptors (TLR2 and TLR3) were activated, inducing the expression of 22 interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) and antigen-processing and -presenting genes (TAP1 and TAP2) in the brain. Our research provides comprehensive information for the molecular mechanisms of neuro-immune and host-pathogen interactions of DTMUV.

Basic Amino Acid Substitution at Residue 367 of the Envelope Protein of Tembusu Virus Plays a Critical Role in Pathogenesis

Tembusu virus (TMUV) is a flavivirus responsible for panzootic outbreaks of severe egg-drop and fatal encephalitis of domestic waterfowl in China. Although TMUV can be attenuated by in vitro passaging, experimental evidence supporting the role of specific genetic changes in virulence attenuation is currently lacking. Here, we performed site-directed mutagenesis on five envelope (E) protein amino acid residues in accordance with the attenuated TMUV generated in our recent study. Our results showed that the Thr-to-Lys mutation of residue 367 in E protein (E367) plays a predominant role in viral cell adaptation and virulence attenuation in ducks compared with mutations in other residues. We further demonstrated that the positively charged basic amino acid substitution at E367 enhanced the viral binding affinity for glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and reduced viremia levels and the efficiency of replication in major target organs in subcutaneously inoculated ducks. Interestingly, the T367K mutation increased viral neutralization sensitivity to the early immune sera. Together, our findings provide the first evidence that a basic amino acid substitution at E367 strongly impacts the in vitro and in vivo infection of TMUV.IMPORTANCE Outbreaks of Tembusu virus (TMUV) infection have caused huge economic losses in the production of domestic waterfowl since the virus was first recognized in China in 2010. To control TMUV infection, a live-attenuated vaccine candidate of TMUV was developed in our previous study, but the mechanisms of virulence attenuation are not fully understood. Here, we found that the Thr-to-Lys substitution at E367 is a crucial determinant of TMUV virulence attenuation in ducks. We demonstrated that the T367K mutation attenuates TMUV through reducing viral replication in the blood, brain, heart (ducklings), and ovaries. These data provide new insights into understanding the pathogenesis of TMUV and the rational development of novel TMUV vaccines.

The specificity protein 3 (SP3) gene in ducks (Anas platyrhynchos): cloning, characterization and expression during viral infection

Specificity Protein 3 (SP3) is a newly identified regulator of tumor growth and invasiveness in humans. In this study, we identified and characterized the function of duck SP3 (duSP3). The full-length cDNA sequence of the duSP3 gene was cloned via rapid amplification of cDNA ends. It contained 2468 nucleotides, including a 111 base pair (bp) 5'-untranslated region (UTR), 215 bp 3'-UTR, and 2142 bp open reading frame (ORF), which encoded a 713 amino acid (AA) strongly conserved with Avian SP3. Tissue specificity analysis demonstrated that duSP3 was constitutively expressed in the eight tissues tested: liver, spleen, lung, heart, kidney, thymus, breast, and leg; and low expression levels were observed in all tissues, except the spleen and thymus. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis revealed that duSP3 expression rapidly increased in vitro after stimulation with both the hepatitis virus (DHV-1) and polyriboinosinic polyribocytidylic acid (poly(I:C)). However, the expression under these treatments varied in kidney and liver tissues; in the liver, duSP3 increased significantly at 36 h after the DHV-1 treatment and peaked at 72 h after poly(I:C) stimulation. These results suggested that SP3 may play a positive role in immune responses against viral infections in ducks.

Autophagy Promotes Duck Tembusu Virus Replication by Suppressing p62/SQSTM1-Mediated Innate Immune Responses In Vitro

Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) has recently appeared in ducks in China and the key cellular determiners for DTMUV replication in host cells remain unknown. Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved cellular process that has been reported to facilitate flavivirus replication. In this study, we utilized primary duck embryo fibroblast (DEF) as the cell model and found that DTMUV infection triggered LC3-II increase and polyubiquitin-binding protein sequestosome 1 (p62) decrease, confirming that complete autophagy occurred in DEF cells. The induction of autophagy by pharmacological treatment increased DTMUV replication in DEF cells, whereas the inhibition of autophagy with pharmacological treatments or RNA interference decreased DTMUV replication. Inhibiting autophagy enhanced the activation of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and interferon regulatory factor 7 (IRF7) pathways and increased the p62 protein level in DTMUV-infected cells. We further found that the overexpression of p62 decreased DTMUV replication and inhibited the activation of the NF-κB and IRF7 pathways, and changes in the NF-κB and IRF7 pathways were consistent with the level of phosphorylated TANK-binding kinase 1 (p-TBK1). Opposite results were found in p62 knockdown cells. In summary, we found that autophagy-mediated p62 degradation acted as a new strategy for DTMUV to evade host innate immunity.

Pathogenicity of egg-type duck-origin isolate of Tembusu virus in Pekin ducklings

Background

Tembusu virus (TMUV) usually affects adult ducks, causing a severe drop of egg production. It has also been shown to be pathogenic in commercial Pekin ducklings below 7 weeks of age. Here, we report a TMUV-caused neurological disease in young egg-type ducklings and the pathogenicity of the egg-type duck-origin TMUV isolates in meat-type Pekin ducklings.

Results

The disease occurred in 25 to 40-day-old Jinding ducklings in China, and was characterized by paralysis. Gross lesions were lacking and microscopic lesions appeared chiefly in brain and spleen. Inoculation in embryonated duck eggs resulted in isolation of TMUV Y and GL. The clinical signs and microscopic lesions observed in the spontaneously infected egg-type ducks were repeated in Pekin ducklings by experimental infection. Notably, both Y and GL strains caused 100% mortality in the case of 2-day-old inoculation by intracerebral route. High mortalities (80 and 70%) also occurred following infection of the Y virus at 2 days of age by intramuscular route and at 9 days of age by intracerebral route.

Conclusions

These findings demonstrate that the egg-type duck-origin TMUVs exhibit high pathogenicity in Pekin ducklings, and that the severity of the disease in ducklings is dependent on the infection route and the age of birds at the time of infection. The availability of the highly pathogenic TMUV strains provides a useful material with which to begin investigations into the molecular basis of TMUV pathogenicity in ducks.

Pathogenicity comparison of duck Tembusu virus in different aged Cherry Valley breeding ducks

Background

Although several studies have revealed that the sensitivity of ducklings to duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) was related to age, however, DTMUV was originally isolated from egg-laying ducks, and the ovary was the target organ of this virus. Cherry Valley breeding ducks aged 15- and 55-week-old (they are reserve breeding ducks and the normal egg-laying breeding ducks, respectively) were infected with DTMUV, using intramuscular injection, to study the effect of age-related difference on the pathogenicity of DTMUV in breeding ducks.

Results

Examinations of clinical symptoms, gross and microscopic lesions, viral loads, cytokines and serum neutralizing antibodies were performed. Results showed that obvious clinical symptoms, such as depression, ruffled feathers, ataxia and egg-laying drop were observed in the 55-week-old laying ducks, with five ducks dying at 5–7 days post infection (dpi). The 15-week-old ducks showed slight symptoms during infection. Gross lesions were severe and characterized by the congestion, hemorrhage and swelling of some organs in the 55-week-old ducks, including the hemorrhage of endocardium, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, oviduct hemorrhage, hyperemia and deformation of the ovary. Mild endocardial hemorrhage and hepatosplenomegaly were observed in the 15-week-old ducks. Similarly, there was a significant difference in microscopic lesions between the two groups. The older ducks displayed severe microscopic lesions, specifically in the hemorrhage, interstitial inflammatory cell infiltration of the endocardium, typical viral encephalitis and hemorrhage in the ovary. But on the whole, the 15-week-old ducks showed milder lesions. Viral loads in tissues of the older group were significantly higher than those of the younger group. The levels of interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-2 and neutralizing antibody in the 15-week-old ducks were higher than in the 55-week-old ducks at the early stage of the DTMUV infection, suggesting the immune response in the younger ducks to DTMUV was stronger than in the older ducks.

Conclusions

These results demonstrated that age-related differences in susceptibility to DTMUV in breeding ducks was significant, with 55-week-old egg-laying ducks being more susceptible to DTMUV than 15-week-old reserve breeding ducks.

Mosquito-borne epornitic flaviviruses: an update and review

West Nile Virus, Usutu virus, Bagaza virus, Israel turkey encephalitis virus and Tembusu virus currently constitute the five flaviviruses transmitted by mosquito bites with a marked pathogenicity for birds. They have been identified as the causative agents of severe neurological symptoms, drop in egg production and/or mortalities among avian hosts. They have also recently shown an expansion of their geographic distribution and/or a rise in cases of human infection. This paper is the first up-to-date review of the pathology of these flaviviruses in birds, with a special emphasis on the difference in susceptibility among avian species, in order to understand the specificity of the host spectrum of each of these viruses. Furthermore, given the lack of a clear prophylactic approach against these viruses in birds, a meta-analysis of vaccination trials conducted to date on these animals is given to constitute a solid platform from which designing future studies.

Immunization with a suicidal DNA vaccine expressing the E glycoprotein protects ducklings against duck Tembusu virus

BACKGROUD

Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV), a pathogenic flavivirus, emerged in China since 2010 and causing huge economic loss in the Chinese poultry industry. Although several vaccines have been reported to control DTMUV disease, few effective vaccines are available and new outbreaks were continuously reported. Thus, it is urgently to develop a new effective vaccine for prevention of this disease.

METHODS

In this study, a suicidal DNA vaccine based on a Semliki Forest virus (SFV) replicon and DTMUV E glycoprotein gene was constructed and the efficacy of this new vaccine was assessed according to humoral and cell-mediated immune responses as well as protection against the DTMUV challenge in ducklings.

RESULTS

Our results showed that the recombinant SFV replicon highly expressed E glycoprotein in DEF cells. After intramuscular injection of this new DNA vaccine in ducklings, robust humoral and cellular immune responses were observed in all immunized ducklings. Moreover, all ducklings were protected against challenge with the virulent DTMUV AH-F10 strain.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, we demonstrate that this suicidal DNA vaccine is a promising candidate facilitating the prevention of DTMUV infection.

Comparative Transcriptomic Analysis of Immune-Related Gene Expression in Duck Embryo Fibroblasts Following Duck Tembusu Virus Infection

Duck is a major waterfowl species in China, providing high-economic benefit with a population of up to 20–30 billion per year. Ducks are commonly affected by severe diseases, including egg-drop syndrome caused by duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV). The immune mechanisms against DTMUV invasion and infection remain poorly understood. In this study, duck embryo fibroblasts (DEFs) were infected with DTMUV and harvested at 12 and 24 h post-infection (hpi), and their genomes were sequenced. In total, 911 (764 upregulated and 147 downregulated genes) and 3008 (1791 upregulated and 1217 downregulated) differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified at 12 and 24 hpi, respectively. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis revealed that DEGs were considerably enriched in immune-relevant pathways, including Toll-like receptor signaling pathway, Cytosolic DNA-sensing pathway, RIG-I-like receptor signaling pathway, Chemokine signaling pathway, NOD-like receptor signaling pathway, and Hematopoietic cell lineage at both time points. The key DEGs in immune system included those of the cytokines (IFN α2, IL-6, IL-8L, IL-12B, CCR7, CCL19, and CCL20), transcription factors or signaling molecules (IRF7, NF-κB, STAT1, TMEM173, and TNFAIP3), pattern recognition receptors (RIG-I and MDA5), and antigen-presenting proteins (CD44 and CD70). This suggests DTMUV infection induces strong proinflammatory/antiviral effects with enormous production of cytokines. However, these cytokines could not protect DEFs against viral attack. Our data revealed valuable transcriptional information regarding DTMUV-infected DEFs, thereby broadening our understanding of the immune response against DTMUV infection; this information might contribute in developing strategies for controlling the prevalence of DTMUV infection.

Recombinant Newcastle disease virus (NDV) expressing Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) pre-membrane and envelope proteins protects ducks against DTMUV and NDV challenge

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Firstly generated a NDV-vectored Duck Tembusu Virus (DTMUV) bivalent vaccine that expressing the pre-membrane and envelope proteins of DTMUV.

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Evaluated the efficacy of the NDV-vectored Duck Tembusu Virus bivalent vaccine.

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Provided a new method for NDV and DTMUV controlling in waterfowl.

The newly emerged Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) is responsible for considerable economic loss in waterfowl-raising areas in China since 2010. Meanwhile, the virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV) has also caused sporadic outbreaks in waterfowl. The individual vaccines against both diseases are available, however, there is no bivalent or combined vaccine for either disease. Here, we constructed a recombinant NDV-vectored vaccine candidate that expresses the pre-membrane (prM) and envelope (E) genes from DTMUV, designated as aGM/prM + E. The foreign prM and E proteins were stably expressed in aGM/prM + E and exhibited similar pathogenicity but higher growth kinetics than those of the parental virus. The aGM/prM + E carries a fusion cleavage site in accordance with avirulent viruses that have been frequently isolated from waterfowl, and induced remarkably (p < 0.001) higher NDV-specific hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers than commercially available live NDV vaccines (LaSota strain). The aGM/prM + E also elicited significantly higher (p < 0.05) virus neutralization (VN) titers than commercially available DTMUV inactivated vaccines (HB strain). The aGM/prM + E not only provided complete protection against NDV challenge but also reduced the gross lesions on ovarian folliculi and provided 80% protection against DTMUV in ducks. We note that the aGM/prM + E vaccine can prevent challenged ducks from shedding of NDV and DTMUV. Our results suggest that the candidate vaccine aGM/prM + E would help decrease NDV and DTMUV transmissions in waterfowl raising areas in China.

Construction of a highly efficient CRISPR/Cas9-mediated duck enteritis virus-based vaccine against H5N1 avian influenza virus and duck Tembusu virus infection

Duck enteritis virus (DEV), duck tembusu virus (DTMUV), and highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) H5N1 are the most important viral pathogens in ducks, as they cause significant economic losses in the duck industry. Development of a novel vaccine simultaneously effective against these three viruses is the most economical method for reducing losses. In the present study, by utilizing a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/associated 9 (Cas9)-mediated gene editing strategy, we efficiently generated DEV recombinants (C-KCE-HA/PrM-E) that simultaneously encode the hemagglutinin (HA) gene of HPAIV H5N1 and pre-membrane proteins (PrM), as well as the envelope glycoprotein (E) gene of DTMUV, and its potential as a trivalent vaccine was also evaluated. Ducks immunized with C-KCE-HA/PrM-E enhanced both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses to H5N1 and DTMUV. Importantly, a single-dose of C-KCE-HA/PrM-E conferred solid protection against virulent H5N1, DTMUV, and DEV challenges. In conclusion, these results demonstrated for the first time that the CRISPR/Cas9 system can be applied for modification of the DEV genome rapidly and efficiently, and that recombinant C-KCE-HA/PrM-E can serve as a potential candidate trivalent vaccine to prevent H5N1, DTMUV, and DEV infections in ducks.

Pathogenicity of duck plague and innate immune responses of the Cherry Valley ducks to duck plague virus

Duck plague caused by duck plague virus (DPV) is an acute and contagious disease. To better understand the pathogenic mechanism of duck plague virus in ducklings, an infection experiment was performed. Our results showed that typical symptoms were observed in the infected ducklings. DPV could replicate quickly in many tissues, leading to pathological lesions, especially on the spleen. Real-time quantitative PCR demonstrated that expression of many innate immune-related genes was mostly up-regulated in the brain, and the antiviral innate immune response was established, but not sufficient to restrict viral replication. In contrast, although the expression of many major pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) increased in the spleen, the expression of most cytokines was declined. Our study indicates that DPV is a pantropic virus that can replicate rapidly in tissues, causing serious pathological lesions but the immune responses are different in the spleen and brain. To our knowledge, this is the first report to systematically explore the expression profiles of the immune genes in the DPV-infected ducks. Our data provide a foundation for further study of the pathogenicity of duck plague.

Antigen distribution of TMUV and GPV are coincident with the expression profiles of CD8α-positive cells and goose IFNγ

Both Tembusu virus (TMUV) and goose parvovirus (GPV) are causative agents of goose disease. However, the host immune response of the goose against these two different categories of virus has not been well documented. Here, we compared the clinical symptoms and pathological characteristics, antigen distribution and intensity, and expression of immune-related genes in TMUV- and GPV- infected goose. The immunohistochemistry analysis demonstrated that GPV was primarily located in the liver, lung, small intestine, and rectum, while TMUV was situated in the liver, brain, spleen, and small intestine. The induction of IFNγ and proinflammatory cytokines is highly associated with the distribution profiles of antigen and CD8α+ molecules. The effector function of CD8 T cells may be accomplished by the secretion of IFNγ together with high expression of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL1 and IL6. Remarkably, significant increases in the transcription of immune genes were observed after infection, which suggested that both GPV and TMUV can effectively induce immune response in goose PMBCs. This study will provide fundamental information for goose molecular immunology in defending against pandemic viruses.

Generation of a reliable full-length cDNA of infectiousTembusu virus using a PCR-based protocol

Full-length cDNA of Tembusu virus (TMUV) cloned in a plasmid has been found instable in bacterial hosts. Using a PCR-based protocol, we generated a stable full-length cDNA of TMUV. Different cDNA fragments of TMUV were amplified by reverse transcription (RT)-PCR, and cloned into plasmids. Fragmented cDNAs were amplified and assembled by fusion PCR to produce a full-length cDNA using the recombinant plasmids as templates. Subsequently, a full-length RNA was transcribed from the full-length cDNA in vitro and transfected into BHK-21 cells; infectious viral particles were rescued successfully. Following several passages in BKH-21 cells, the rescued virus was compared with the parental virus by genetic marker checks, growth curve determinations and animal experiments. These assays clearly demonstrated the genetic and biological stabilities of the rescued virus. The present work will be useful for future investigations on the molecular mechanisms involved in replication and pathogenesis of TMUV.

Effect of age and inoculation route on the infection of duck Tembusu virus in Goslings

Duck Tembusu virus (TMUV) is an emerging flavivirus that has caused variable levels of outbreaks in poultry in recent years. In order to study the effect of age and inoculation routes on the TMUV infection, one hundred healthy domestic 5-day-old and 20-day-old goslings were equally divided into five groups and four experimental groups of goslings were infected with the TMUV-SDSG strain by intravenous and intranasal routes, respectively. Severe clinical signs were observed in goslings infected at 5 days of age, including listlessness, growth retardation, severe neurological dysfunction and even death. However, goslings infected at 20 days of age showed mild symptoms and no mortality. The severity of gross lesions gradually reduced as goslings matured. The severe histopathological changes were observed in 5-day-old infected goslings, including cerebral edema, viral encephalitis, myocardial necrosis, hepatic steatosis, spleen lymphoid cell depletion, pancreatic epithelial cell shedding and interstitial hemorrhage. However, 20-day-old infected goslings showed mild histopathological changes. Viral loads in different tissues were detected by the SYBR Green I real-time PCR assay. The level of viral loads in most of tissues 5-day-old infected goslings was higher than that of 20-day-old infected goslings, correlating with the severity of clinical symptoms and lesions in these tissues. 20-day-old infected goslings developed significantly higher serum neutralizing antibody titers than 5-day-old infected goslings. Furthermore, goslings infected with TMUV intravenously demonstrated more severe clinical signs, lesions and higher viral loads in tissues than those of goslings infected with TMUV intranasally. Therefore, age and inoculation routes can affect the pathogenicity of TMUV in geese and younger geese are more susceptible to the virus. Age and inoculation route factors should be considered in study of the pathogenicity, pathogenesis, folumation of prevention and therapy strategies of TMUV infection in geese.