Engineering Smart Targeting Nanovesicles and Their Combination with Hydrogels for Controlled Drug Delivery

Smart Nanocarriers in Cosmeceuticals Through Advanced Delivery Systems

Nanomaterials have revolutionized various biological applications, including cosmeceuticals, enabling the development of smart nanocarriers for enhanced skin delivery. This review focuses on the role of nanotechnologies in skincare and treatments, providing a concise overview of smart nanocarriers, including thermo-, pH-, and multi-stimuli-sensitive systems, focusing on their design, fabrication, and applications in cosmeceuticals. These nanocarriers offer controlled release of active ingredients, addressing challenges like poor skin penetration and ingredient instability. This work discusses the unique properties and advantages of various nanocarrier types, highlighting their potential in addressing diverse skin concerns. Furthermore, we address the critical aspect of biocompatibility, examining potential health risks associated with nanomaterials. Finally, this review highlights current challenges, including the precise control of drug release, scalability, and the transition from in vitro to in vivo applications. We also discuss future perspectives such as the integration of digital technologies and artificial intelligence for personalized skincare to further advance the technology of smart nanocarriers in cosmeceuticals.

Spatiotemporal 3D cell impedance monitoring for metal nanoparticle risk assessment by plug-in vertical electrode array

Metal nanoparticles are commonly found in our daily lives and pose great risks to people's health. Therefore, it is crucial to establish a research model for the toxic effects of metal nanoparticles. In recent decades, three-dimensional (3D) cell models have attracted increasing interest in the fields of cell barriers, nanotoxicology, and drug screening, as they have significant advantages over two-dimensional (2D) cell models in accurately simulating in vivo behavior of human cells. The accurate spatiotemporal reaction characteristics achieved through the diffusion effect of metal nanoparticles in Matrigel scaffolds are of great importance in nanotoxicology. However, traditional impedance sensors face challenges in performing spatiotemporal dynamic impedance monitoring and evaluating the toxic impact of metal nanoparticles on 3D cells. Here, we propose an impedance sensor that integrates a plug-in vertical electrode array (PVEA) chip with a multi-channel detection system. This sensor can dynamically record 3D cell impedance in the vertical direction, which is consistent with the temporal and spatial progression of metal nanoparticle penetration, and also closely related to the spatiotemporal activity of cells influenced by metal nanoparticles. This method can detect subtle changes in impedance signals at different positions caused by the diffusion of metal nanoparticles, and has high application value in Nanotoxicology evaluation. This universal, high-throughput 3D cell impedance sensor has great potential in toxicity detection and drug screening.

Engineering exosomes and exosome-like nanovesicles for improving tissue targeting and retention

Exosomes are natural nano-size particles secreted by human cells, containing numerous bioactive cargos. Serving as crucial mediators of intercellular communication, exosomes are involved in many physiological and pathological processes, such as inflammation, tissue injury, cardiovascular diseases, tumorigenesis and tumor development. Exosomes have exhibited promising results in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and others. They are a rapidly growing class of drug delivery vehicles with many advantages over conventional synthetic carriers. Exosomes used in therapeutic applications encounter several challenges, such as the lack of tissue targeting capabilities and short residence time. In this review, we discuss recent advances in exosome engineering to improve tissue targeting and describe the current types of engineered exosome-like nanovesicles, and summarize their preclinical applications in the treatment of diseases. Further, we also highlight the latest engineering strategies developed to extend exosomes retention time in vivo and exosome-like nanovesicles.

ROS-responsive supramolecular antimicrobial peptides-based nanoprodrugs for cervical cancer therapy

Although antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) as a promising natural drugs can efficiently inhibit cervical cancer, poor bioavailability, low tumor selectivity, and non-selective toxicity still hinder its further application in vivo. In order to effectively address these challenges, we have developed a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive targeting nanoprodrug designed for selective therapy of cervical cancer. Such nanoprodrugs (CEC-OxbCD) are fabricated by the supramolecular self-assembly of the modified β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and AMPs. Antimicrobial peptide, CecropinXJ (CEC), is a cationic antibacterial peptide isolated from 3rd instar larvae of Bombyx mori from Xinjiang, China. OxbCD is an oxidation-responsive β-cyclodextrin material. CEC-OxbCD were synthesized using the nanoprecipitation/self-assembly method. Subsequently, the particle size distribution, morphology, drug loading efficiency, and release behaviour of CEC-OxbCD were characterised. In vitro and in vivo anti-cancer activities were also evaluated. Nanoprodrugs can be effectively disassembled under stimuli of the tumor- endogenous ROS, resulting in a rapid and on-demand release of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with a release rate of 90 %. Furthermore, both in vitro and in vivo experimental results demonstrate that our nanoprodrugs exhibit remarkable therapeutic efficacy against cervical cancer. This work not only provides an effective and promising therapeutic strategy for cervical cancer, but also explores a novel application for AMPs.

Hydrogels and Nanogels: Pioneering the Future of Advanced Drug Delivery Systems

Conventional drug delivery approaches, including tablets and capsules, often suffer from reduced therapeutic effectiveness, largely attributed to inadequate bioavailability and difficulties in ensuring patient adherence. These challenges have driven the development of advanced drug delivery systems (DDS), with hydrogels and especially nanogels emerging as promising materials to overcome these limitations. Hydrogels, with their biocompatibility, high water content, and stimuli-responsive properties, provide controlled and targeted drug release. This review explores the evolution, properties, and classifications of hydrogels versus nanogels and their applications in drug delivery, detailing synthesis methods, including chemical crosslinking, physical self-assembly, and advanced techniques such as microfluidics and 3D printing. It also examines drug-loading mechanisms (e.g., physical encapsulation and electrostatic interactions) and release strategies (e.g., diffusion, stimuli-responsive, and enzyme-triggered). These gels demonstrate significant advantages in addressing the limitations of traditional DDS, offering improved drug stability, sustained release, and high specificity. Their adaptability extends to various routes of administration, including topical, oral, and injectable forms, while emerging nanogels further enhance therapeutic targeting through nanoscale precision and stimuli responsiveness. Although hydrogels and nanogels have transformative potential in personalized medicine, challenges remain in scalable manufacturing, regulatory approval, and targeted delivery. Future strategies include integrating biosensors for real-time monitoring, developing dual-stimuli-responsive systems, and optimizing surface functionalization for specificity. These advancements aim to establish hydrogels and nanogels as cornerstones of next-generation therapeutic solutions, revolutionizing drug delivery, and paving the way for innovative, patient-centered treatments.

Drug delivery strategies to improve the treatment of corneal disorders

Anterior eye disorders including dry eye syndrome, keratitis, chemical burns, and trauma have varying prevalence rates in the world. Classical dosage forms based-topical ophthalmic drugs are popular treatments for managing corneal diseases. However, current dosage forms of ocular drugs can be associated with major challenges such as the short retention time in the presence of ocular barriers. Developing alternative therapeutic methods is required to overcome drug bioavailability from ocular barriers. Nanocarriers are major platforms and promising candidates for the administration of ophthalmic drugs in an adjustable manner. This paper briefly introduces the advantages, disadvantages, and characteristics of delivery systems for the treatment of corneal diseases. Additionally, advanced technologies such as 3D printing are being considered to fabricate ocular drug carriers and determine drug dosages for personalized treatment. This comprehensive review is gathered through multiple databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, and Web of Science. It explores information around "ocular drug delivery systems'', "nano-based drug delivery systems'', "engineered nanocarriers'', and "advanced technologies to fabricate personalized drug delivery systems''.

A state-of-the-art review of the recent advances of theranostic liposome hybrid nanoparticles in cancer treatment and diagnosis

Theranostics is a way of treating illness that blends medicine with testing. Specific characteristics should be present in the best theranostic agents for cancer: (1) the drugs should be safe and non-toxic; (2) they should be able to treat cancer selectively; and (3) they should be able to build up only in the cancerous tissue. Liposomes (LPs) are one of the most efficient drug delivery methods based on nanotechnology. Stealth LPs and commercial LPs have recently had an impact on cancer treatment. Using the valuable information from each imaging technique, along with the multimodality imaging functionality of liposomal therapeutic agents, makes them very appealing for personalized monitoring of how well therapeutic drugs are working against cancer in vivo and for predicting how well therapies will work. On the other hand, their use as nanoparticle delivery systems is currently in the research and development phase. Nanoscale delivery system innovation has made LP-nanoparticle hybrid structures very useful for combining therapeutic and imaging methods. LP-hybrid nanoparticles are better at killing cancer cells than their LP counterparts, making them excellent options for in vivo and in vitro drug delivery applications. Hybrid liposomes (HLs) could be used in the future as theranostic carriers to find and treat cancer targets. This would combine the best features of synthetic and biological drug delivery systems. Overarchingly, this article provided a comprehensive overview of the many LP types used in cancer detection, therapy, and theranostic analysis. An evaluation of the pros and cons of the many HLs types used in cancer detection and treatment has also been conducted. The study also included recent and significant research on HLs for cancer theranostic applications. We conclude by outlining the potential benefits and drawbacks of this theranostic approach to the concurrent detection and treatment of different malignancies, as well as its prospects.

Hydrogel delivery systems of functional substances for precision nutrition

Hydrogel delivery systems based on polysaccharides and proteins have the ability to protect functional substances from chemical degradation, control/target release, and increase bioavailability. This chapter summarizes the recent progress in the utilization of hydrogel delivery systems for nutritional interventions. Various hydrogel delivery systems as well as their preparation, structure, and properties are given. The applications for the encapsulation, protection, and controlled delivery of functional substances are described. We also discuss their potential and challenges in managing chronic diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, liver disease, and cancer, aiming at providing theoretical references for exploring novel hydrogel delivery systems and their practical prospects in precise nutritional interventions.

Exosome-loaded hydrogels for craniofacial bone tissue regeneration

It is common for maladies and trauma to cause significant bone deterioration in the craniofacial bone, which can cause patients to experience complications with their appearance and their ability to function. Regarding grafting procedures' complications and disadvantages, the newly emerging field of tissue regeneration has shown promise. Tissue -engineered technologies and their applications in the craniofacial region are increasingly gaining prominence with limited postoperative risk and cost. MSCs-derived exosomes are widely applied in bone tissue engineering to provide cell-free therapies since they not only do not cause immunological rejection in the same way that cells do, but they can also perform a cell-like role. Additionally, the hydrogel system is a family of multipurpose platforms made of cross-linked polymers with considerable water content, outstanding biocompatibility, and tunable physiochemical properties for the efficient delivery of commodities. Therefore, the promising exosome-loaded hydrogels can be designed for craniofacial bone regeneration. This review lists the packaging techniques for exosomes and hydrogel and discusses the development of a biocompatible hydrogel system and its potential for exosome continuous delivery for craniofacial bone healing.

Injectable hydrogel based on liposome self-assembly for controlled release of small hydrophilic molecules

Controlled release of low molecular weight hydrophilic drugs, administered locally, allows maintenance of high concentrations at the target site, reduces systemic side effects, and improves patient compliance. Injectable hydrogels are commonly used as a vehicle. However, slow release of low molecular weight hydrophilic drugs is very difficult to achieve, mainly due to a rapid diffusion of the drug out of the drug delivery system. Here we present an injectable and self-healing hydrogel based entirely on the self-assembly of liposomes. Gelation of liposomes, without damaging their structural integrity, was induced by modifying the cholesterol content and surface charge. The small hydrophilic molecule, sodium fluorescein, was loaded either within the extra-liposomal space or encapsulated into the aqueous cores of the liposomes. This encapsulation strategy enabled the achievement of controlled and adjustable release profiles, dependent on the mechanical strength of the gel. The hydrogel had a high mechanical strength, minimal swelling, and slow degradation. The liposome-based hydrogel had prolonged mechanical stability in vivo with benign tissue reaction. This work presents a new class of injectable hydrogel that holds promise as a versatile drug delivery system. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The porous nature of hydrogels poses a challenge for delivering small hydrophilic drug, often resulting in initial burst release and shorten duration of release. This issue is particularly pronounced with physically crosslinked hydrogels, since their matrix can swell and dissipate rapidly, but even in cases where the polymers in the hydrogel are covalently cross-linked, small molecules can be rapidly released through its porous mesh. Here we present an injectable self-healing hydrogel based entirely on the self-assembly of liposomes. Small hydrophilic molecules were entrapped inside the extra-liposomal space or loaded into the aqueous cores of the liposomes, allowing controlled and tunable release profiles.

Harnessing exosomes and plant-derived exosomes as nanocarriers for the efficient delivery of plant bioactives

Exosomes, a category of extracellular vesicle (EV), are phospholipid bilayer structures ranging from 30 to 150 nm, produced by various organisms through the endosomal pathway. Recent studies have established the utilization of exosomes as nanocarriers for drug distribution across various therapeutic areas including cancer, acute liver injury, neuroprotection, oxidative stress, inflammation, etc. The importance of plant-derived exosomes and exosome vesicles derived from mammalian cells or milk, loaded with potent plant bioactives for various therapeutic indications are discussed along with insights into future perspectives. Moreover, this review provides a detailed understanding of exosome biogenesis, their composition, classification, stability of different types of exosomes, and different routes of administration along with the standard techniques used for isolating, purifying, and characterizing exosomes.

Biomacromolecular carriers based hydrophobic natural products for potential cancer therapy

Cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide. It was estimated that 90 % of cancer-related deaths were attributable to the development of multi-drug resistance (MDR) during chemotherapy, which results in ineffective chemotherapy. Hydrophobic natural products plays a pivotal role in the field of cancer therapy, with the potential to reverse MDR in tumor cells, thereby enhancing the efficacy of tumor therapy. However, their targeted delivery is considered a major hurdle in their application. The advent of numerous approaches for encapsulating bioactive ingredients in the nanodelivery systems has improved the stability and targeted delivery of these biomolecules. The manuscript comprehensively analyses the nanodelivery systems of bioactive compounds with potential cancer therapy applications, including liposomes, emulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (NPs), and polymeric NPs. Then, the advantages and disadvantages of various nanoagents in the treatment of various cancer types are critically discussed. Further, the application of multiple-compbine delivery methods to overcome the limitations of single-delivery have need critically analyzed, which thus could help in the designing nanodrug delivery systems for bioactive compounds in clinical settings. Therefore, the review is timely and important for development of efficient nanodelivery systems involving hydrophobic natural products to improve pharmacokinetic properties for effective cancer treatment.

Injectable long-acting formulations (ILAFs) and manufacturing techniques

INTRODUCTION

Most therapeutics delivered using short-acting formulations need repeated administration, which can harm patient compliance and raise failure risks related to inconsistent treatment. Injectable long-acting formulations (ILAFs) are controlled/sustained-release formulations fabricated to deliver active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and extend their half-life over days to months. Longer half-lives of ILAFs minimize the necessity for frequent doses, increase patient compliance, and reduce the risk of side effects from intravenous (IV) infusions. Using ILAF technologies, the immediate drug release can also be controlled, thereby minimizing potential adverse effects due to high initial drug blood concentrations.

AREA COVERED

In this review, we have discussed various ILAFs, their physiochemical properties, fabrication technologies, advantages, and practical issues, as well as address some major challenges in their application. Especially, the approved ILAFs are highlighted.

EXPERT OPINION

ILAFs are sustained-release formulations with extended activity, which can improve patient compliance. ILAFs are designed to deliver APIs like proteins and peptides and extend their half-life over days to months. The specific properties of each ILAF preparation, such as extended-release and improved drug targeting capabilities, make them an effective approach for precise and focused therapy. Furthermore, this is especially helpful for biopharmaceuticals with short biological half-lives and low stability since most environmental conditions can protect them from sustained-release delivery methods.

Liposome-Hydrogel Composites for Controlled Drug Delivery Applications

Various controlled delivery systems (CDSs) have been developed to overcome the shortcomings of traditional drug formulations (tablets, capsules, syrups, ointments, etc.). Among innovative CDSs, hydrogels and liposomes have shown great promise for clinical applications thanks to their cost-effectiveness, well-known chemistry and synthetic feasibility, biodegradability, biocompatibility and responsiveness to external stimuli. To date, several liposomal- and hydrogel-based products have been approved to treat cancer, as well as fungal and viral infections, hence the integration of liposomes into hydrogels has attracted increasing attention because of the benefit from both of them into a single platform, resulting in a multifunctional drug formulation, which is essential to develop efficient CDSs. This short review aims to present an updated report on the advancements of liposome-hydrogel systems for drug delivery purposes.

Spinning with exosomes: electrospun nanofibers for efficient targeting of stem cell-derived exosomes in tissue regeneration

Electrospinning technique converts polymeric solutions into nanoscale fibers using an electric field and can be used for various biomedical and clinical applications. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived small lipid vesicles enriched with biological cargo (proteins and nucleic acids) potential therapeutic applications. In this review, we discuss extending the scope of electrospinning by incorporating stem cell-derived EVs, particularly exosomes, into nanofibers for their effective delivery to target tissues. The parameters used during the electrospinning of biopolymers limit the stability and functional properties of cellular products. However, with careful consideration of process requirements, these can significantly improve stability, leading to longevity, effectiveness, and sustained and localized release. Electrospun nanofibers are known to encapsulate or surface-adsorb biological payloads such as therapeutic EVs, proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids. Small EVs, specifically exosomes, have recently attracted the attention of researchers working on regeneration and tissue engineering because of their broad distribution and enormous potential as therapeutic agents. This review focuses on current developments in nanofibers for delivering therapeutic cargo molecules, with a special emphasis on exosomes. It also suggests prospective approaches that can be adapted to safely combine these two nanoscale systems and exponentially enhance their benefits in tissue engineering, medical device coating, and drug delivery applications.

Unlocking the potential of exosomes in cancer research: A paradigm shift in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention

Exosomes, which are tiny particles released by cells, have the ability to transport various molecules, including proteins, lipids, and genetic material containing non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). They are associated with processes like cancer metastasis, immunity, and tissue repair. Clinical trials have shown exosomes to be effective in treating cancer, inflammation, and chronic diseases. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and dendritic cells (DCs) are common sources of exosome production. Exosomes have therapeutic potential due to their ability to deliver cargo, modulate the immune system, and promote tissue regeneration. Bioengineered exosomes could revolutionize disease treatment. However, more research is needed to understand exosomes in tumor growth and develop new therapies. This paper provides an overview of exosome research, focusing on cancer and exosome-based therapies including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and vaccines. It explores exosomes as a drug delivery system for cancer therapy, highlighting their advantages. The article discusses using exosomes for various therapeutic agents, including drugs, antigens, and RNAs. It also examines challenges with engineered exosomes. Analyzing exosomes for clinical purposes faces limitations in sensitivity, specificity, and purification. On the other hand, Nanotechnology offers solutions to overcome these challenges and unlock exosome potential in healthcare. Overall, the article emphasizes the potential of exosomes for personalized and targeted cancer therapy, while acknowledging the need for further research.

Engineered plant extracellular vesicles for natural delivery across physiological barriers

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale luminal vesicles that participate in the information transfer of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids between cells, thereby playing a role in the treatment of diseases and the delivery of nutrients. In recent years, plant-derived EVs (PDEVs) containing bioactive compounds have attracted increasing interest due to their better biocompatibility and lower cytotoxicity in healthy tissues. In the biomedical field, PDEVs have been used as cargo carriers to achieve various functions through engineering modification techniques. This review focuses on the biogenesis, isolation, and identification of PDEVs. We discuss the surface functionalization of PDEVs to enhance therapeutic efficacy, thereby improving their efficiency as a next-generation drug delivery vehicle and their feasibility to treat diseases across the physiological barriers, while critically analyzing the current challenges and opportunities.

Multichannel Multijunction Droplet Microfluidic Device to Synthesize Hydrogel Microcapsules with Different Core-Shell Structures and Adjustable Core Positions

Core-shell hydrogel microcapsules have sparked great interest due to their unique characteristics and prospective applications in the medical, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic fields. However, complex synthetic procedures and expensive costs have limited their practical application. Herein, we designed and prepared several multichannel and multijunctional droplet microfluidic devices based on soft lithography for the effective synthesis of core-shell hydrogel microcapsules for different purposes. Additionally, two different cross-linking processes (ultraviolet (UV) exposure and interfacial polymerization) were used to synthesize different types of core-shell structured hydrogel microcapsules. Hydrogel microcapsules with gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) as the core and polyacrylamide (PAM) as the thin shell were synthesized using UV cross-linking. Using an interfacial polymerization process, another core-shell structured microcapsule with GelMA as the core and Ca2+ cross-linked alginate with polyethylenimine (PEI) as the shell was constructed, and the core diameter and total droplet diameter were flexibly controlled by carving. Noteworthy, these hydrogel microcapsules exhibit stimuli-responsiveness and controlled release ability. Overall, a novel technique was developed to successfully synthesize various hydrogel microcapsules with core-shell microstructures. The hydrogel microcapsules possess a multilayered structure that facilitates the coassembly of cells and drugs, as well as the layered assembly of multiple drugs, to develop synergistic therapeutic regimens. These adaptable and controllable hydrogel microdroplets shall held great promise for multicell or multidrug administration as well as for high-throughput drug screening.

Lactadherin immunoblockade in small extracellular vesicles inhibits sEV-mediated increase of pro-metastatic capacities

BACKGROUND

Tumor-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) can promote tumorigenic and metastatic capacities in less aggressive recipient cells mainly through the biomolecules in their cargo. However, despite recent advances, the specific molecules orchestrating these changes are not completely defined. Lactadherin is a secreted glycoprotein typically found in the milk fat globule membrane. Its overexpression has been associated with increased tumorigenesis and metastasis in breast cancer (BC) and other tumors. However, neither its presence in sEVs secreted by BC cells, nor its role in sEV-mediated intercellular communication have been described. The present study focused on the role of lactadherin-containing sEVs from metastatic MDA-MB-231 triple-negative BC (TNBC) cells (sEV-MDA231) in the promotion of pro-metastatic capacities in non-tumorigenic and non-metastatic recipient cells in vitro, as well as their pro-metastatic role in a murine model of peritoneal carcinomatosis.

RESULTS

We show that lactadherin is present in sEVs secreted by BC cells and it is higher in sEV-MDA231 compared with the other BC cell-secreted sEVs measured through ELISA. Incubation of non-metastatic recipient cells with sEV-MDA231 increases their migration and, to some extent, their tumoroid formation capacity but not their anchorage-independent growth. Remarkably, lactadherin blockade in sEV-MDA231 results in a significant decrease of those sEV-mediated changes in vitro. Similarly, intraperitoneally treatment of mice with MDA-MB-231 BC cells and sEV-MDA231 greatly increase the formation of malignant ascites and tumor micronodules, effects that were significantly inhibited when lactadherin was previously blocked in those sEV-MDA231.

CONCLUSIONS

As to our knowledge, our study provides the first evidence on the role of lactadherin in metastatic BC cell-secreted sEVs as promoter of: (i) metastatic capacities in less aggressive recipient cells, and ii) the formation of malignant ascites and metastatic tumor nodules. These results increase our understanding on the role of lactadherin in sEVs as promoter of metastatic capacities which can be used as a therapeutic option for BC and other malignancies.

Transdermal Sustained Release Properties and Anti-Photoaging Efficacy of Liposome-Thermosensitive Hydrogel System

Drug delivery systems have become a research priority in the biomedical field. The incorporation of liposomes to hydrogels further forms more robust multifunctional systems for more effective and sustained topical drug delivery. In this study, carboxymethyl-modified chitosan/hyaluronic acid (CMC/HA, CMH) thermosensitive hydrogel is developed for sustained transdermal delivery of liposomes. Hydrogels are crosslinked by hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interaction and electrostatic interaction. The gel properties can be regulated by substitution degree (DS), and when DS = 18.20 ± 0.67% (CMH2), the gel temperature is 37.8 °C, allowing rapid gelation at body temperature (315 s). Moreover, CMH2 hydrogel has suitable spreadability (17.7-57.2 cm2 ), viscosity (2133.4 mPa s) and porous structure, which facilitated its adhesion and application on the skin and liposomes delivery. The hydrogel can retard the liposomes release, and the release rate of ascorbyl glucoside (AA2G) is 33.92-49.35% in 24 h. Hydrogel avoids the rapid clearance of liposomes from the skin and improved the skin retention, achieving the long-term release of bioactive components. Liposome-hydrogel system more efficiently promotes the anti-photoaging effect of AA2G on skin, reducing epidermal thickness, melanin deposition and lipid oxidative damage and increasing collagen density. Therefore, liposome-hydrogel systems are proposed as multifunctional delivery systems for sustained transdermal delivery.

Harnessing the power of biological macromolecules in hydrogels for controlled drug release in the central nervous system: A review

Hydrogels have immense potential in revolutionizing central nervous system (CNS) drug delivery, improving outcomes for neurological disorders. They serve as promising tools for controlled drug delivery to the CNS. Available hydrogel types include natural macromolecules (e.g., chitosan, hyaluronic acid, alginate), as well as hybrid hydrogels combining natural and synthetic polymers. Each type offers distinct advantages in terms of biocompatibility, mechanical properties, and drug release kinetics. Design and engineering considerations encompass hydrogel composition, crosslinking density, porosity, and strategies for targeted drug delivery. The review emphasizes factors affecting drug release profiles, such as hydrogel properties and formulation parameters. CNS drug delivery applications of hydrogels span a wide range of therapeutics, including small molecules, proteins and peptides, and nucleic acids. However, challenges like limited biodegradability, clearance, and effective CNS delivery persist. Incorporating 3D bioprinting technology with hydrogel-based CNS drug delivery holds the promise of highly personalized and precisely controlled therapeutic interventions for neurological disorders. The review explores emerging technologies like 3D bioprinting and nanotechnology as opportunities for enhanced precision and effectiveness in hydrogel-based CNS drug delivery. Continued research, collaboration, and technological advancements are vital for translating hydrogel-based therapies into clinical practice, benefiting patients with CNS disorders. This comprehensive review article delves into hydrogels for CNS drug delivery, addressing their types, design principles, applications, challenges, and opportunities for clinical translation.

Combating bacterial infections with host defense peptides: Shifting focus from bacteria to host immunity

The increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacterial infections necessitates the exploration of novel paradigms for anti-infective therapy. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), also known as host defense peptides (HDPs), have garnered extensive recognition as immunomodulatory molecules that leverage natural host mechanisms to enhance therapeutic benefits. The unique immune mechanism exhibited by certain HDPs that involves self-assembly into supramolecular nanonets capable of inducing bacterial agglutination and entrapping is significantly important. This process effectively prevents microbial invasion and subsequent dissemination and significantly mitigates selective pressure for the evolution of microbial resistance, highlighting the potential of HDP-based antimicrobial therapy. Recent advancements in this field have focused on developing bio-responsive materials in the form of supramolecular nanonets. A comprehensive overview of the immunomodulatory and bacteria-agglutinating activities of HDPs, along with a discussion on optimization strategies for synthetic derivatives, is presented in this article. These optimized derivatives exhibit improved biological properties and therapeutic potential, making them suitable for future clinical applications as effective anti-infective therapeutics.

A review on the use of extracellular vesicles for the delivery of drugs and biological therapeutics

INTRODUCTION

Exosomes, a type of extracellular vesicles, are effective tools for delivering small-molecule drugs and biological therapeutics into cells and tissues. Surface modifications with targeting ligands ensure precise delivery to specific cells, minimizing accumulation in healthy organs and reducing the side effects. This is a rapidly growing area in drug delivery research and this review aims to comprehensively discuss the recent advances in the field.

AREA COVERED

Recent studies have presented compelling evidence supporting the application of exosomes as efficient delivery vehicles that escape endosome trapping, achieving effective in vivo delivery in animal models. This review provides a systemic discussion on the exosome-based delivery technology, with topics covering exosome purification, surface modification, and targeted delivery of various cargos ranging from siRNAs, miRNAs, and proteins, to small molecule drugs.

EXPERT OPINION

Exosome-based gene and drug delivery has low toxicity and low immunogenicity. Surface modifications of the exosomes can effectively avoid endosome trapping and increase delivery efficiency. This exciting technology can be applied to improve the treatments for a wide variety of diseases.

Marine polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and silica for drug delivery systems: A review

Marine environments represent an incredible source of biopolymers with potential biomedical applications. Recently, drug delivery studies have received great attention for the increasing need to improve site specificity, therapeutic value, and bioavailability, reducing off-target effects. Marine polymers, such as alginate, carrageenan, collagen, chitosan, and silica, have reported unique biochemical features, allowing an efficient binding with drugs, and a controlled release to the target tissue, also obtainable through "green processes". In the present review, we i) analysed the last ten years of scientific peer-reviewed literature; ii) divided the articles based on the achieved experimental phases, tagged as chemistry, drug release, and drug delivery, and iii) compared the best performances among marine polymers extracted from micro- and macro-organisms. Many reviews describe drug carriers from marine organisms, focusing on a single biopolymer or a chemical class. Our study is a groundbreaking literature collection, representing the first thorough investigation of all marine biopolymers described. Most articles report experimental results on the chemical characterisation of marine biopolymers and their in vitro behaviour as drug carriers, although development processes and commercial applications are still in the early stages. Hence, the next efforts should be focused on the sustainable production of marine polymers and final product development.

Research Advances of Engineered Exosomes as Drug Delivery Carrier

Exosomes are nanoscale vesicles secreted by living cells that have similar membrane composition to parental cells and carry a variety of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Therefore, exosomes have certain biological activities and play an important role in intercellular communication. On the basis of its potential as a carrier for drug delivery systems, exosomes have been engineered to compensate for the shortage of natural exosomes through various engineering strategies for improving drug delivery efficiency, enhancing targeting to tissues and organs, and extending the circulating half-life of exosomes. This review focuses on the engineered exosomes loading drugs through different strategies, discussions on exosome surface modification strategies, and summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of different strategies. In addition, this review provides an overview of the recent applications of engineered exosomes in a number of refractory and relapsable diseases. This review has the potential to provide a reference for further research and development of engineered exosomes.

A comprehensive review of the applications of bacteriophage-derived endolysins for foodborne bacterial pathogens and food safety: recent advances, challenges, and future perspective

Foodborne diseases are caused by food contaminated by pathogenic bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter, and Clostridium, a critical threat to human health. As a novel antibacterial agent against foodborne pathogens, endolysins are peptidoglycan hydrolases encoded by bacteriophages that lyse bacterial cells by targeting their cell wall, notably in Gram-positive bacteria due to their naturally exposed peptidoglycan layer. These lytic enzymes have gained scientists' interest in recent years due to their selectivity, mode of action, engineering potential, and lack of resistance mechanisms. The use of endolysins for food safety has undergone significant improvements, which are summarized and discussed in this review. Endolysins can remove bacterial biofilms of foodborne pathogens and their cell wall-binding domain can be employed as a tool for quick detection of foodborne pathogens. We explained the applications of endolysin for eliminating pathogenic bacteria in livestock and various food matrices, as well as the limitations and challenges in use as a dietary supplement. We also highlight the novel techniques of the development of engineering endolysin for targeting Gram-negative bacterial pathogens. In conclusion, endolysin is safe and effective against foodborne pathogens and has no adverse effect on human cells and beneficial microbiota. As a result, endolysin could be employed as a functional bio-preservative agent to improve food stability and safety and maintain the natural taste of food quality.

Exosome-bearing hydrogels and cardiac tissue regeneration

BACKGROUND

In recent years, cardiovascular disease in particular myocardial infarction (MI) has become the predominant cause of human disability and mortality in the clinical setting. The restricted capacity of adult cardiomyocytes to proliferate and restore the function of infarcted sites is a challenging issue after the occurrence of MI. The application of stem cells and byproducts such as exosomes (Exos) has paved the way for the alleviation of cardiac tissue injury along with conventional medications in clinics. However, the short lifespan and activation of alloreactive immune cells in response to Exos and stem cells are the main issues in patients with MI. Therefore, there is an urgent demand to develop therapeutic approaches with minimum invasion for the restoration of cardiac function.

MAIN BODY

Here, we focused on recent data associated with the application of Exo-loaded hydrogels in ischemic cardiac tissue. Whether and how the advances in tissue engineering modalities have increased the efficiency of whole-based and byproducts (Exos) therapies under ischemic conditions. The integration of nanotechnology and nanobiology for designing novel smart biomaterials with therapeutic outcomes was highlighted.

CONCLUSION

Hydrogels can provide suitable platforms for the transfer of Exos, small molecules, drugs, and other bioactive factors for direct injection into the damaged myocardium. Future studies should focus on the improvement of physicochemical properties of Exo-bearing hydrogel to translate for the standard treatment options.

Stem Cells and Exosome Applications for Cutaneous Wound Healing: From Ground to Microgravity Environment

The increasing number of astronauts entering microgravity environments for long-term space missions has resulted in serious health problems, including accidental injury and trauma. Skin, as the largest organ and outermost layer of the human body, has the ability to self-renew and withstand a variety of harmful biological and environmental influences. Recent spaceflight experiments and simulated studies have begun to concern the effects of microgravity on the growth of skin cells and the process of cutaneous wound healing. However, the mechanisms of the adverse effects of microgravity on skin cells and potential intervention measures are still limited. Stem cells and their exosomes provide unique opportunities for the cutaneous wound healing as they have been used to improve skin repair. This review discusses the effects of microgravity on wound healing, from cell morphological changes to molecular level alterations. Furthermore, the current research on wound healing treatment utilizing stem cells and their exosomes on the ground is summarized. Finally, this review proposes promising therapeutic strategies using stem cells or exosomes for wound healing in the microgravity environment. Graphical Abstract.

Advanced micro-/nanotechnologies for exosome encapsulation and targeting in regenerative medicine

Exosomes, a subset of vesicles generated from cell membranes, are crucial for cellular communication. Exosomes' innate qualities have been used in recent studies to create nanocarriers for various purposes, including medication delivery and immunotherapy. As a result, a wide range of approaches has been designed to utilize their non-immunogenic nature, drug-loading capacity, or targeting ability. In this study, we aimed to review the novel methods and approaches in exosome engineering for encapsulation and targeting in regenerative medicine. We have assessed and evaluated each method's efficacy, advantages, and disadvantages and discussed the results of related studies. Even though the therapeutic role of non-allogenic exosomes has been demonstrated in several studies, their application has certain limitations as these particles are neither fully specific to target tissue nor tissue retainable. Hence, there is a strong demand for developing more efficient encapsulation methods along with more accurate and precise targeting methods, such as 3D printing and magnetic nanoparticle loading in exosomes, respectively.

Gelatin Methacryloyl (GelMA) Hydrogel Scaffolds: Predicting Physical Properties Using an Experimental Design Approach

There is a growing interest for complex in vitro environments that closely mimic the extracellular matrix and allow cells to grow in microenvironments that are closer to the one in vivo. Protein-based matrices and especially hydrogels can answer this need, thanks to their similarity with the cell microenvironment and their ease of customization. In this study, an experimental design was conducted to study the influence of synthesis parameters on the physical properties of gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA). Temperature, ratio of methacrylic anhydride over gelatin, rate of addition, and stirring speed of the reaction were studied using a Doehlert matrix. Their impact on the following parameters was analyzed: degree of substitution, mass swelling ratio, storage modulus (log(G')), and compression modulus. This study highlights that the most impactful parameter was the ratio of methacrylic anhydride over gelatin. Although, temperature affected the degree of substitution, and methacrylic anhydride addition flow rate impacted the gel's physical properties, namely, its storage modulus and compression modulus. Moreover, this experimental design proposed a theoretical model that described the variation of GelMA's physical characteristics as a function of synthesis conditions.

Combating Dopaminergic Neurodegeneration in Parkinson's Disease through Nanovesicle Technology

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by dopaminergic neurodegeneration, resulting in dopamine depletion and motor behavior deficits. Since the discovery of L-DOPA, it has been the most prescribed drug for symptomatic relief in PD, whose prolonged use, however, causes undesirable motor fluctuations like dyskinesia and dystonia. Further, therapeutics targeting the pathological hallmarks of PD including α-synuclein aggregation, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and autophagy impairment have also been developed, yet PD treatment is a largely unmet success. The inception of the nanovesicle-based drug delivery approach over the past few decades brings add-on advantages to the therapeutic strategies for PD treatment in which nanovesicles (basically phospholipid-containing artificial structures) are used to load and deliver drugs to the target site of the body. The present review narrates the characteristic features of nanovesicles including their blood-brain barrier permeability and ability to reach dopaminergic neurons of the brain and finally discusses the current status of this technology in the treatment of PD. From the review, it becomes evident that with the assistance of nanovesicle technology, the therapeutic efficacy of anti-PD pharmaceuticals, phyto-compounds, as well as that of nucleic acids targeting α-synuclein aggregation gained a significant increment. Furthermore, owing to the multiple drug-carrying abilities of nanovesicles, combination therapy targeting multiple pathogenic events of PD has also found success in preclinical studies and will plausibly lead to effective treatment strategies in the near future.

Advances in lipid-based carriers for cancer therapeutics: Liposomes, exosomes and hybrid exosomes

Cancer has recently surpassed heart disease as the leading cause of deaths worldwide for the age group 45-65 and has been the primary focus for biomedical researchers. Presently, the drugs involved in the first-line cancer therapy are raising concerns due to high toxicity and lack of selectivity to cancer cells. There has been a significant increase in research with innovative nano formulations to entrap the therapeutic payload to enhance efficacy and eliminate or minimize toxic effects. Lipid-based carriers stand out due to their unique structural properties and biocompatible nature. The two main leaders of lipid-based drug carriers: long known liposomes and comparatively new exosomes have been well-researched. The similarity between the two lipid-based carriers is the vesicular structure with the core's capability to carry the payload. While liposomes utilize chemically derived and altered phospholipid components, the exosomes are naturally occurring vesicles with inherent lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. More recently, researchers have focused on developing hybrid exosomes by fusing liposomes and exosomes. Combining these two types of vesicles may offer some advantages such as high drug loading, targeted cellular uptake, biocompatibility, controlled release, stability in harsh conditions and low immunogenicity.

Generation of Photopolymerized Microparticles Based on PEGDA Hydrogel Using T-Junction Microfluidic Devices: Effect of the Flow Rates

The formation of microparticles (MPs) of biocompatible and biodegradable hydrogels such as polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) utilizing microfluidic devices is an attractive option for entrapment and encapsulation of active principles and microorganisms. Our research group has presented in previous studies a formulation to produce these hydrogels with adequate physical and mechanical characteristics for their use in the formation of MPs. In this work, hydrogel MPs are formed based on PEGDA using a microfluidic device with a T-junction design, and the MPs become hydrogel through a system of photopolymerization. The diameters of the MPs are evaluated as a function of the hydrodynamic condition flow rates of the continuous (Qc) and disperse (Qd) phases, measured by optical microscopy, and characterized through scanning electron microscopy. As a result, the following behavior is found: the diameter is inversely proportional to the increase in flow in the continuous phase (Qc), and it has a significant statistical effect that is greater than that in the flow of the disperse phase (Qd). While the diameter of the MPs is proportional to Qd, it does not have a significant statistical effect on the intervals of flow studied. Additionally, the MPs' polydispersity index (PDI) was measured for each experimental hydrodynamic condition, and all values were smaller than 0.05, indicating high homogeneity in the MPs. The microparticles have the potential to entrap pharmaceuticals and microorganisms, with possible pharmacological and bioremediation applications.

Bioprinting the future using light: A review on photocrosslinking reactions, photoreactive groups, and photoinitiators

Light-based bioprinting is a type of additive manufacturing technologies that uses light to control the formation of biomaterials, tissues, and organs. It has the potential to revolutionize the adopted approach in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine by allowing the creation of functional tissues and organs with high precision and control. The main chemical components of light-based bioprinting are activated polymers and photoinitiators. The general photocrosslinking mechanisms of biomaterials are described, along with the selection of polymers, functional group modifications, and photoinitiators. For activated polymers, acrylate polymers are ubiquitous but are made of cytotoxic reagents. A milder option that exists is based on norbornyl groups which are biocompatible and can be used in self-polymerization or with thiol reagents for more precision. Polyethylene-glycol and gelatin activated with both methods can have high cell viability rates. Photoinitiators can be divided into types I and II. The best performances for type I photoinitiators are produced under ultraviolet light. Most alternatives for visible-light-driven photoinitiators were of type II, and changing the co-initiator along the main reagent can fine-tune the process. This field is still underexplored and a vast room for improvements still exist, which can open the way for cheaper complexes to be developed. The progress, advantages, and shortcomings of light-based bioprinting are highlighted in this review, with special emphasis on developments and future trends of activated polymers and photoinitiators.

Functionalized liposomes for targeted breast cancer drug delivery

Despite the exceptional progress in breast cancer pathogenesis, prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment strategies, it remains a prominent cause of female mortality worldwide. Additionally, although chemotherapies are effective, they are associated with critical limitations, most notably their lack of specificity resulting in systemic toxicity and the eventual development of multi-drug resistance (MDR) cancer cells. Liposomes have proven to be an invaluable drug delivery system but of the multitudes of liposomal systems developed every year only a few have been approved for clinical use, none of which employ active targeting. In this review, we summarize the most recent strategies in development for actively targeted liposomal drug delivery systems for surface, transmembrane and internal cell receptors, enzymes, direct cell targeting and dual-targeting of breast cancer and breast cancer-associated cells, e.g., cancer stem cells, cells associated with the tumor microenvironment, etc.

Polymers in Engineering Extracellular Vesicle Mimetics: Current Status and Prospective

The maintenance of a high delivery efficiency by traditional nanomedicines during cancer treatment is a challenging task. As a natural mediator for short-distance intercellular communication, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have garnered significant attention owing to their low immunogenicity and high targeting ability. They can load a variety of major drugs, thus offering immense potential. In order to overcome the limitations of EVs and establish them as an ideal drug delivery system, polymer-engineered extracellular vesicle mimics (EVMs) have been developed and applied in cancer therapy. In this review, we discuss the current status of polymer-based extracellular vesicle mimics in drug delivery, and analyze their structural and functional properties based on the design of an ideal drug carrier. We anticipate that this review will facilitate a deeper understanding of the extracellular vesicular mimetic drug delivery system, and stimulate the progress and advancement of this field.

Cellular nanovesicles for therapeutic immunomodulation: A perspective on engineering strategies and new advances

Cellular nanovesicles which are referred to as cell-derived, nanosized lipid bilayer structures, have emerged as a promising platform for regulating immune responses. Owing to their outstanding advantages such as high biocompatibility, prominent structural stability, and high loading capacity, cellular nanovesicles are suitable for delivering various immunomodulatory molecules, such as small molecules, nucleic acids, peptides, and proteins. Immunomodulation induced by cellular nanovesicles has been exploited to modulate immune cell behaviors, which is considered as a novel cell-free immunotherapeutic strategy for the prevention and treatment of diverse diseases. Here we review emerging concepts and new advances in leveraging cellular nanovesicles to activate or suppress immune responses, with the aim to explicate their applications for immunomodulation. We overview the general considerations and principles for the design of engineered cellular nanovesicles with tailored immunomodulatory activities. We also discuss new advances in engineering cellular nanovesicles as immunotherapies for treating major diseases.

The Effect of Hybrosome (Umbilical Cord Blood Exosome-Liposome Hybrid Vesicles) on Human Dermal Cells In Vitro

Background

Wound healing is a process that involves multiple physiological steps, and despite the availability of various wound treatment methods, their effectiveness is still limited due to several factors, including cost, efficiency, patient-specific requirements, and side effects. In recent years, nanovesicles called exosomes have gained increasing attention as a potential wound care solution due to their unique cargo components which enable cell-to-cell communication and regulate various biological processes. Umbilical cord blood plasma (UCBP) exosomes have shown promise in triggering beneficial signaling pathways that aid in cell proliferation and wound healing. However, there is still very limited information about the wound-healing effect of UCBP exosomes in the literature.

Objectives

The primary objective of this study was to investigate the "hybrosome" technology generated with calf UCBP-derived exosome-liposome combination.

Methods

The authors developed hybrosome technology by fusing cord blood exosome membranes with liposomes. Nanovesicle characterization, cell proliferation assay, wound-healing scratch assay, immunohistochemistry analysis, anti-inflammation assay, real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and cellular uptake studies were performed using the novel hybrid exosomes.

Results

Experimental results showed that hybrosome increases cell proliferation and migration by 40% to 50%, depending on the dose, and induces an anti-inflammatory effect on different cell lines as well as increased wound healing-related gene expression levels in dermal cells in vitro. All in all, this research widens the scope of wound-healing therapeutics to the novel hybrosome technology.

Conclusions

UCBP-based applications have the potential for wound treatments and are promising in the development of novel therapies. This study shows that hybrosomes have outstanding abilities in wound healing using in vitro approaches.

Level of Evidence 3

Hydrogels with electrically conductive nanomaterials for biomedical applications

Hydrogels, soft 3D materials of cross-linked hydrophilic polymer chains with a high water content, have found numerous applications in biomedicine because of their similarity to native tissue, biocompatibility and tuneable properties. In general, hydrogels are poor conductors of electric current, due to the insulating nature of commonly-used hydrophilic polymer chains. A number of biomedical applications require or benefit from an increased electrical conductivity. These include hydrogels used as scaffolds for tissue engineering of electroactive cells, as strain-sensitive sensors and as platforms for controlled drug delivery. The incorporation of conductive nanomaterials in hydrogels results in nanocomposite materials which combine electrical conductivity with the soft nature, flexibility and high water content of hydrogels. Here, we review the state of the art of such materials, describing the theories of current conduction in nanocomposite hydrogels, outlining their limitations and highlighting methods for improving their electrical conductivity.

Exosome-Based Smart Drug Delivery Tool for Cancer Theranostics

Exosomes are the phospholipid-membrane-bound subpopulation of extracellular vesicles derived from the plasma membrane. The main activity of exosomes is cellular communication. In cancer, exosomes play an important rolefrom two distinct perspectives, one related to carcinogenesis and the other as theragnostic and drug delivery tools. The outer phospholipid membrane of Exosome improves drug targeting efficiency. . Some of the vital features of exosomes such as biocompatibility, low toxicity, and low immunogenicity make it a more exciting drug delivery system. Exosome-based drug delivery is a new innovative approach to cancer treatment. Exosome-associated biomarker analysis heralded a new era of cancer diagnostics in a more specific way. This Review focuses on exosome biogenesis, sources, isolation, interrelationship with cancer and exosome-related cancer biomarkers, drug loading methods, exosome-based biomolecule delivery, advances and limitations of exosome-based drug delivery, and exosome-based drug delivery in clinical settings studies. The exosome-based understanding of cancer will change the diagnostic and therapeutic approach in the future.

Role of thermal and reactive oxygen species-responsive synthetic hydrogels in localized cancer treatment (bibliometric analysis and review)

Cancer is a major pharmaceutical challenge that necessitates improved care.

Different Curcumin-Loaded Delivery Systems for Wound Healing Applications: A Comprehensive Review

Curcumin or turmeric is the active constituent of Curcuma longa L. It has marvelous medicinal applications in many diseases. When the skin integrity is compromised due to either acute or chronic wounds, the body initiates several steps leading to tissue healing and skin barrier function restoration. Curcumin has very strong antibacterial and antifungal activities with powerful wound healing ability owing to its antioxidant activity. Nevertheless, its poor oral bioavailability, low water solubility and rapid metabolism limit its medical use. Tailoring suitable drug delivery systems for carrying curcumin improves its pharmaceutical and pharmacological effects. This review summarizes the most recent reported curcumin-loaded delivery systems for wound healing purposes, chiefly hydrogels, films, wafers, and sponges. In addition, curcumin nanoformulations such as nanohydrogels, nanoparticles and nanofibers are also presented, which offer better solubility, bioavailability, and sustained release to augment curcumin wound healing effects through stimulating the different healing phases by the aid of the small carrier.

Alzheimer's Disease: Treatment Strategies and Their Limitations

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most frequent case of neurodegenerative disease and is becoming a major public health problem all over the world. Many therapeutic strategies have been explored for several decades; however, there is still no curative treatment, and the priority remains prevention. In this review, we present an update on the clinical and physiological phase of the AD spectrum, modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for AD treatment with a focus on prevention strategies, then research models used in AD, followed by a discussion of treatment limitations. The prevention methods can significantly slow AD evolution and are currently the best strategy possible before the advanced stages of the disease. Indeed, current drug treatments have only symptomatic effects, and disease-modifying treatments are not yet available. Drug delivery to the central nervous system remains a complex process and represents a challenge for developing therapeutic and preventive strategies. Studies are underway to test new techniques to facilitate the bioavailability of molecules to the brain. After a deep study of the literature, we find the use of soft nanoparticles, in particular nanoliposomes and exosomes, as an innovative approach for preventive and therapeutic strategies in reducing the risk of AD and solving problems of brain bioavailability. Studies show the promising role of nanoliposomes and exosomes as smart drug delivery systems able to penetrate the blood-brain barrier and target brain tissues. Finally, the different drug administration techniques for neurological disorders are discussed. One of the promising therapeutic methods is the intranasal administration strategy which should be used for preclinical and clinical studies of neurodegenerative diseases.

Current advances in the use of exosomes, liposomes, and bioengineered hybrid nanovesicles in cancer detection and therapy

Three major approaches of cancer therapy can be enunciated as delivery of biotherapeutics, tumor image analysis, and immunotherapy. Liposomes, artificial fat bubbles, are long known for their capacity to encapsulate a diverse range of bioactive molecules and release the payload in a sustained, stimuli-responsive manner. They have already been widely explored as a delivery vehicle for therapeutic drugs as well as imaging agents. They are also extensively being used in cancer immunotherapy. On the other hand, exosomes are naturally occurring nanosized extracellular vesicles that serve an important role in cell-cell communication. Importantly, the exosomes also have proven their capability to carry an array of active pharmaceuticals and diagnostic molecules to the tumor cells. Exosomes, being enriched with tumor antigens, have numerous immunomodulatory effects. Much to our intrigue, in recent times, efforts have been directed toward developing smart, bioengineered, exosome-liposome hybrid nanovesicles, which are augmented by the benefits of both vesicular systems. This review attempts to summarize the contemporary developments in the use of exosome and liposome toward cancer diagnosis, therapy, as a vehicle for drug delivery, diagnostic carrier for tumor imaging, and cancer immunotherapy. We shall also briefly reflect upon the recent advancements of the exosome-liposome hybrids in cancer therapy. Finally, we put forward future directions for the use of exosome/liposome and/or hybrid nanocarriers for accurate diagnosis and personalized therapies for cancers.

Organically derived exosomes as carriers of anticancer drugs and imaging agents for cancer treatment

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), is the umbrella term used for different types of vesicles produced by the cells, among which exosomes form the largest group. Exosomes perform intercellular communication by carrying several biologics from donor or parental cells and delivering them to recipient cells. Their unique cargo-carrying capacity has recently been explored for use as delivery vehicles of anticancer drugs and imaging agents. Being naturally produced, exosomes have many advantages over synthetic lipid-based nanoparticles currently being used clinically to treat cancer and other diseases. The finding of the role of exosomes in human diseases has led to numerous preclinical and clinical studies exploring their use as an amenable drug delivery vehicle and a theranostic in cancer diagnosis and treatment. However, there are certain limitations associated with exosomes, with the most important being the selection of the biological source for producing highly biocompatible exosomes on a large scale. This review article explores the various sources from which therapeutically viable exosomes can be isolated for use as drug carriers for cancer treatment. The methods of exosome isolation and the process of loading them with cancer therapeutics and imaging agents are also discussed in the follow-up sections. Finally, the article concludes with future directions for exosome-based applications in cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Deformable Nanovesicle-Loaded Gel for Buccal Insulin Delivery

Deformable nanovesicles (DNVs) have been widely used in oral mucosal delivery studies of biomolecular drugs. However, their development for oral mucosal preparations has been limited by their physical and chemical instability, the need for small oral volumes, and the complexity of the oral microenvironment. This study aimed to develop a more suitable buccal delivery system for DNVs with improved storage stability. Preliminary stability studies investigated different gel types, the effects of different hydrophilic gel matrices, and matrix temperature sensitivity using DNVs loaded with insulin-phospholipid complex (IPC-DNVs). A temperature-sensitive gel encapsulating IPC-DNVs (IPC-DNV-TSG) prepared with 2% w/v gelatin was stable at 4 °C for three months and maintained an excellent hypoglycemic effect. The delivery efficiency of IPC-DNVs and IPC-DNV-TSG was compared using a TR146 cell model, revealing that cell viability remained high. Cellular uptake was slightly lower for IPC-DNV-TSG than for IPC-DNVs, but total transport did not differ significantly between the two groups, which may have been related to the viscosity of IPC-DNV-TSG and the hydrophilicity, cell adhesion properties, and biocompatibility of gelatin. Moreover, neither IPC-DNVs nor IPC-DNV-TSG induced significant mucosal irritation in rabbit tongue tissue sections. The study findings demonstrate a promising method for possible use as oral mucosal delivery of peptide drugs.

Strategies to overcome the main challenges of the use of exosomes as drug carrier for cancer therapy

Exosomes are naturally occurring nanosized particles that aid intercellular communication by transmitting biological information between cells. Exosomes have therapeutic efficacy that can transfer their contents between cells as natural carriers. In addition, the exosomal contents delivered to the recipient pathological cells significantly inhibit cancer progression. However, exosome-based tumor treatments are inadequately precise or successful, and various challenges should be adequately overcome. Here, we discuss the significant challenges that exosomes face as drug carriers used for therapeutic targets and strategies for overcoming these challenges in order to promote this new incoming drug carrier further and improve future clinical outcomes. We also present techniques for overcoming these challenges.

Hybrid extracellular vesicles-liposome incorporated advanced bioink to deliver microRNA

In additive manufacturing, bioink formulations govern strategies to engineer 3D living tissues that mimic the complex architectures and functions of native tissues for successful tissue regeneration. Conventional 3D-printed tissues are limited in their ability to alter the fate of laden cells. Specifically, the efficient delivery of gene expression regulators (i.e. microRNAs (miRNAs)) to cells in bioprinted tissues has remained largely elusive. In this study, we explored the inclusion of extracellular vesicles (EVs), naturally occurring nanovesicles (NVs), into bioinks to resolve this challenge. EVs show excellent biocompatibility, rapid endocytosis, and low immunogenicity, which lead to the efficient delivery of miRNAs without measurable cytotoxicity. EVs were fused with liposomes to prolong and control their release by altering their physical interaction with the bioink. Hybrid EVs-liposome (hEL) NVs were embedded in gelatin-based hydrogels to create bioinks that could efficiently encapsulate and deliver miRNAs at the target site in a controlled and sustained manner. The regulation of cells' gene expression in a 3D bioprinted matrix was achieved using the hELs-laden bioink as a precursor for excellent shape fidelity and high cell viability constructs. Novel regulatory factors-loaded bioinks will expedite the translation of new bioprinting applications in the tissue engineering field.

Targeting the Pathological Hallmarks of Alzheimer's Disease Through Nanovesicleaided Drug Delivery Approach

INTRODUCTION

Nanovesicle technology is making a huge contribution to the progress of treatment studies for various diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is the leading neurodegenerative disorder characterized by severe cognitive impairment. Despite the prevalence of several forms of anti-AD drugs, the accelerating pace of AD incidence cannot becurbed, and for rescue, nanovesicle technology has grabbed much attention.

METHODOLOGY

Comprehensive literature search was carried out using relevant keywords and online database platforms. The main concepts that have been covered included a complex pathomechanism underlying increased acetylcholinesterase (AchE) activity, β-amyloid aggregation, and tau-hyperphosphorylation forming neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the brain, which are amongst the major hallmarks of AD pathology. Therapeutic recommendations exist in the form of AchE inhibitors, along with anti-amyloid and anti-tau therapeutics, which are being explored at a high pace. The degree of the therapeutic outcome, however, gets restricted by the pharmacological limitations. Susceptibility to peripheral metabolism and rapid elimination, inefficiency to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and reach the target brain site are the factors that lower the biostability and bioavailability of anti-AD drugs. The nanovesicle technology has emerged as a route to preserve the therapeutic efficiency of the anti-AD drugs and promote AD treatment. The review hereby aims to summarize the developments made by the nanovesicle technology in aiding the delivery of synthetic and plant-based therapeutics targeting the molecular mechanism of AD pathology.

CONCLUSION

Nanovesicles appear to efficiently aid in target-specific delivery of anti-AD therapeutics and nullify the drawbacks posed by free drugs, besides reducing the dosage requirement and the adversities associated. In addition, the nanovesicle technology also appears to uplift the therapeutic potential of several phyto-compounds with immense anti-AD properties. Furthermore, the review also sheds light on future perspectives to mend the gaps that prevail in the nanovesicle-mediated drug delivery in AD treatment strategies.