Nanoemulsion: A Review on Mechanisms for the Transdermal Delivery of Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Drugs

Bioengineered nanomaterials for dynamic diagnostics in vivo

In vivo diagnostics obtains real-time physiological information directly from the site of interest in a patient's body, providing more accurate disease diagnosis compared with ex vivo diagnostics. Particularly, in vivo dynamic diagnostics allows the continuous monitoring of physiological signals over a period of time, offering deeper insights into disease pathogenesis and progression. However, achieving in situ dynamic diagnostics in deep tissues presents challenges related to energy and signal penetration as well as dynamic monitoring. Bioengineered nanomaterials serve as an ideal platform for in vivo dynamic diagnostics, leveraging energy conversion and biofunctionalization to enable continuous acquisition of physiological information across temporal and spatial scales. In this review, with reference to the studies from the last five years, we summarize the fundamental components that are essential for dynamic diagnosis in vivo. Firstly, an input energy source with high tissue penetration is needed, such as near-infrared (NIR) light, X-rays, magnetic field and ultrasound. Secondly, a nanomaterial class that is responsive to such an energy source to provide a readable output signal is chosen. Thirdly, bioengineered nanoprobes are designed to exhibit spatial, temporal or spatiotemporal changes in the output signal. Finally, different methods are used to analyse the output signal of nanoprobes, such as detecting changes in optical, radiation, magnetic and ultrasound signals. This review also discusses the obstacles and potential solutions for advancing these bioengineered nanomaterials toward clinical translational applications.

Advancements in Nanoemulsion-Based Drug Delivery Across Different Administration Routes

Nanoemulsions (NEs) have emerged as effective drug delivery systems over the past few decades due to their multifaceted nature, offering advantages such as enhanced bioavailability, protection of encapsulated compounds, and low toxicity. In the present review, we focus on advancements in drug delivery over the last five years across (trans)dermal, oral, ocular, nasal, and intra-articular administration routes using NEs. Rational selection of components, surface functionalization, incorporation of permeation enhancers, and functionalization with targeting moieties are explored for each route discussed. Additionally, apart from NEs, we explore NE-based drug delivery systems (e.g., NE-based gels) while highlighting emerging approaches such as vaccination and theranostic applications. The growing interest in NEs for drug delivery purposes is reflected in clinical trials, which are also discussed. By summarizing the latest advances, exploring new strategies, and identifying critical challenges, this review focuses on developments for efficient NE-based therapeutic approaches.

A Novel Liposomal In-Situ Hydrogel Formulation of Hypericum perforatum L.: In Vitro Characterization and In Vivo Wound Healing Studies

Hypericum perforatum L. (H.P.) is a species with a well-documented history of use in wound healing practices across the globe. The objective of this study was twofold: firstly, to evaluate the in vivo efficacy of liposomal in situ gel formulations in wound healing, both clinically and histopathologically, and secondly, to determine the physicochemical characterization of liposomal in situ gel formulations. The in vitro studies will be assessed in terms of particle size, zeta potential, release kinetics, rheological behaviors, and antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. The in vivo studies will be evaluated in clinical animal experiments and pathology studies. The in-situ hydrogel formulations were prepared using the physical cross-linking method with Poloxamer 188, Poloxamer 407, Ultrez 21, and Ultrez 30. The liposome formulations phospholipid 90H and lipoid S100 were prepared using the thin film solvent evaporation method. The antioxidant activity of the samples was evaluated through in vitro studies employing the DPPH antioxidant activity, ABTS+ test, and FRAP test. The antimicrobial activity of the samples was evaluated through the determination of MIC and MBC values employing the 96-well plate method. In vivo, 36 male New Zealand rabbits aged 32-36 weeks were utilized, with six rabbits in each group. The groups were composed of six distinct groups, including conventional and in situ gel liposome formulations of HHPM, three different commercial preparations, and a control group (n = 6). The HHPM-LG8 formulation developed in this study was found to be applicable in terms of all its properties. The new liposomal in situ hydrogel formulation demonstrated notable wound healing activity, a result that was supported by the formulation itself.

Advancing Gel Systems with Natural Extracts: Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Applications, and Sustainable Innovations

The integration of natural extracts into gel systems has emerged as a transformative approach to enhance functional properties, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, and therapeutic effects. This review underscores the remarkable potential of natural extract-enriched gels, which effectively combine sustainability with improved functionality. These bioactive compounds, sourced from plants and animals, encompass polyphenols, flavonoids, essential oils, chitosan, proteins, and polysaccharides. They provide an eco-friendly alternative to synthetic additives and find applications across various sectors, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and food packaging. Despite their promise, challenges remain, such as the variability in natural extract composition, the stability of bioactive compounds, and scalability for industrial use. To address these issues, innovative strategies like nanoencapsulation, responsive hydrogels, and AI-driven optimization have demonstrated significant progress. Additionally, emerging technologies, such as 3D printing and adherence to circular economy principles, further enhance the versatility, efficiency, and sustainability of these systems. By integrating these advanced tools and methodologies, gel systems enriched with natural extracts are well-positioned to meet contemporary consumer and industrial demands for multifunctional and eco-friendly products. These innovations not only improve performance but also align with global sustainability goals, setting the stage for widespread adoption and continued development in various fields.

Development and evaluation of methotrexate-loaded nanoemulsion formulation for topical treatment of psoriasis

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory disease that is becoming widespread and is associated with many kinds of additional severe diseases. The present study aimed to develop a methotrexate-loaded almond oil-based nanoemulsion formulation (MTX NE) for topical administration. The drug-loaded nanoemulsion formulation was prepared by high shear homogenization technique. The formulation's stability, as well as other physical and chemical characteristics, including entrapment effectiveness, drug release kinetics, skin permeability, skin irritation, and in vivo evaluation of the optimized formulation, was assessed. Additionally, imiquimod-induced psoriasis in rats was employed to investigate the efficacy of MTX NE against skin disorders. The MTX NE formulation was developed with a particle size of 18.74 ± 9.748 nm, a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.198 ± 0.01, and an average entrapment efficiency of 79.65 ± 3.84%. The release kinetics model estimates 81.08% drug release at pH 5.5 after 24 h. The major layers of the skin, the epidermis, and dermis were successfully fluidized by the optimized MTX NE formulation, as shown by FTIR results, most likely enhancing drug retention and permeability. However, since Tween 80 and PEG 400 are well-known penetration enhancers, their application greatly accelerates these effects. Permeation data indicate that after 24 h, methotrexate was released from the nano-emulsion at 76.83 ± 4.98 g/cm2 with a flux rate of 2.385 ± 0.61 µg/cm2/h. The in vivo study conducted on rabbit skin showed that the enhanced skin penetration of the prepared MTX-loaded nanoemulsion formulation does not cause any structural modifications in the inter-cellular lipid layers of the stratum corneum. Rabbits used in the in vivo anti-psoriatic investigation demonstrated that MTX NE produced a 95% reduction in PASI. The pharmacokinetic profile revealed that the Cmax, Tmax, and t1/2 values were 8.63 µg/mL, 12.5 h, and 17.77 ± 2.21 h, respectively. These findings suggest that the formulation MTX NE is effective in treating psoriasis and may reduce psoriasis symptoms.

Development and evaluation of a polymer material-based formulation for non-surgical nasolabial fold reduction

OBJECTIVE

Currently, nasolabial folds are mainly removed by invasive procedures, resulting in long-lasting changes, as non-surgical user-implementable alternatives are scarce and inefficient. For example, the use of coating films for this purpose has thus far faced substantial difficulties because such films should combine the antithetical properties of shrinkability and flexibility. Herein, we challenge this status quo by identifying a polymer that simultaneously exhibits shrinkability and flexibility and using this polymer to develop a cosmetic formulation for immediate and non-invasive nasolabial fold removal.

METHODS

The developed formulation, namely a solution of norbornene/tris(trimethylsiloxy)silylnorbornene copolymer in disiloxane, was tested on a group of Japanese women using visual evaluation, three-dimensional shape analysis and ultrasonography. The polymer film obtained upon drying the formulation was subjected to shrinkage and flexibility tests, and its synchronization with the skin was examined using optical microscopy. The free volume of the polymer films was evaluated using positron annihilation measurements and molecular dynamics simulations.

RESULTS

Upon application, the liquid formulation rapidly dries to produce a skin-synchronized polymer film that exhibits significant drying-induced shrinkage without cracking, thereby exerting a lift-up effect and inducing changes in the internal skin structure to efficiently reduce the nasolabial fold, providing a feeling of rejuvenation. On average, the proposed treatment decreases the nasolabial fold depth by 1 mm, increases the opening angle of the nasolabial fold by 11.5° and reduces the hypodermis thickness by 0.2 mm.

CONCLUSION

Our results facilitate the development of cosmetic products targeting the nasolabial fold and inspire further research in this field.

Peptides: Emerging Candidates for the Prevention and Treatment of Skin Senescence: A Review

One class of cosmetic compounds that have raised interest of many experts is peptides. The search for ingredients with good biocompatibility and bioactivity has led to the use of peptides in cosmetic products. Peptides are novel active ingredients that improve collagen synthesis, enhance skin cell proliferation, or decrease inflammation. Based on their mechanism of action, they can be classified into signal peptides, carrier peptides, neurotransmitter inhibitor peptides, and enzyme inhibitor peptides. This review focuses on the main types of peptides and their application in the cosmetic field, underlining their main limitations. One of the most significant drawbacks of cosmetic peptides is their poor permeability through membranes, which limits their delivery and effectiveness. As a result, this review follows the methods used for improving permeability through the stratum corneum. Increasing peptide bioavailability and stability for enhanced delivery to the desired site of action and visible effects have become central points for the latest research due to their promising features. For this purpose, several methods have been identified and described. Physical techniques include thermal ablation (radiofrequency and laser), electrical methods (electroporation, iontophoresis), mechanical approach (microneedles), and ultrasounds. As an alternative, innovative formulations have been developed in nano-systems such as liposomes, niosomes, ethosomes, nanoemulsions, and other nanomaterials to reduce skin irritation and improve product effectiveness. The purpose of this review is to provide the latest information regarding these noteworthy molecules and the reasoning behind their use in cosmetic formulations.

The Potential Application of Nanocarriers in Delivering Topical Antioxidants

The imbalance in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) with endogenous antioxidant capacity leads to oxidative stress, which drives many disorders, especially in the skin. In such conditions, supplementing exogenous antioxidants may help the body prevent the negative effect of ROS. However, the skin, as the outermost barrier of the body, provides a perfect barricade, making the antioxidant delivery complicated. Several strategies have been developed to enhance the penetration of antioxidants through the skin, one of which is nanotechnology. This review focuses on utilizing several nanocarrier systems, including nanoemulsions, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), and polymeric nanoparticles, for transporting antioxidants into the skin. We also reveal ROS formation in the skin and the role of antioxidant therapy, as well as the natural sources of antioxidants. Furthermore, we discuss the clinical application of topical antioxidant therapy concomitantly with the current status of using nanotechnology to deliver topical antioxidants. This review will accelerate the advancement of topical antioxidant therapy.

Technological Aspects of Nanoemulsions for Post-harvest Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables

Recent times have witnessed a growing demand for sustainable technology for food preservation that can retain its freshness, promises lower contents of additives and preservatives, safe consumption, eco-friendly milder processing technologies and eco-friendlier packaging solutions. Application of Biopolymers has served as the most sustainable and viable option to its synthetic counterparts. These biopolymers have been incorporated to develop biodegradable packaging like edible films and coatings owing to their biological origin. Nanoemulsion technology offers a leap forward to upgrade the features of conventional biodegradable packaging items. The present review discusses various trends and perspectives of nanoemulsion technology in post-harvest preservation for enhancing the shelf life of fresh fruits and vegetables. It investigates the interconnectedness between food preservation techniques, biodegradable packaging materials made from biopolymers, and nanoemulsions. It further addresses the preservation challenges post-harvest and underscores the limitations of conventional preservation methods, advocating for eco-friendly alternatives with a specific focus on the potential of nanoemulsions in enhancing food safety and quality. This review elaborates on the composition, formulation techniques, nanoemulsion products and role of nanoemulsions in the management of foodborne pathogens. Furthermore, it examines the potential health hazards linked to the use of nanoemulsions and stresses the significance of a regulatory framework for food safety. In conclusion, this review offers insights into the promising prospects of using nanoemulsions in food preservation.

Energy-Based Methods and Nanocarrier-Based Approaches for Melasma Treatment

Purpose

Melasma is a persistent skin condition caused by excessive melanin production, particularly affecting women's quality of life. It can result from various factors like sun exposure, genetics, hormones, medications, or inflammation. Effective melasma treatment requires products that can deeply penetrate the skin. The outermost skin layer, known as the stratum corneum (SC), plays a crucial role in delivering topical and transdermal drugs. Researchers have developed numerous strategies to enhance skin permeability and drug efficacy.

Methods

This review delves into energy-based techniques and nanocarrier systems for treating melasma, specifically focusing on improving drug delivery to the viable epidermis (EP) while overcoming the SC barrier.

Results

Physical methods offer benefits such as enhanced skin penetration but come with drawbacks like frequent visits, high costs, and the need for specialized equipment and skilled operators. Microneedle patches are gaining attention as a convenient physical treatment option for delivering multiple medications effectively, offering targeted delivery and minimal side effects. Nanocarrier systems like transferosomes demonstrate promise in enhancing skin penetration for treating melasma and skin hyperpigmentation. While they offer advantages such as high drug entrapment and improved bioavailability, challenges like stability issues and scalability hinder their widespread adoption.

Conclusion

Energy-based techniques enhance drug penetration but can lead to scarring and burns, while dissolvable micro-needles offer a convenient and effective alternative. Nano-drug carriers, like nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) and transferosomes, show promise for improved skin drug delivery with their flexible structures and enhanced penetration capabilities, yet further clinical research is needed for definitive conclusions.

The Impact of Surfactant Structures and High-Speed Mixing Dynamics in Achieving Nano-Sized Emulsions with Simple High-Speed Homogenization

Purpose

This study investigates the impact of various mixing parameters and surfactant combinations on the physical characteristics of nanoemulsions produced using high-speed homogenization. Nanoemulsions are explored for their capacity to enhance transdermal drug delivery in pharmaceutical and cosmetic contexts.

Methods

Employing a standard high-speed homogenizer typical in the cosmetic industry, we tested different combinations of Polysorbate (Tween®) and Sorbitan ester (Span®) surfactants under single and intermittent process configurations. Key parameters assessed included particle size, size distribution, Oswald ripening, and creaming index.

Results

Nanoemulsions synthesized had particle sizes below 200 nm and appeared as white liquids with slight creaming. Extended mixing times were associated with smaller droplet sizes and reduced creaming. Both processing methods yielded similar nanoemulsion properties, indicating minimal impact from the type of process used. The nanoemulsions exhibited polydispersity indices ranging from 0.3 to 0.5, suggesting a uniform size distribution, and showed negligible Oswald ripening, which indicates stable droplet sizes over time.

Conclusion

The study confirms that precise control of mixing parameters and the selection of appropriate surfactant pairs are more critical than the choice of process in producing stable nanoemulsions. With efficient use of standard high-speed homogenizers, stable nanoemulsions suitable for large-scale production can be achieved, providing a cost-effective method for pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.

Advancing burn wound treatment: exploring hydrogel as a transdermal drug delivery system

Burn injuries are prevalent and life-threatening forms that contribute significantly to mortality rates due to associated wound infections. The management of burn wounds presents substantial challenges. Hydrogel exhibits tremendous potential as an ideal alternative to traditional wound dressings such as gauze. This is primarily attributed to its three-dimensional (3D) crosslinked polymer network, which possesses a high water content, fostering a moist environment that supports effective burn wound healing. Additionally, hydrogel facilitates the penetration of loaded therapeutic agents throughout the wound surface, combating burn wound pathogens through the hydration effect and thereby enhancing the healing process. However, the presence of eschar formation on burn wounds obstructs the passive diffusion of therapeutics, impairing the efficacy of hydrogel as a wound dressing, particularly in cases of severe burns involving deeper tissue damage. This review focuses on exploring the potential of hydrogel as a carrier for transdermal drug delivery in burn wound treatment. Furthermore, strategies aimed at enhancing the transdermal delivery of therapeutic agents from hydrogel to optimize burn wound healing are also discussed.

Advancing cryptococcal treatment: The role of nanoparticles in mitigating antifungal resistance

Cryptococcus, a ubiquitous and formidable fungal pathogen, contributes to a substantial global disease burden, with nearly 250,000 cases and 181,000 fatalities attributed to cryptococcal meningitis annually worldwide. The invasive nature of Cryptococcus presents significant challenges in treatment and management, as it mostly affects vulnerable populations, including HIV patients, organ transplant recipients, pregnant women, and elderly individuals. Moreover, these difficulties are exacerbated by the development of antifungal resistance, which emphasizes the need for efficient control measures. In this context, research efforts focusing on infection control and novel therapeutic strategies become paramount. Nanoparticle-based therapies emerge as a solution, offering advanced antifungal properties and improved efficacy. Developing effective treatment options requires understanding the complex landscape of cryptococcal infections and the innovative potential of nanoparticle-based therapies. This review highlights the urgent need for novel strategies to combat the growing threat posed by antifungal resistance while offering insights into the intricate realm of cryptococcal infections, particularly focusing on the promising role of nanoparticle-based therapies.

Formulation and Ex Vivo Evaluation of Ivermectin Within Different Nano-Drug Delivery Vehicles for Transdermal Drug Delivery

Background/Objectives: Ivermectin gained widespread attention as the "miracle drug" during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Its inclusion in the 21st World Health Organization (WHO) List of Essential Medicines is attributed to its targeted anti-helminthic response, high efficacy, cost-effectiveness and favorable safety profile. Since the late 2000s, this bio-inspired active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) gained renewed interest for its diverse therapeutic capabilities. However, producing ivermectin formulations does remain challenging due to its poor water solubility, resulting in low bioavailability after oral administration. Therefore, the transdermal drug delivery of ivermectin was considered to overcome these challenges, which are observed after oral administration. Methods: Ivermectin was incorporated in a nano-emulsion, nano-emulgel and a colloidal suspension as ivermectin-loaded nanoparticles. The nano-drug delivery vehicles were optimized, characterized and evaluated through in vitro membrane release studies, ex vivo skin diffusion studies and tape-stripping to determine whether ivermectin was successfully released from its vehicle and delivered transdermally and/or topically throughout the skin. This study concluded with cytotoxicity tests using the methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) and neutral red (NR) assays on both human immortalized epidermal keratinocytes (HaCaT) and human immortalized dermal fibroblasts (BJ-5ta). Results: Ivermectin was successfully released from each vehicle, delivered transdermally and topically throughout the skin and demonstrated little to no cytotoxicity at concentrations that diffused through the skin. Conclusions: The type of nano-drug delivery vehicle used to incorporate ivermectin influences its delivery both topically and transdermally, highlighting the dynamic equilibrium between the vehicle, the API and the skin.

Nanotechnological approaches for efficient N2B delivery: from small-molecule drugs to biopharmaceuticals

Central nervous system diseases negatively affect patients and society. Providing successful noninvasive treatments for these diseases is challenging because of the presence of the blood-brain barrier. While protecting the brain's homeostasis, the barrier limits the passage of almost all large-molecule drugs and most small-molecule drugs. A noninvasive method, nose-to-brain delivery (N2B delivery) has been proposed to overcome this challenge. By exploiting the direct anatomical interaction between the nose and the brain, the drugs can reach the target, the brain. Moreover, the drugs can be encapsulated into various drug delivery systems to enhance physicochemical characteristics and targeting success. Many preclinical data show that this strategy can effectively deliver biopharmaceuticals to the brain. Therefore, this review focuses on N2B delivery while giving examples of different drug delivery systems suitable for the applications. In addition, we emphasize the importance of the effective delivery of monoclonal antibodies and RNA and stress the recent literature tackling this challenge. While giving examples of nanotechnological approaches for the effective delivery of small or large molecules from the current literature, we highlight the preclinical studies and their results to prove the strategies' success and limitations.

Augmentation of antifungal activity of fluconazole using a clove oil nanoemulgel formulation optimized by factorial randomized D-optimal design

In the present study, fluconazole (FLU) showed the highest solubility in clove oil and was selected as the oil phase for the FLU-loaded nanoemulsion (FLU-NE). Among the studied cosurfactants, Labrafac was better than ethanol at providing globules with acceptable sizes and a lower polydispersity index (PDI) when Tween 80 was the surfactant. This optimized FLU-NE was thermodynamically stable. Furthermore, FLU-NE stored at 40 ± 2 °C and 75 ± 5% relative humidity for 6 months demonstrated good stability. The FLU-NE was converted to a FLU-loaded nanoemulsion gel (FLU-NEG) using 2% w/v sodium carboxymethyl cellulose. The FLU-NEG was acceptable in terms of visual appearance and spreadability. Rheological studies revealed pseudoplastic behavior for FLU-NEG. The viscosity of FLU-NEG decreased when the applied rpm was increased. FLU-NEG showed greater drug release than that from a FLU-GEL formulation. Furthermore, the FLU release from FLU-NEG followed the Higuchi model. The results from the in vitro antifungal evaluation of FLU-NEG on Candida albicans ATCC 76615 strain confirmed the increase in the antifungal activity of FLU by clove oil. Significant differences were observed in the zones of inhibition produced by FLU-NEG compared to those produced by the blank nanoemulsion gel (B-NEG), fluconazole suspension (FLU-SUS), and nystatin samples. Thus, the increase in the antifungal activity of FLU using clove oil as the oil phase in its nanoemulsion formulation was quite evident from our results. Therefore, the developed FLU-NEG could be considered a potential candidate for further preclinical and clinical studies.

Hansen solubility parameters and quality-by-design oriented optimized cationic nanoemulsion for transdermal drug delivery of tolterodine tartrate

Tolterodine tartrate (TOT) is a selective anti-muscarinic drug to treat urinary urgency and overactive urinary bladder (OAB) occurring in children, renal disease and elderly patients. Oral delivery is associated with several adverse effects. We addressed HSPiP and QbD (quality by design)-oriented TOT loaded cationic nanoemulsions for transdermal delivery. Hansen solubility parameters (HSP) screened excipients based on theoretical solubility whereas, QbD optimized cationic nanoemulsions (CNE-TOT-6). Formulation characteristic parameters were desirable to execute targeted in vitro drug release and ex vivo permeation profiles. In vitro hemolysis was conducted at varied concentrations whereas, histopathological study supported the safety aspect of CNE-TOT6. A comparative bioavailability was carried out in a rat model. Capmul PG8 (CAP), tween 80, and PEG 400 (polyethylene glycol 400) were screened based on HSP and experimental solubility data. QbD suggested optimized content of CAP, tween 80, and PEG 400 to achieve the lowest value of size (184 nm), maximum % entrapment efficiency (87.2 %), high zeta potential (+32.6 mV), optimum viscosity (47.19 cP), and high extrudability (96 %) as compared to its gel. High gel consistency slowed down the drug release and permeation flux as compared to CNE-TOT6 suspension. Hemocompatible CNE-TOT6 increased pharmacokinetic parameters as compared to the control and gel without causing skin toxicity after application. Thus, HSPiP and QbD oriented cationic nanoemulsions are promising carriers to treat overactive urinary bladder.

Innovations in Nanoemulsion Technology: Enhancing Drug Delivery for Oral, Parenteral, and Ophthalmic Applications

Nanoemulsions (NEs) are submicron-sized heterogeneous biphasic liquid systems stabilized by surfactants. They are physically transparent or translucent, optically isotropic, and kinetically stable, with droplet sizes ranging from 20 to 500 nm. Their unique properties, such as high surface area, small droplet size, enhanced bioavailability, excellent physical stability, and rapid digestibility, make them ideal for encapsulating various active substances. This review focuses on recent advancements, future prospects, and challenges in the field of NEs, particularly in oral, parenteral, and ophthalmic delivery. It also discusses recent clinical trials and patents. Different types of in vitro and in vivo NE characterization techniques are summarized. High-energy and low-energy preparation methods are briefly described with diagrams. Formulation considerations and commonly used excipients for oral, ocular, and ophthalmic drug delivery are presented. The review emphasizes the need for new functional excipients to improve the permeation of large molecular weight unstable proteins, oligonucleotides, and hydrophilic drugs to advance drug delivery rapidly.

Novel functions of o-cymen-5-ol nanoemulsion in reversing colistin resistance in multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae infections

Multidrug resistance (MDR) Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) is a major emerging threat to human health, and leads to very high mortality rate. The effectiveness of colistin, the last resort against MDR Gram-negative bacteria, is significantly compromised due to the widespread presence of plasmid- or chromosome-mediated resistance genes. In this study, o-cymen-5-ol has been found to greatly restore colistin sensitivity in MDR K. pneumoniae. Importantly, this compound does not impact bacterial viability, induce resistance, or cause any noticeable cell toxicity. Various routes disclosed the potential mechanism of o-cymen-5-ol potentiating colistin activity against MDR K. pneumoniae. These include inhibiting the activity of plasmid-mediated mobile colistin resistance gene (mcr-1), accelerating lipopolysaccharide (LPS) - mediated membrane damage, and promoting the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter pathway. To enhance the administration and bioavailability of o-cymen-5-ol, a nanoemulsion has been designed, which significantly improves the loading efficiency and solubility of o-cymen-5-ol, resulting in antimicrobial potentiation of colistin against K. pneumoniae infection. This study has revealed a new understanding of the o-cymen-5-ol nanoemulsion as a means to enhance the effectiveness of colistin against resistant factors. The finding also suggests that o-cymen-5-ol nanoemulsion could be a promising approach in the development of potential treatments for multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterial infections.

Enhancing the efficacy of fluconazole against Leishmania major: Formulation and evaluation of FLZ-nanoemulsions for topical delivery

BACKGROUND

Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL) remains a significant public health concern, particularly in the tropical and subtropical regions. Present treatment options for CL such as Fluconazole (FLZ) face limitations, including low solubility and bioavailability. This study aimed to address these challenges by investigating the use of nano-emulsions (NEs) to enhance the efficacy of FLZ against Leishmania major(L.major).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

FLZ-NEs were formulated with oleic acid, Tween-20, and ethanol using low-energy emulsification at various surfactant/co-surfactant ratios. Subsequently, a comprehensive analysis was conducted to assess the physicochemical characteristics of the samples. This analysis encompassed stability, zeta potential, pH, viscosity, refractive index, and droplet size. We then studied the anti-parasitic properties of these optimized FLZ-NEs both in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

The selected nano-emulsion (NE) formulation (2 % oleic acid, 20 % Tween 20, 10 % ethyl alcohol) showcased desirable properties like small droplet size (10.51 ± 0.24 nm), low dispersity (0.19 ± 0.03), and zeta potential value (- 0.41 ± 0.17 mV), key for stability and targeted drug delivery. This optimal formulation translated into remarkable efficacy. In vitro, FLZ-NEs demonstrated a threefold increase in their ability to combat promastigotes and a remarkable thirtyfold increase in their ability to combat amastigotes. Additionally, they demonstrated a ninefold advantage in their ability to specifically target parasites within infected macrophages, thereby attacking the infection site. These promising in vitro results translated into improved outcomes in vivo. Compared to other chemicals studied, FLZ-NE-treated mice showed decreased disease severity, weight growth, and quicker ulcer healing. It was further supported by histopathological research, which showed reduced tissue damage linked to Leishmania infection.

CONCLUSION

These findings show the potential of nanotechnology-based drug delivery in improving anti-leishmanial treatment.

Discovery of Novel Diesters Incorporating Kojic Acid With NSAIDs and Palmitic Acid as Dual Inhibitor of Melanogenesis and Inflammation

Our study focuses on creating hybrid compounds and assessing their suitability for use in skincare products. The synergistic combination of Kojic acid, NSAIDs, and Palmitic acid proved to be an effective approach in inhibiting melanin production, making it a promising solution for individuals with hyperpigmentation concerns with Kojic acid (KA) Ibuprofen monoester (IBUM) and Ibuprofen-Kojic acid-Palmitic acid diester (IBUD) exhibiting a potential tyrosinase (38 % and 49 % inhibition at 200 µM) and anti-melanogenesis activity (77 % and 79 % inhibition at 100 µM). Furthermore, these compounds exhibited potent anti-inflammatory effects, Kojic acid-Diclofenac monoester (DICM) and Diclofenac-Kojic acid-Palmitic acid diester (DICD) offering potential benefits for inflammation by lowering the paw volume. A stability study under chemical conditions and enzymatic conditions was also performed, wherein DICM and DICD showed a better half-life of 515, 593 h under chemical stability and 6.3, 7.5 h under enzymatic stability studies respectively. The diester hybrids IBUD, DICD, Naproxen-Kojic acid-Palmitic acid diester (NAPD) showed a better permeation and penetration profiles compared to their parent drugs. In-vitro cell line studies were conducted to assess the safety and efficacy of these hybrid esters, with promising results. The dual inhibitor demonstrated minimal cytotoxicity and remarkable anti-melanogenic and anti-inflammatory activities, showing its potential as a versatile agent in addressing both melanogenesis and inflammation.

Eucalyptus Essential Oil Based Nanoemulsions: Preparation and Biological Activities

Eucalyptus essential oil has remarkable industrial importance and biological properties due to its effectiveness against various diseases, reported throughout human history. Despite the extraordinary bioactivities of essential oil, its applications are limited due to volatility, insolubility in water, and less stability. Formulation of nanoemulsion is the best way to enhance the bio-efficacy of this essential oil and eliminate the factors responsible for limited application. This review article compiles the information regarding formulation of Eucalyptus essential oil-based nanoemulsion and their several biological activities and medicinal properties including antibacterial, antifungal, larvicidal, insecticidal, and cytotoxic activities etc. The bio-efficacy of essential oil-based nanoemulsion has also been found to be enhanced as compared utilization of essential oil alone. This review can be beneficial for researchers working on medicinal plant-based natural products, specifically containing Eucalyptus essential oil, to explore new research horizons in this emerging field.

Anti-angiogenic biomolecules in neovascular age-related macular degeneration; therapeutics and drug delivery systems

Blindness in the elderly is often caused by age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The advanced type of AMD known as neovascular AMD (nAMD) has been linked to being the predominant cause of visual impairment in these people. Multiple neovascular structures including choroidal neovascular (CNV) membranes, fluid exudation, hemorrhages, and subretinal fibrosis, are diagnostic of nAMD. These pathological alterations ultimately lead to anatomical and visual loss. It is known that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a type of proangiogenic factor, mediates the pathological process underlying nAMD. Therefore, various therapies have evolved to directly target the disease. In this review article, an attempt has been made to discuss general explanations about this disease, all common treatment methods based on anti-VEGF drugs, and the use of drug delivery systems in the treatment of AMD. Initially, the pathophysiology, angiogenesis, and different types of AMD were described. Then we described current treatments and future treatment prospects for AMD and outlined the advantages and disadvantages of each. In this context, we first examined the types of therapeutic biomolecules and anti-VEGF drugs that are used in the treatment of AMD. These biomolecules include aptamers, monoclonal antibodies, small interfering RNAs, microRNAs, peptides, fusion proteins, nanobodies, and other therapeutic biomolecules. Finally, we described drug delivery systems based on liposomes, nanomicelles, nanoemulsions, nanoparticles, cyclodextrin, dendrimers, and composite vehicles that are used in AMD therapy.

Enhancing Therapeutic Efficacy of Cinnamon Essential Oil by Nanoemulsification for Intravaginal Treatment of Candida Vaginitis

Background

Due to its prevalence, recurrence, and the emergence of drug-resistance, Candida vaginitis significantly impacts the well-being of women. Although cinnamon essential oil (CEO) possesses antifungal activity, its hydrophobic properties limit its clinical application.

Purpose

To overcome this challenge, a nanoemulsification technology was employed to prepare cinnamon essential oil-nanoemulsion (CEO@NE), and its therapeutic efficacy and action mechanism for Candida vaginitis was investigated in vivo and in vitro.

Materials and Methods

CEO@NE, composed of 4% CEO, 78% distilled water, and 18% Tween 80, was prepared by ultrasonic nanoemulsification. The physical properties, anti-Candida activity, cytotoxicity, immunomodulatory potential and storage stability of CEO@NE were explored. Subsequently, the effect of intravaginal CEO@NE treatment on Candida vaginitis was investigated in mice. To comprehend the possible mechanism of CEO@NE, an analysis was conducted to ascertain the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in C. albicans.

Results

CEO@NE, with the droplet size less than 100 nm and robust storage stability for up to 8 weeks, exhibited comparable anti-Candida activity with CEO. CEO@NE at the concentration lower than 400 μg/mL had no cytotoxic and immunomodulatory effects on murine splenocytes. Intravaginal treatment of CEO@NE (400 μg/mL, 20 μL/day/mouse for 5 consecutive days) curbed Candida colonization, ameliorated histopathological changes, and suppressed inflammatory cytokine production in mice intravaginally challenged with C. albicans. Notably, this treatment preserved the density of vaginal lactic acid bacteria (LAB) crucial for vaginal health. Co-culturing C. albicans with CEO@NE revealed concentration-dependent augmentation of intracellular ROS generation and ensuing cell death. In addition, co-culturing LPS-stimulated murine splenocytes with CEO@NE yielded a decrease in the generation of cytokines.

Conclusion

This discovery provides insight into the conceivable antifungal and anti-inflammatory mechanisms of CEO@NE to tackle Candida vaginitis. CEO@NE offers a promising avenue to address the limitations of current treatments, providing novel strategy for treating Candida vaginitis.

Innovative Delivery Systems for Curcumin: Exploring Nanosized and Conventional Formulations

Curcumin, a polyphenol with a rich history spanning two centuries, has emerged as a promising therapeutic agent targeting multiple signaling pathways and exhibiting cellular-level activities that contribute to its diverse health benefits. Extensive preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated its ability to enhance the therapeutic potential of various bioactive compounds. While its reported therapeutic advantages are manifold, predominantly attributed to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, its efficacy is hindered by poor bioavailability stemming from inadequate absorption, rapid metabolism, and elimination. To address this challenge, nanodelivery systems have emerged as a promising approach, offering enhanced solubility, biocompatibility, and therapeutic effects for curcumin. We have analyzed the knowledge on curcumin nanoencapsulation and its synergistic effects with other compounds, extracted from electronic databases. We discuss the pharmacokinetic profile of curcumin, current advancements in nanoencapsulation techniques, and the combined effects of curcumin with other agents across various disorders. By unifying existing knowledge, this analysis intends to provide insights into the potential of nanoencapsulation technologies to overcome constraints associated with curcumin treatments, emphasizing the importance of combinatorial approaches in improving therapeutic efficacy. Finally, this compilation of study data aims to inform and inspire future research into encapsulating drugs with poor pharmacokinetic characteristics and investigating innovative drug combinations to improve bioavailability and therapeutic outcomes.

Advances in Nanocarrier Systems for Overcoming Formulation Challenges of Curcumin: Current Insights

Curcumin, an organic phenolic molecule that is extracted from the rhizomes of Curcuma longa Linn, has undergone extensive evaluation for its diverse biological activities in both animals and humans. Despite its favorable characteristics, curcumin encounters various formulation challenges and stability issues that can be effectively addressed through the application of nanotechnology. Nano-based techniques specifically focused on enhancing solubility, bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy while mitigating toxicity, have been explored for curcumin. This review systematically presents information on the improvement of curcumin's beneficial properties when incorporated, either individually or in conjunction with other drugs, into diverse nanosystems such as liposomes, nanoemulsions, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, solid-lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers. Additionally, the review examines ongoing clinical trials and recently granted patents, offering a thorough overview of the dynamic landscape in curcumin delivery. Researchers are currently exploring nanocarriers with crucial features such as surface modification, substantial loading capacity, biodegradability, compatibility, and autonomous targeting specificity and selectivity. Nevertheless, the utilization of nanocarriers for curcumin delivery is still in its initial phases, with regulatory approval pending and persistent safety concerns surrounding their use.

A Perspective on Various Facets of Nanoemulsions and its Commercial Utilities

Nanotechnology is a captivating contemporary technology owing to its extensive range of potential applications. This study emphasizes nanomaterials, substances with a size <100 nm, offering better qualities than coarse particles. Nanoparticles have several advantages compared with conventional drug delivery methods, including enhanced bioavailability and a larger surface area because of their smaller particle size. These characteristics make the nanoparticles a viable clinical candidate. Controlled-release drug delivery systems and targeted drug delivery systems rely heavily on nanoparticles. Because traditional drug delivery methods fail to achieve targeted drug delivery, resulting in toxicity, low bioavailability, poor therapeutic outcomes, and so on, these drug nanoparticles excel in all these areas. Researchers are already interested in developing drug delivery systems such as niosomes, bilosomes, and dendrimers. Nanoemulsion is one of these technologies; nanoemulsions outperform traditional emulsions in terms of pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. Nanoemulsion effectively surpasses the constraints of standard emulsions, primarily by offering enhanced bioavailability, reduced toxicity, improved absorption, and the potential to be used in targeted drug delivery or controlled-release drug delivery systems. This particular work explores several aspects of nanoemulsions, including their constituents, classification, techniques for preparation, criteria for assessment, commercial applications, and future prospects.

A comprehensive review on lipid nanocarrier systems for cancer treatment: fabrication, future prospects and clinical trials

Over the last few decades, cancer has been considered a clinical challenge, being among the leading causes of mortality all over the world. Although many treatment approaches have been developed for cancer, chemotherapy is still the most utilized in the clinical setting. However, the available chemotherapeutics-based treatments have several caveats including their lack of specificity, adverse effects as well as cancer relapse and metastasis which mainly explains the low survival rate of patients. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been utilized as promising nanocarrier systems for chemotherapeutics to overcome the challenges of the currently applied therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment. Loading chemotherapeutic agent(s) into LNPs improves drug delivery at different aspects including specific targeting of tumours, and enhancing the bioavailability of drugs at the tumour site through selective release of their payload, thus reducing their undesired side effects on healthy cells. This review article delineates an overview of the clinical challenges in many cancer treatments as well as depicts the role of LNPs in achieving optimal therapeutic outcomes. Moreover, the review contains a comprehensive description of the many LNPs categories used as nanocarriers in cancer treatment to date, as well as the potential of LNPs for future applications in other areas of medicine and research.

Unveiling the potential effects of resveratrol in lung cancer treatment: Mechanisms and nanoparticle-based drug delivery strategies

Lung cancer ranks among the most prevalent forms of cancer and remains a significant factor in cancer-related mortality across the world. It poses significant challenges to healthcare systems and society as a whole due to its high incidence, mortality rates, and late-stage diagnosis. Resveratrol (RV), a natural compound found in various plants, has shown potential as a nanomedicine for lung cancer treatment. RV has varied effects on cancer cells, including promoting apoptosis by increasing pro-apoptotic proteins (Bax and Bak) and decreasing anti-apoptotic proteins (Bcl-2). It also hinders cell proliferation by influencing important signaling pathways (MAPK, mTOR, PI3K/Akt, and Wnt/β-catenin) that govern cancer progression. In addition, RV acts as a potent antioxidant, diminishing oxidative stress and safeguarding cells against DNA damage. However, using RV alone in cancer treatment has drawbacks, such as low bioavailability, lack of targeting ability, and susceptibility to degradation. In contrast, nanoparticle-based delivery systems address these limitations and hold promise for improving treatment outcomes in lung cancer; nanoparticle formulations of RV offer advantages such as improved drug delivery, increased stability, controlled release, and targeted delivery to lung cancer cells. This article will provide an overview of lung cancer, explore the potential of RV as a therapeutic agent, discuss the benefits and challenges of nanoparticle-based drug delivery, and highlight the promise of RV nanoparticles for cancer treatment, including lung cancer. By optimizing these systems for clinical application, future studies aim to enhance overall treatment outcomes and improve the prognosis for lung cancer patients.

Association effect of the phytocannabinoid beta-caryophyllene and indomethacin carried in topical nanoemulgels: an evaluation by in vivo anti-inflammatory model

The sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene, classified as a phytocannabinoid compound, has been widely studied owing to its multi-target action. In addition, this compound has demonstrated application as a skin permeation promoter. In this context, this study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of associating β-caryophyllene and indomethacin in the oily core of hydrogel thickened nanoemulsions, as well as, to evaluate the in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of this association by croton oil ear edoema induced model. After topical application, the nanoemulgels resulted in increased edoema mass when compared to the substances in their free form. Overall, the results differed from expected, and the data found may be owing to the specificities of the in vivo model applied, as well as the tested ratio between β-caryophyllene and indomethacin (200:1). New perspectives arise from the data found regarding the evaluation of the association of terpenic compounds with indomethacin in nanoemulsified systems.

Integrating Nanotechnological Advancements of Disease-Modifying Anti-Rheumatic Drugs into Rheumatoid Arthritis Management

Disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) is a class of anti-rheumatic medicines that are frequently prescribed to patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Methotrexate, sulfasalazine, hydroxychloroquine, and azathioprine are examples of non-biologic DMARDs that are being used for alleviating pain and preventing disease progression. Biologic DMARDs (bDMARDs) like infliximab, rituximab, etanercept, adalimumab, tocilizumab, certolizumab pegol, and abatacept have greater effectiveness with fewer adverse effects in comparison to non-biologic DMARDs. This review article delineates the classification of DMARDs and their characteristic attributes. The poor aqueous solubility or permeability causes the limited oral bioavailability of synthetic DMARDs, while the high molecular weights along with the bulky structures of bDMARDs have posed few obstacles in their drug delivery and need to be addressed through the development of nanoformulations like cubosomes, nanospheres, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanomicelles, liposome, niosomes, and nanostructured lipid carrier. The main focus of this review article is to highlight the potential role of nanotechnology in the drug delivery of DMARDs for increasing solubility, dissolution, and bioavailability for the improved management of RA. This article also focusses on the different aspects of nanoparticles like their applications in biologics, biocompatibility, body clearance, scalability, drug loading, and stability issues.

Pharmacodynamic Studies of Pravastatin Sodium Nanoemulsion Loaded Transdermal Patch for Treatment of Hyperlipidemia

Pravastatin sodium (PVS) is a hypolipidemic drug with poor oral bioavailability due to the first-pass effect. Therefore, this study aims to formulate and evaluate transdermal patches containing PVS-loaded nanoemulsions (PVS-NEs) to increase PVS's hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective activities. PVS-NEs were prepared using the aqueous titration method, where oleic acid was chosen as an oil phase, and span 80 and tween 80 were used as surfactant and cosurfactant respectively. Droplet size (DS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), clarity, and thermodynamic stability of NEs were all characterized. Also, PVS-NEs (NE2) with 50% oil phase, 40% SC mix 2:1, and 10% water were selected as an optimum formula based on the results of DS (251 ± 16), PDI (0.4 ± 0.16), and ZP (-70 ± 10.4) to be incorporated into a transdermal patch, and PVS-NE2 loaded transdermal patches (PVS-NE2-TDPs) were prepared by solvent evaporation method. F1 patch with HPMC E15 and PVP K30 in a ratio of 3:1 represented satisfactory patch properties with good drug-excipients compatibility. Thus, it was selected as an optimum patch formula. The optimized F1 patch was characterized for thickness, moisture content, weight variation, and drug-excipients incompatibility. Therefore, it was subjected to ex vivo skin permeation and finally pharmacodynamic studies. Ex vivo permeation studies of F1 revealed that the cumulative amount of PVS permeated across rat skin was 271.66 ± 19 µg/cm2 in 72 h, and the pharmacodynamic studies demonstrated that the F1 patch was more effective in treating hyperlipidemia than PVS-TDP (control patch) based on both blood analysis and histopathological examination. .

Essential Oils of Some Potential Medicinal Plants and their Wound Healing Activities

The wound has been recognised as a deep cut or tearing of the epidermis, which is also referred to as trauma and harm to the body tissues. Healing of wounds requires a coordinated series of cellular processes, including cell attraction, proliferation, differentiation, and angiogenesis. These processes involve interactions between various cells, such as macrophages, endothelial cells, keratinocytes, fibroblasts, growth hormones, and proteases. The outcome of wounds can be fatal if not treated properly, resulting in chronic wounds, chronic pain, and even death. Wound healing is replacing missing tissue with tissue repairs and regeneration. Some local variables are the presence of tissue maceration, foreign objects, biofilm, hypoxia, ischemia, and wound infection. Sustained growth factor delivery, siRNA delivery, micro-RNA targeting, and stem cell therapy are all emerging possible therapeutic approaches for wound healing. Traditional approaches, such as Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani medicines, are also being used for treatment. The therapeutic application of nanoformulations in wound infections has shown various beneficial effects. Several herbal medicines, especially essential oils have shown potential wound healing activities, such as lavender, tea tree, sesame, olive, etc. Various nanoparticles and their nanoformulations have been explored in wound healing therapy. The present review article highlights several aspects of essential oils for wound healing activity through a novel drug delivery system. Further, some patents on wound healing through herbal medicine have been listed.

Impact of miconazole nitrate ferrying cationic and anionic nanoemulsion and gels on permeation profiles of across EpiDerm, artificial membrane, and skin: Instrumental evidences

Based on our previous report, the study was extended to investigate the impact of miconazole nitrate (MCN) loaded cationic/anionic nanoemulsions and nanoemulsion gels on permeation behaviour across artificial-membrane, EpiDerm, and rat skin. Nanoemulsions and gels were evaluated for size, charge, viscosity, size-distribution, pH, and percent entrapment efficiency (%EE). In vitro drug diffusion across artificial membrane and EpiDerm were conducted to get diffusion coefficients. Permeation profiles were studied using rat skin to investigate mechanistic insight of formulated mediated permeation followed by CLSM (confocal laser scanning microscopy), SEM (scanning electron microscopy), AFM (atomic force microscopy), and irritation studies. Results showed that MCNE11-Rh (probed cationic nanoemulsion at pH ∼ 7.2) and MNE11-Rh (probed anionic nanoemulsion at pH ∼ 7.2) showed size values of 158 nm and 145 nm, respectively whereas MCNE11-GR (probed cationic nanoemulsion gel at pH ∼ 6.8) and MNE11-GR (probed anionic nanoemulsion gel at pH ∼ 6.8) exhibited size values 257 nm and 243 nm, respectively. The %EE values were found to be as 91.5 % and 89.6 % for MCNE11-Rh and MNE11-Rh, respectively. The gels (∼6000 cP) elicited relatively high viscosity than nanoemulsions (∼3300 - 3500 cP). MCNE11-GR showed the highest values of permeation flux, diffusion rate, diffusion coefficient (D), and permeation coefficient (P) across artificial membrane, EpiDerm, and rat skin which may be attributed to three potential factors (cationic charge, composition, and hydration by the hydrophilic gel) working in tandem. Transepidermal water loss (TEWL) by the MCNE11-GR was maximum (14.4 g/m2h) than control (6.1 g/m2h) indicating augmented interaction of MCNE11-Rh with skin components. Conclusively, cationic nanoemulsion gel was promising carrier for enhanced permeation and the drug access to the dermal region to treat deep seated fungal infections.

Current challenges ahead in preparation, characterization, and pharmaceutical applications of nanoemulsions

Nanoemulsions (NEs) are emulsions with particle size of less than around 100 nm. Reviewing the literature, several reports are available on NEs, including preparation, characterization, and applications of them. This review aims to brief challenges that researchers or formulators may encounter when working with NEs. For instance, when selecting NE components and identifying their concentrations, stability and safety of the preparation should be evaluated. When preparing an NE, issues over scale-up of the preparation as well as possible effects of the preparation process on the active ingredient need to be considered. When characterizing the NEs, the two major concerns are accuracy of the method and accessibility of the characterizing instrument. Also a highly efficient NE for clinical use to deliver the active ingredient to the target tissue with maximum safety profile is commonly sought. Throughout the review we also have tried to suggest approaches to overcome the challenges. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Nanoemulsions as a Promising Carrier for Topical Delivery of Etodolac: Formulation Development and Characterization

This research primarily focuses on the development of innovative topical nanoemulsions for etodolac, aimed at surmounting its inherent limitations. The preparation of etodolac nanoemulsions is accomplished through a combination of high shear homogenization and ultrasonication methods. The optimization of the formulation components is systematically conducted using the design of experiments methodology. The droplet size (DS), polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential (ZP) of the optimized formulation were assessed using the differential light scattering (DLS) technique. Surface morphology examinations were conducted using electron microscopy, while interactions between excipients and the drug were analyzed through FTIR analysis. Additionally, in vitro release and ex vivo permeability studies were carried out. Furthermore, anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated in the context of a carrageenan-induced paw edema model in rats. The DS, PDI, and ZP of the optimal formulation were 163.5 nm, 0.141, and -33.1 mV, respectively. The in vitro release profile was assessed as a sustained release by following a non-Fickian drug transport. The flux of etodolac nanoemulsions and coarse dispersions were 165.7 ± 11.7 µg/cm2 h and 59.7 ± 15.2 µg/cm2 h, respectively. Enhanced edema inhibition was observed at 13.4%, 36.5%, and 50.65% for the 6th, 8th, and 24th hours, respectively. Taken together, these results confirmed that nanoemulsions are promising carriers for the topical delivery of etodolac.

Recent Trends in Macromolecule-Based Approaches for Hair Loss Treatment

Macromolecules are large, complex molecules composed of smaller subunits known as monomers. The four primary categories of macromolecules found in living organisms are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids; they also encompass a broad range of natural and synthetic polymers. Recent studies have shown that biologically active macromolecules can help regenerate hair, providing a potential solution for current hair regeneration therapies. This review examines the latest developments in the use of macromolecules for the treatment of hair loss. The fundamental principles of hair follicle (HF) morphogenesis, hair shaft (HS) development, hair cycle regulation, and alopecia have been introduced. Microneedle (MN) and nanoparticle (NP) delivery systems are innovative treatments for hair loss. Additionally, the application of macromolecule-based tissue-engineered scaffolds for the in vitro and in vivo neogenesis of HFs is discussed. Furthermore, a new research direction is explored wherein artificial skin platforms are adopted as a promising screening method for hair loss treatment drugs. Through these multifaceted approaches, promising aspects of macromolecules for future hair loss treatments are identified.

Co-delivery of beta-caryophyllene and indomethacin in the oily core of nanoemulsions potentiates the anti-inflammatory effect in LPS-stimulated macrophage model

The potentiation of pharmacological effects can be achieved through several strategies, such as the association of substances and delivery in nanostructured systems. In practice, potentiation can be measured by the law of mass action and joint evaluation of the combination index (CI) and dose-response curves. In this context, this study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of the association of β-caryophyllene and indomethacin in the free form and delivered in nanoemulsions using the in vitro model of LPS-stimulated murine macrophage. The results indicated potentiation of the anti-inflammatory effect of nanoemulsified substances compared to free substances, as well as synergistic action between the sesquiterpene and the selected NSAID. In comparison, the association of β-caryophyllene and indomethacin in the free form inhibited the production of nitric oxide by 50% at 48.60 µg/mL (CI = 0.21), while the nanoemulsified association of these substances resulted in an IC50 of 1.45 µg/mL (CI = 0.14). In parallel, cytotoxicity assays on HaCaT and MRC-5 cell lines demonstrated the safety of IC50-equivalent concentrations of the anti-inflammatory action, and no irritating effects on the chorioallantoic membrane of embryonated eggs were observed (HET-CAM assay). The results suggest that β-caryophyllene may be an alternative to replace an inert oily core in nanoemulsion systems when anti-inflammatory effects are desirable.

Lipid-Based Delivery Systems for Flavonoids and Flavonolignans: Liposomes, Nanoemulsions, and Solid Lipid Nanoparticles

Herbal chemicals with a long history in medicine have attracted a lot of attention. Flavonolignans and flavonoids are considered as two classes of the above-mentioned compounds with different functional groups which exhibit several therapeutic capabilities such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities. Based on the studies, high hydrophobic properties of the aforementioned compounds limit their bioavailability inside the human body and restrict their wide application. Nanoscale formulations such as solid lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, and other types of lipid-based delivery systems have been introduced to overcome the above-mentioned challenges. This approach allows the aforementioned hydrophobic therapeutic compounds to be encapsulated between hydrophobic structures, resulting in improving their bioavailability. The above-mentioned enhanced delivery system improves delivery to the targeted sites and reduces the daily required dosage. Lowering the required daily dose improves the performance of the drug by diminishing its side effects on non-targeted tissues. The present study aims to highlight the recent improvements in implementing lipid-based nanocarriers to deliver flavonolignans and flavonoids.

Recent Update on Nanoemulsion Impregnated Hydrogel: a Gleam into the Revolutionary Strategy for Diffusion-Controlled Delivery of Therapeutics

Since earlier times, dermatological remedies have been utilized to treat diseases associated with pain, irritation, and skin conditions. Compared to other routes of drug delivery, topical delivery of drugs offers several benefits. Scientists are investigating different alterations in dosage forms in addition to existing topical formulations such as ointments, gels, creams, lotions, and ointments to significantly improve the permeation of drugs and enhance the pharmacological efficacy of medications that are poorly absorbed via the skin. Conventional formulations have a plethora of problems viz. poor absorption, no target specificity, low spreadability, and inadequate bioavailability which leads the researchers toward developing novel formulations like nanoemulsions. The nanoemulsion can enhance the gradient in concentration and thermodynamic movement toward the epidermis and enhance the penetration of its constituents. However, due to its difficult application, nanoemulsion's lower viscosity limited its use in transdermal delivery. Thus, the development of nanoemulsion-based hydrogels has shown to be a successful strategy for removing obstacles from existing drug formulations. The simple application, expedient spreadability, non-stickiness, safety, and effectiveness of nanoemulsion-based hydrogel have led to substantial growth in their research in recent years. This review gives a brief idea about the prevalence of skin diseases, skin as an obstacle for drug delivery, and recent research insights to combat these obstacles. The work highlights the mechanism of drug release via nanoemulsion, hydrogels, and nanoemulsion-based hydrogels with reference to recent research on hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs.

Chitosan capped-gold nanoparticles as skin penetration enhancer for small molecules: A study in porcine skin

Skin is considered one of the most convenient sites for drug administration. The present study evaluated the effect of gold nanoparticles stabilized by chitosan (CS-AuNPs) and citrate ions (Ci-AuNPs) on skin permeation of sodium fluorescein (NaFI) and rhodamine b base (RhB) as small model hydrophilic and lipophilic permeants, respectively. CS-AuNPs and Ci-AuNPs were characterized by transmitted electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Skin permeation was investigated using porcine skin with diffusion cells and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The CS-AuNPs and Ci-AuNPs were spherical-shaped nanosized particles (38.4±0.7 and 32.2±0.7 nm, respectively). The zeta potential of CS-AuNPs was positive (+30.7±1.2 mV) whereas that of Ci-AuNPs was negative (-60.2±0.4 mV). The skin permeation study revealed that CS-AuNPs could enhance the permeation of NaFI with enhancement ratio (ER) of 38.2±7.5, and the effect was superior to that of Ci-AuNPs. CLSM visualization suggested that skin permeation was enhanced by improving the delivery through the transepidermal pathway. However, the permeability of RhB, a lipophilic molecule, was not significantly affected by CS-AuNPs and Ci-AuNPs. Moreover, CS-AuNPs had no cytotoxic toward human skin fibroblast cells. Therefore, CS-AuNPs are a promising skin permeation enhancer of small polar compounds.

Liquid Chromatography-Electrospray Ionization Tandem Mass Spectrometry Estimation of Quercetin-Loaded Nanoemulsion in Rabbit Plasma: In Vivo-In Silico Pharmacokinetic Analysis Using GastroPlus

In the present study, we developed and validated a rapid, specific, sensitive, and reproducible liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry method for quantifying quercetin (QT) in rabbit plasma using hydrochlorothiazide as the internal standard. Animals were orally administered with optimized QT-loaded nanoemulsion (QTNE) and QT suspension (QTS), equivalent to 30 mg/kg, to the test and control group, respectively. The blood samples were collected at pre-determined time points up to 48 h. The linearity range was from 5 to 5000 ng mL^-1 with R ² = 0.995. Further, we analyzed the various pharmacokinetic parameters and established the in vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC) of QTNE using GastroPlus software. The method was successfully developed and validated, and when applied for the determination of QT in rabbit plasma, it exhibited an increase in C _max from 122.56 ng mL^-1 (QTS) to 286.51 ng mL^-1 (QTNE) (2.34-fold) and AUC_0-48 from 976 ng h mL^-1 (QTS) to 4249 ng h mL^-1 (QTNE) (4.35-fold), indicating improved oral bioavailability QT when administered as QTNE. Statistical analysis revealed that the Loo-Riegelman method (two-compartmental method) best fitted the deconvolution approach (R ² = 0.998, SEP = 4.537, MAE = 2.759, and AIC = 42.38) for establishing the IVIVC. In conclusion, the established bioanalytical method and IVIVC studies revealed that QTNE is a potential carrier for the effective delivery of QT with enhanced oral bioavailability.

Enhancing Targeted Therapy in Breast Cancer by Ultrasound-Responsive Nanocarriers

Currently, the response to cancer treatments is highly variable, and severe side effects and toxicity are experienced by patients receiving high doses of chemotherapy, such as those diagnosed with triple-negative breast cancer. The main goal of researchers and clinicians is to develop new effective treatments that will be able to specifically target and kill tumor cells by employing the minimum doses of drugs exerting a therapeutic effect. Despite the development of new formulations that overall can increase the drugs’ pharmacokinetics, and that are specifically designed to bind overexpressed molecules on cancer cells and achieve active targeting of the tumor, the desired clinical outcome has not been reached yet. In this review, we will discuss the current classification and standard of care for breast cancer, the application of nanomedicine, and ultrasound-responsive biocompatible carriers (micro/nanobubbles, liposomes, micelles, polymeric nanoparticles, and nanodroplets/nanoemulsions) employed in preclinical studies to target and enhance the delivery of drugs and genes to breast cancer.

Biopolymer- and Lipid-Based Carriers for the Delivery of Plant-Based Ingredients

Natural ingredients are gaining increasing attention from manufacturers following consumers’ concerns about the excessive use of synthetic ingredients. However, the use of natural extracts or molecules to achieve desirable qualities throughout the shelf life of foodstuff and, upon consumption, in the relevant biological environment is severely limited by their poor performance, especially with respect to solubility, stability against environmental conditions during product manufacturing, storage, and bioavailability upon consumption. Nanoencapsulation can be seen as an attractive approach with which to overcome these challenges. Among the different nanoencapsulation systems, lipids and biopolymer-based nanocarriers have emerged as the most effective ones because of their intrinsic low toxicity following their formulation with biocompatible and biodegradable materials. The present review aims to provide a survey of the recent advances in nanoscale carriers, formulated with biopolymers or lipids, for the encapsulation of natural compounds and plant extracts.

Fabrication of Novel Omeprazole-Based Chitosan Coated Nanoemulgel Formulation for Potential Anti-Microbia; In Vitro and Ex Vivo Characterizations

Infectious diseases remain inevitable factors for high mortality and morbidity rate in the modern world to date. Repurposing is a novel approach to drug development has become an intriguing research topic in the literature. Omeprazole is one of the top ten proton pump inhibitors prescribed in the USA. The literature suggests that no reports based on omeprazole anti-microbial actions have been discovered to date. This study entails the potential of omeprazole to treat skin and soft tissue infections based on the literature's evident anti-microbial effects. To get a skin-friendly formulation, a chitosan-coated omeprazole-loaded nanoemulgel formulation was fabricated using olive oil, carbopol 940, Tween 80, Span 80, and triethanolamine by high-speed homogenization technique. The optimized formulation was physicochemically characterized for zeta potential, size distribution, pH, drug content, entrapment efficiency, viscosity, spreadability, extrudability, in-vitro drug release, ex-vivo permeation analysis, and minimum inhibitory concentration determination. The FTIR analysis indicated that there was no incompatibility between the drug and formulation excipients. The optimized formulation exhibited particle size, PDI, zeta potential, drug content, and entrapment efficiency of 369.7 ± 8.77 nm, 0.316, -15.3 ± 6.7 mV, 90.92 ± 1.37% and 78.23 ± 3.76%, respectively. In-vitro release and ex-vivo permeation data of optimized formulation showed 82.16% and 72.21 ± 1.71 μg/cm², respectively. The results of minimum inhibitory concentration (1.25 mg/mL) against selected bacterial strains were satisfactory, suggesting a successful treatment approach for the topical application of omeprazole to treat microbial infections. Furthermore, chitosan coating synergistically increases the antibacterial activity of the drug.

Current Advances in Lipid Nanosystems Intended for Topical and Transdermal Drug Delivery Applications

Skin delivery is an exciting and challenging field. It is a promising approach for effective drug delivery due to its ease of administration, ease of handling, high flexibility, controlled release, prolonged therapeutic effect, adaptability, and many other advantages. The main associated challenge, however, is low skin permeability. The skin is a healthy barrier that serves as the body's primary defence mechanism against foreign particles. New advances in skin delivery (both topical and transdermal) depend on overcoming the challenges associated with drug molecule permeation and skin irritation. These limitations can be overcome by employing new approaches such as lipid nanosystems. Due to their advantages (such as easy scaling, low cost, and remarkable stability) these systems have attracted interest from the scientific community. However, for a successful formulation, several factors including particle size, surface charge, components, etc. have to be understood and controlled. This review provided a brief overview of the structure of the skin as well as the different pathways of nanoparticle penetration. In addition, the main factors influencing the penetration of nanoparticles have been highlighted. Applications of lipid nanosystems for dermal and transdermal delivery, as well as regulatory aspects, were critically discussed.

Science of, and insights into, thermodynamic principles for dermal formulations

Studies have demonstrated the significant role of the thermodynamic activity of drugs in skin drug delivery. This thermodynamic activity works as a driving force for increasing/improving the absorption of drugs by the skin. It can be changed according to the physicochemical parameters (e.g., solubility, partition coefficient, and water activity) of the drug in the vehicle. Thermodynamic principles have been used for the development of novel topical and transdermal delivery systems, demonstrating the importance of thermodynamic activity in enhancing drug permeation through the skin. In this review, we provide insights into thermodynamic principles and their roles in optimizing topical and transdermal drug delivery systems.

Updated insight into the characterization of nano-emulsions

INTRODUCTION

In most of the studies, nano-emulsion characterization is limited to their size distribution and zeta potential. In this review, we present an updated insight of the characterization methods of nano-emulsions, including new or unconventional experimental approaches to explore in depth the nano-emulsion properties.

AREA COVERED

We propose an overview of all the main techniques used to characterize nano-emulsions, including the most classical ones, up to in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo evaluation. Innovative approaches are then presented in the second part of the review that presents innovative, experimental techniques less known in the field of nano-emulsion such as the nanoparticle tracking analysis, small-angle X-ray scattering, Raman spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance. Finally, in the last part we discuss the use of lipophilic fluorescent probes and imaging techniques as an emerging tool to understand the nano-emulsion droplet stability, surface decoration, release mechanisms, and in vivo fate.

EXPERT OPINION

This review is mostly intended for a broad readership and provides key tools regarding the choice of the approach to characterize nano-emulsions. Innovative and uncommon methods will be precious to disclose the information potentially reachable behind a formulation of nano-emulsions, not always known in first intention and with conventional methods.

The Trend of Organic Based Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Diabetes and Its Perspectives

Diabetes is an untreatable metabolic disorder characterized by alteration in blood sugar homeostasis, with submucosal insulin therapy being the primary treatment option. This route of drug administration is attributed to low patient comfort due to the risk of pain, distress, and local inflammation/infections. Nanoparticles have indeed been suggested as insulin carriers to allow the drug to be administered via less invasive routes other than injection, such as orally or nasally. The organic-based nanoparticles can be derived from various organic materials (for instance, polysaccharides, lipids, and so on) and thus are prevalently used to enhance the physical and chemical consistency of loaded bioactive compounds (drug) and thus their bioavailability. This review presents various forms of organic nanoparticles (for example, chitosan, dextron, gums, nanoemulsion, alginate, and so on) for enhanced hypoglycemic drug delivery relative to traditional therapies.