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Diniz EADS, da Silva DP, Ferreira SDS, Fernandes-Pedrosa MDF, Vieira DS. Temperature effect in the inhibition of PLA 2 activity of Bothrops brazili venom by Rosmarinic and Chlorogenic acids, experimental and computational approaches. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2024; 42:5238-5252. [PMID: 37378497 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2023.2226912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Myotoxicity caused by snakebite envenoming emerges as one of the main problems of ophidic accidents as it is not well neutralized by the current serum therapy. A promising alternative is to search for efficient small molecule inhibitors that can act against multiple venom components. Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is frequently found in snake venom and is usually associated with myotoxicity. Thus it represents an excellent target for the search of new treatments. This work reports the effect of temperature in the inhibition of catalytic properties of PLA2 from Bothrops brazili venom by Rosmarinic (RSM) and Chlorogenic (CHL) acids through experimental and computational approaches. Three temperatures were evaluated (25, 37 and 50 °C). In the experimental section, enzymatic assays showed that RSM is a better inhibitor in all three temperatures. At 50 °C, the inhibition efficiency decayed significantly for both acids. Docking studies revealed that both ligands bind to the hydrophobic channel of the protein dimer where the phospholipid binds in the catalytic process, interacting with several functional residues. In this context, RSM presents better interaction energies due to stronger interactions with chain B of the dimer. Molecular dynamics simulations showed that RSM can establish selective interactions with ARG112B of PLA2, which is located next to residues of the putative Membrane Disruption Site in PLA2-like structures. The affinity of RSM and CHL acids towards PLA2 is mainly driven by electrostatic interactions, especially salt bridge interactions established with residues ARG33B (for CHL) and ARG112B (RSM) and hydrogen bonds with residue ASP89A. The inability of CHL to establish a stable interaction with ARG112B was identified as the reason for its lower inhibition efficiency compared to RSM at the three temperatures. Furthermore, extensive structural analysis was performed to explain the lower inhibition efficiency at 50 °C for both ligands. The analysis performed in this work provides important information for the future design of new inhibitors.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Diana Pontes da Silva
- Laboratory of Technology and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology (Tecbiofar), College of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Avenue General Gustavo Cordeiro de Farias, Petrópolis, Natal, Brazil
| | - Sarah de Sousa Ferreira
- Laboratory of Technology and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology (Tecbiofar), College of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Avenue General Gustavo Cordeiro de Farias, Petrópolis, Natal, Brazil
| | - Matheus de Freitas Fernandes-Pedrosa
- Laboratory of Technology and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology (Tecbiofar), College of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Avenue General Gustavo Cordeiro de Farias, Petrópolis, Natal, Brazil
| | - Davi Serradella Vieira
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Av Senador Salgado Filho, Natal-RN, Brazil
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Zhong XJ, Wang CE, Li YN, Zhang QY, Sun QY. Atrase A, a P-III class metalloproteinase purified from cobra venom, exhibits potent anticoagulant activity by inhibiting coagulation pathway and activating the fibrinolytic system. Heliyon 2024; 10:e30969. [PMID: 38813202 PMCID: PMC11133756 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Snake venoms, comprising a complex array of protein-rich components, an important part of which are snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs). These SVMPs, which are predominantly isolated from viperid venoms, are integral to the pathology of snakebites. However, SVMPs derived from elapid venoms have not been extensively explored, and only a handful of SVMPs have been characterized to date. Atrase A, a nonhemorrhagic P-III class metalloproteinase from Naja atra venom, exhibits weak proteolytic activity against fibrinogen in vitro but has pronounced anticoagulant effects in vivo. This contrast spurred investigations into its anticoagulant mechanisms. Research findings indicate that atrase A notably extends the activated partial thromboplastin time, diminishes fibrinogen levels, and impedes platelet aggregation. The anticoagulant action of atrase A primarily involves inhibiting coagulation factor VIII and activating the endogenous fibrinolytic system, which in turn lowers fibrinogen levels. Additionally, its effect on platelet aggregation further contributes to its anticoagulant profile. This study unveils a novel anticoagulant mechanism of atrase A, significantly enriching the understanding of the roles of cobra venom metalloproteinases in snake venom. Furthermore, these findings underscore the potential of atrase A as a novel anticoagulant drug, offering insights into the functional evolutions of cobra venom metalloproteinases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Jie Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550014, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550025, China
- Natural Products Research Center of Guizhou Province, Guiyang, 550014, China
| | - Cai-E Wang
- Natural Products Research Center of Guizhou Province, Guiyang, 550014, China
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital, and College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471003, China
| | - Ya-Nan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550014, China
- Natural Products Research Center of Guizhou Province, Guiyang, 550014, China
| | - Qi-Yun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550014, China
- Natural Products Research Center of Guizhou Province, Guiyang, 550014, China
| | - Qian-Yun Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550014, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550025, China
- Natural Products Research Center of Guizhou Province, Guiyang, 550014, China
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Senthilkumaran S, Sampath S, Almeida JR, Williams J, Williams HF, Patel K, Thirumalaikolundusubramanian P, Vaiyapuri S. Pulmonary Thromboembolism following Russell's Viper Bites. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:222. [PMID: 38787074 PMCID: PMC11125611 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16050222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2024] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming and its resulting complications are serious threats to the health of vulnerable people living in rural areas of developing countries. The knowledge of the heterogeneity of symptoms associated with snakebite envenoming and their management strategies is vital to treat such life-threatening complications to save lives. Russell's viper envenomation induces a diverse range of clinical manifestations from commonly recognised haemotoxic and local effects to several rare conditions that are often not reported. The lack of awareness about these unusual manifestations can affect prompt diagnosis, appropriate therapeutic approaches, and positive outcomes for patients. Here, we report pulmonary thromboembolism that developed in three patients following Russell's viper envenomation and demonstrate their common clinical features and diagnostic and therapeutic approaches used. All patients showed clinical signs of local (oedema) and systemic (blood coagulation disturbances) envenomation, which were treated using polyvalent antivenom. They exhibited elevated heart rates, breathlessness, and reduced oxygen saturation, which are non-specific but core parameters in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. The recognition of pulmonary embolism was also achieved by an electrocardiogram, which showed sinus tachycardia and computed tomography and echocardiogram scans further confirmed this condition. Anti-coagulant treatment using low-molecular-weight heparin offered clinical benefits in these patients. In summary, this report reinforces the broad spectrum of previously unreported consequences of Russell's viper envenomation. The constant updating of healthcare professionals and the dissemination of major lessons learned in the clinical management of snakebite envenoming through scientific documentation and educational programs are necessary to mitigate the adverse impacts of venomous snakebites in vulnerable communities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - José R. Almeida
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK; (J.R.A.); (J.W.)
| | - Jarred Williams
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK; (J.R.A.); (J.W.)
| | | | - Ketan Patel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK;
| | | | - Sakthivel Vaiyapuri
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK; (J.R.A.); (J.W.)
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Saldarriaga-Córdoba M, Clavero-León C, Rey-Suarez P, Nuñez-Rangel V, Avendaño-Herrera R, Solano-González S, Alzate JF. Unveiling Novel Kunitz- and Waprin-Type Toxins in the Micrurus mipartitus Coral Snake Venom Gland: An In Silico Transcriptome Analysis. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:224. [PMID: 38787076 PMCID: PMC11126030 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16050224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Kunitz-type peptide expression has been described in the venom of snakes of the Viperidae, Elapidae and Colubridae families. This work aimed to identify these peptides in the venom gland transcriptome of the coral snake Micrurus mipartitus. Transcriptomic analysis revealed a high diversity of venom-associated Kunitz serine protease inhibitor proteins (KSPIs). A total of eight copies of KSPIs were predicted and grouped into four distinctive types, including short KSPI, long KSPI, Kunitz-Waprin (Ku-WAP) proteins, and a multi-domain Kunitz-type protein. From these, one short KSPI showed high identity with Micrurus tener and Austrelaps superbus. The long KSPI group exhibited similarity within the Micrurus genus and showed homology with various elapid snakes and even with the colubrid Pantherophis guttatus. A third group suggested the presence of Kunitz domains in addition to a whey-acidic-protein-type four-disulfide core domain. Finally, the fourth group corresponded to a transcript copy with a putative 511 amino acid protein, formerly annotated as KSPI, which UniProt classified as SPINT1. In conclusion, this study showed the diversity of Kunitz-type proteins expressed in the venom gland transcriptome of M. mipartitus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Claudia Clavero-León
- Centro de Investigación en Recursos Naturales y Sustentabilidad (CIRENYS), Universidad Bernardo O’Higgins, Santiago 8320000, Chile
| | - Paola Rey-Suarez
- Grupo de Investigación en Toxinología, Alternativas Terapéuticas y Alimentarias, Facultad de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y Alimentarias, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 50010, Colombia; (P.R.-S.); (V.N.-R.)
| | - Vitelbina Nuñez-Rangel
- Grupo de Investigación en Toxinología, Alternativas Terapéuticas y Alimentarias, Facultad de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y Alimentarias, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 50010, Colombia; (P.R.-S.); (V.N.-R.)
- Escuela de Microbiología, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 50010, Colombia
| | - Ruben Avendaño-Herrera
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida & Centro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar 2531015, Chile;
| | - Stefany Solano-González
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática Aplicada, Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional, Heredia 86-3000, Costa Rica
| | - Juan F. Alzate
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 50010, Colombia;
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Bartlett KE, Hall SR, Rasmussen SA, Crittenden E, Dawson CA, Albulescu LO, Laprade W, Harrison RA, Saviola AJ, Modahl CM, Jenkins TP, Wilkinson MC, Gutiérrez JM, Casewell NR. Dermonecrosis caused by a spitting cobra snakebite results from toxin potentiation and is prevented by the repurposed drug varespladib. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2315597121. [PMID: 38687786 PMCID: PMC11087757 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2315597121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that causes substantial mortality and morbidity globally. The venom of African spitting cobras often causes permanent injury via tissue-destructive dermonecrosis at the bite site, which is ineffectively treated by current antivenoms. To address this therapeutic gap, we identified the etiological venom toxins in Naja nigricollis venom responsible for causing local dermonecrosis. While cytotoxic three-finger toxins were primarily responsible for causing spitting cobra cytotoxicity in cultured keratinocytes, their potentiation by phospholipases A2 toxins was essential to cause dermonecrosis in vivo. This evidence of probable toxin synergism suggests that a single toxin-family inhibiting drug could prevent local envenoming. We show that local injection with the repurposed phospholipase A2-inhibiting drug varespladib significantly prevents local tissue damage caused by several spitting cobra venoms in murine models of envenoming. Our findings therefore provide a therapeutic strategy that may effectively prevent life-changing morbidity caused by snakebite in rural Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keirah E. Bartlett
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Steven R. Hall
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
- Centre for Drugs & Diagnostics, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Sean A. Rasmussen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre and Dalhousie University, Halifax, NSB3H 1V8, Canada
| | - Edouard Crittenden
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Charlotte A. Dawson
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
- Centre for Drugs & Diagnostics, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - William Laprade
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens LyngbyDK-2800, Denmark
| | - Robert A. Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
- Centre for Drugs & Diagnostics, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony J. Saviola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO80045
| | - Cassandra M. Modahl
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy P. Jenkins
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens LyngbyDK-2800, Denmark
| | - Mark C. Wilkinson
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José11501–2060, Costa Rica
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
- Centre for Drugs & Diagnostics, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
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6
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Offor BC, Piater LA. Snake venom toxins: Potential anticancer therapeutics. J Appl Toxicol 2024; 44:666-685. [PMID: 37697914 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Snake venom contains a cocktail of compounds dominated by proteins and peptides, which make up the toxin. The toxin components of snake venom attack several targets in the human body including the neuromuscular system, kidney and blood coagulation system and cause pathologies. As such, the venom toxins can be managed and used for the treatment of these diseases. In this regard, Captopril used in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases was the first animal venom toxin-based drug approved by the US Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency. Cancers cause morbidity and mortality worldwide. Due to side effects associated with the current cancer treatments including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, hormonal therapy and surgery, there is a need to improve the efficacy of current treatments and/or develop novel drugs from natural sources including animal toxin-based drugs. There is a long history of earlier and ongoing studies implicating snake venom toxins as potential anticancer therapies. Here, we review the role of crude snake venoms and toxins including phospholipase A2, L-amino acid oxidase, C-type lectin and disintegrin as potential anticancer agents tested in cancer cell lines and animal tumour models in comparison to normal cell lines. Some of the anti-tumour activities of snake venom toxins include induction of cytotoxicity, apoptosis, cell cycle arrest and inhibition of metastasis, angiogenesis and tumour growth. We thus propose the advancement of multidisciplinary approaches to more pre-clinical and clinical studies for enhanced bioavailability and targeted delivery of snake venom toxin-based anticancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedict C Offor
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
| | - Lizelle A Piater
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
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Machado Marinho AC, Chapeaurouge A, Dutra BM, Quintela BCSF, Pereira SS, Fernandes CFC. The role of venom proteomics and single-domain antibodies for antivenoms: Progress in snake envenoming treatment. Drug Discov Today 2024; 29:103967. [PMID: 38555033 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2024.103967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) hold promise for developing new biopharmaceuticals to treat neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), including snakebites, which are severe and occur frequently. In addition, limitations of conventional snakebite treatments, especially in terms of local action, and the global antivenom crisis incentivize the use of this biotechnological tool to design next-generation snakebite antivenoms. Conventional antivenoms for snakebite treatment are usually composed of immunoglobulin G or F(ab')2 fragments derived from the plasma of immunized animals. sdAbs, the smallest antigen-binding fragments, are derived from the variable domains of camelid heavy-chain antibodies. sdAbs may have some advantages over conventional antivenoms for local toxicity, such as better penetration into tissues due to their small size, and high solubility and affinity for venom antigens due to their unique antigen-binding loops and ability to access cryptic epitopes. We present an overview of current antivenom therapy in the context of sdAb development for toxin neutralization. Furthermore, strategies are presented for identifying snake venom's major toxins as well as for developing antisnake toxin sdAbs by employing proteomic tools for toxin neutralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Carolina Machado Marinho
- Laboratório Multiusuário de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Ceará, FIOCRUZ CE, Eusébio-CE, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Ceará, UFC, Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - Alexander Chapeaurouge
- Laboratório Multiusuário de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Ceará, FIOCRUZ CE, Eusébio-CE, Brazil
| | - Brunheld Maia Dutra
- Laboratório Multiusuário de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Ceará, FIOCRUZ CE, Eusébio-CE, Brazil
| | - Barbara Cibelle S F Quintela
- Laboratório Multiusuário de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Ceará, FIOCRUZ CE, Eusébio-CE, Brazil
| | - Soraya S Pereira
- Laboratório de Engenharia de Anticorpos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Rondônia, FIOCRUZ RO, Porto Velho-RO, Brazil
| | - Carla Freire C Fernandes
- Laboratório Multiusuário de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Ceará, FIOCRUZ CE, Eusébio-CE, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Ceará, UFC, Fortaleza, Brazil
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Guadarrama-Martínez A, Neri-Castro E, Boyer L, Alagón A. Variability in antivenom neutralization of Mexican viperid snake venoms. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0012152. [PMID: 38717980 PMCID: PMC11078402 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0012152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Each year, 3,800 cases of snakebite envenomation are reported in Mexico, resulting in 35 fatalities. The only scientifically validated treatment for snakebites in Mexico is the use of antivenoms. Currently, two antivenoms are available in the market, with one in the developmental phase. These antivenoms, produced in horses, consist of F(ab')2 fragments generated using venoms from various species as immunogens. While previous studies primarily focused on neutralizing the venom of the Crotalus species, our study aims to assess the neutralization capacity of different antivenom batches against pit vipers from various genera in Mexico. METHODOLOGY We conducted various biological and biochemical tests to characterize the venoms. Additionally, we performed neutralization tests using all three antivenoms to evaluate their effectiveness against lethal activity and their ability to neutralize proteolytic and fibrinogenolytic activities. RESULTS Our results reveal significant differences in protein content and neutralizing capacity among different antivenoms and even between different batches of the same product. Notably, the venom of Crotalus atrox is poorly neutralized by all evaluated batches despite being the primary cause of envenomation in the country's northern region. Furthermore, even at the highest tested concentrations, no antivenom could neutralize the lethality of Metlapilcoatlus nummifer and Porthidium yucatanicum venoms. These findings highlight crucial areas for improving existing antivenoms and developing new products. CONCLUSION Our research reveals variations in protein content and neutralizing potency among antivenoms, emphasizing the need for consistency in venom characteristics as immunogens. While Birmex neutralizes more LD50 per vial, Antivipmyn excels in specific neutralization. The inability of antivenoms to neutralize certain venoms, especially M. nummifer and P. yucatanicum, highlights crucial improvement opportunities, given the medical significance of these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alid Guadarrama-Martínez
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Gómez Palacio, Durango, México
| | - Leslie Boyer
- Department of Pathology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
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9
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DU C, Yuan F, Duan X, Rong M, Meng E, Liu C. Isolation and structural identification of a potassium ion channel Kv4.1 inhibitor SsTx-P2 from centipede venom. Zhejiang Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 2024; 53:194-200. [PMID: 38268403 PMCID: PMC11057981 DOI: 10.3724/zdxbyxb-2023-0430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To isolate a potassium ion channel Kv4.1 inhibitor from centipede venom, and to determine its sequence and structure. METHODS Ion-exchange chromatography and reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography were performed to separate and purify peptide components of centipede venom, and their inhibiting effect on Kv4.1 channel was determined by whole-cell patch clamp recording. The molecular weight of isolated peptide Kv4.1 channel inhibitor was identified with matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry; its primary sequence was determined by Edman degradation sequencing and two-dimensional mass spectrometry; its structure was established based on iterative thread assembly refinement online analysis. RESULTS A peptide SsTx-P2 was separated from centipede venom with the molecular weight of 6122.8, and its primary sequence consists of 53 amino acid residues NH2-ELTWDFVRTCCKLFPDKSECTKACATEFTGGDESRLKDVWPRKLRSGDSRLKD-OH. Peptide SsTx-P2 potently inhibited the current of Kv4.1 channel transiently transfected in HEK293 cell, with 1.0 μmol/L SsTx-P2 suppressing 95% current of Kv4.1 channel. Its structure showed that SsTx-P2 shared a conserved helical structure. CONCLUSIONS The study has isolated a novel peptide SsTx-P2 from centipede venom, which can potently inhibit the potassium ion channel Kv4.1 and displays structural conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Canwei DU
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, Hunan Province, China.
| | - Fuchu Yuan
- College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410006, China
| | - Xinyi Duan
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, Hunan Province, China
| | - Mingqiang Rong
- College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410006, China
| | - Er Meng
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, Hunan Province, China
| | - Changjun Liu
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, Hunan Province, China.
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Okumu M, Mbaria J, Gikunju J, Mbuthia P, Madadi V, Ochola F. Exploring nature's antidote: unveiling the inhibitory potential of selected medicinal plants from Kisumu, Kenya against venom from some snakes of medical significance in sub-Saharan Africa. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1369768. [PMID: 38681195 PMCID: PMC11045943 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1369768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Background: The present study investigated the efficacy of Conyza bonariensis, Commiphora africana, Senna obtusifolia, Warburgia ugandensis, Vernonia glabra, and Zanthoxylum usambarense against Bitis arietans venom (BAV), Naja ashei venom (NAV), and Naja subfulva venom (NSV). Methods: 40 extracts and fractions were prepared using n-hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol. In vitro efficacy against snake venom phospholipase A2 (svPLA2) was determined in 96-well microtiter and agarose-egg yolk coagulation assays. in vivo efficacy against venom-induced cytotoxicity was determined using Artemia salina. Two commercial antivenoms were used for comparison. Results: The 96-well microtiter assay revealed poor svPLA2 inhibition of BAV by antivenom (range: 20.76% ± 13.29% to 51.29% ± 3.26%) but strong inhibition (>90%) by dichloromethane and hexane fractions of C. africana, hexane and ethyl acetate extracts and fraction of W. ugandensis, dichloromethane fraction of V. glabra, and the methanol extract of S. obtusifolia. The methanol extract and fraction of C. africana, and the hexane extract of Z. usambarense strongly inhibited (>90%) svPLA2 activity in NAV. The hexane and ethyl acetate fractions of V. glabra and the dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol extracts of C. africana strongly inhibited (>90%) svPLA2 in NSV. The agarose egg yolk coagulation assay showed significant inhibition of BAV by the dichloromethane fraction of C. africana (EC50 = 3.51 ± 2.58 μg/mL), significant inhibition of NAV by the methanol fraction of C. africana (EC50 = 7.35 ± 1.800 μg/mL), and significant inhibition of NSV by the hexane extract of V. glabra (EC50 = 7.94 ± 1.50 μg/mL). All antivenoms were non-cytotoxic in A. salina but the methanol extract of C. africana and the hexane extracts of V. glabra and Z. usambarense were cytotoxic. The dichloromethane fraction of C. africana significantly neutralized BAV-induced cytotoxicity, the methanol fraction and extract of C. africana neutralized NAV-induced cytotoxicity, while the ethyl acetate extract of V. glabra significantly neutralized NSV-induced cytotoxicity. Glycosides, flavonoids, phenolics, and tannins were identified in the non-cytotoxic extracts/fractions. Conclusion: These findings validate the local use of C. africana and V. glabra in snakebite but not C. bonariensis, S. obtusifolia, W. ugandensis, and Z. usambarense. Further work is needed to isolate pure compounds from the effective plants and identify their mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchel Okumu
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology, and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - James Mbaria
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology, and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Joseph Gikunju
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Paul Mbuthia
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology, and Parasitology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Vincent Madadi
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physical and Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Francis Ochola
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
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11
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Bittenbinder MA, van Thiel J, Cardoso FC, Casewell NR, Gutiérrez JM, Kool J, Vonk FJ. Tissue damaging toxins in snake venoms: mechanisms of action, pathophysiology and treatment strategies. Commun Biol 2024; 7:358. [PMID: 38519650 PMCID: PMC10960010 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06019-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is an important public health issue responsible for mortality and severe morbidity. Where mortality is mainly caused by venom toxins that induce cardiovascular disturbances, neurotoxicity, and acute kidney injury, morbidity is caused by toxins that directly or indirectly destroy cells and degrade the extracellular matrix. These are referred to as 'tissue-damaging toxins' and have previously been classified in various ways, most of which are based on the tissues being affected (e.g., cardiotoxins, myotoxins). This categorisation, however, is primarily phenomenological and not mechanistic. In this review, we propose an alternative way of classifying cytotoxins based on their mechanistic effects rather than using a description that is organ- or tissue-based. The mechanisms of toxin-induced tissue damage and their clinical implications are discussed. This review contributes to our understanding of fundamental biological processes associated with snakebite envenoming, which may pave the way for a knowledge-based search for novel therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mátyás A Bittenbinder
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR, Leiden, The Netherlands
- AIMMS, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jory van Thiel
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Fernanda C Cardoso
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Centre for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - José-María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, 11501, Costa Rica.
| | - Jeroen Kool
- AIMMS, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Freek J Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR, Leiden, The Netherlands
- AIMMS, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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12
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Tasoulis T, Wang CR, Sumner J, Dunstan N, Pukala TL, Isbister GK. The Eastern Bandy Bandy Vermicella annulata, expresses high abundance of SVMP, CRiSP and Kunitz protein families in its venom proteome. J Proteomics 2024; 295:105086. [PMID: 38266913 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2024.105086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 01/01/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
The Australian elapid snake radiation (Hydrophiinae) has evolved in the absence of competition from other advanced snakes. This has resulted in ecological specialisation in Australian elapids and the potential for venom proteomes divergent to other elapids. We characterised the venom of the Australian elapid Vermicella annulata (eastern bandy bandy). The venom was analysed using a two-dimensional fractionation process consisting of reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography then sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, followed by bottom-up proteomics. Resulting peptides were matched to a species-specific transcriptome and 87% of the venom was characterised. We identified 11 toxins in the venom from six families: snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMP; 24.2%; two toxins) that are class P-III SVMPs containing a disintegrin-like domain, three-finger toxins (3FTx; 21.6%; five toxins), kunitz peptides (KUN; 19.5%; one toxin), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRiSP; 18%; one toxin), and phospholipase A2 (PLA2; 4%; two toxins). The venom had low toxin diversity with five protein families having one or two toxins, except for 3FTx with five different toxins. V. annulata expresses an unusual venom proteome, with high abundances of CRiSP, KUN and SVMP, which are not normally highly expressed in elapid venoms. This unusual venom composition could be an adaptation to its specialised diet. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Although the Australian elapid radiation represents the most extensive speciation event of elapids on any continent, with 100 terrestrial species, the venom composition of these snakes has rarely been investigated, with only five species currently characterised. Here we provide the venom proteome of a sixth species, Vermicella annulata. The venom of this species could be particularly informative from an evolutionary perspective, as it is an extreme dietary specialist, only preying on blind snakes (Typhlopidae). We show that V. annulata expresses a highly unusual venom for an elapid, due to the high abundance of the protein families SVMP, CRiSP, and KUN, which together make up 61% of the venom. When averaged across all species, a typical elapid venom is 82% PLA2 and 3FTx. This is the second recorded instance of an Australian elapid having evolved highly divergent venom expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theo Tasoulis
- Clinical Toxicology Research Group, University of Newcastle N.S.W. 2308, Australia
| | - C Ruth Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Adelaide S.A., Australia
| | - Joanna Sumner
- Museums Victoria, Carlton Gardens, VIC 3053, Australia
| | | | - Tara L Pukala
- Department of Chemistry, University of Adelaide S.A., Australia
| | - Geoffrey K Isbister
- Clinical Toxicology Research Group, University of Newcastle N.S.W. 2308, Australia.
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13
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Vlasblom R, van Thiel J, Bittenbinder MA, van Rhijn JR, Drost R, Muis L, Slagboom J, Salvatori D, Kool J, Veldman RJ. Distinct cardiotoxic effects by venoms of a spitting cobra (Naja pallida) and a rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) revealed using an ex vivo Langendorff heart model. Toxicon 2024; 240:107637. [PMID: 38331109 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Here we describe the acute myocardial effects of an elapid (red spitting cobra, Naja pallida) and a viper (western diamondback rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox) venom using an ex vivo heart model. Our results reveal two different pathophysiological trajectories that influence heart function and morphology. While cobra venom causes a drop in contractile force, rattlesnake venom causes enhanced contractility and frequency that coincides with differences in myocellular morphology. This highlights the medical complexity of snake venom-induced cardiotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Vlasblom
- Institute of Life Sciences and Chemistry, HU University of Applied Sciences, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Jory van Thiel
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Matyas A Bittenbinder
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jon-Ruben van Rhijn
- Institute of Life Sciences and Chemistry, HU University of Applied Sciences, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Rinske Drost
- Institute of Life Sciences and Chemistry, HU University of Applied Sciences, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Lotte Muis
- Institute of Life Sciences and Chemistry, HU University of Applied Sciences, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Julien Slagboom
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Daniela Salvatori
- Anatomy and Physiology, Department Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Robert Jan Veldman
- Institute of Life Sciences and Chemistry, HU University of Applied Sciences, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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14
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Arestakesyan H, LeFevre N, Posnack N, Sarian A, Grigoryan V, Ayvazyan N, Voskanyan A, Sarvazyan N, Karabekian Z. Changes in attachment and metabolic activity of rat neonatal cardiomyocytes and nonmyocytes caused by Macrovipera lebetina obtusa venom. Toxicol In Vitro 2024; 95:105755. [PMID: 38061605 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2023.105755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
The Caucasian viper Macrovipera lebetina obtusa (MLO) is one of the most prevalent and venomous snakes in the Caucasus and the surrounding regions, yet the effects of MLO venom on cardiac function remain largely unknown. We examined the influence of MLO venom (crude and with inhibited metalloproteinases and phospholipase A2) on attachment and metabolic activity of rat neonatal cardiomyocytes (CM) and nonmyocytes (nCM), assessed at 1 and 24 h. After exposing both CM and nCM to varying concentrations of MLO venom, we observed immediate cytotoxic effects at a concentration of 100 μg/ml, causing detachment from the culture substrate. At lower MLO venom concentrations both cell types detached in a dose-dependent manner. Inhibition of MLO venom metalloproteinases significantly improved CM and nCM attachment after 1-hour exposure. At 24-hour exposure to metalloproteinases inhibited venom statistically significant enhancement was observed only in nCM attachment. However, metabolic activity of CM and nCM did not decrease upon exposure to the lower dose of the venom. Moreover, we demonstrated that metalloproteinases and phospholipases A2 are not the components of the MLO venom that change metabolic activity of both CM and nCM. These results provide a valuable platform to study the impact of MLO venom on prey cardiac function. They also call for further exploration of individual venom components for pharmaceutical purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hovhannes Arestakesyan
- Orbeli Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences, 22 Orbeli Bros. St., Yerevan 0028, Armenia; Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Narine LeFevre
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Nikki Posnack
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA; Children's National Heart Institute, Sheikh Zayed Institute of Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Arni Sarian
- Orbeli Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences, 22 Orbeli Bros. St., Yerevan 0028, Armenia
| | - Vahan Grigoryan
- Orbeli Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences, 22 Orbeli Bros. St., Yerevan 0028, Armenia
| | - Naira Ayvazyan
- Orbeli Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences, 22 Orbeli Bros. St., Yerevan 0028, Armenia
| | - Armen Voskanyan
- Orbeli Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences, 22 Orbeli Bros. St., Yerevan 0028, Armenia
| | - Narine Sarvazyan
- Orbeli Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences, 22 Orbeli Bros. St., Yerevan 0028, Armenia; Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Zaruhi Karabekian
- Orbeli Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences, 22 Orbeli Bros. St., Yerevan 0028, Armenia; Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA.
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15
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Brasileiro-Martins LM, Cavalcante SA, Nascimento TP, Silva-Neto AV, Mariano Santos MD, Camillo-Andrade AC, da Gama Fischer JDS, Ferreira CC, Oliveira LB, Sartim MA, Costa AG, Pucca MB, Wen FH, Moura-da-Silva AM, Sachett J, Carvalho PC, de Aquino PF, Monteiro WM. Urinary proteomics reveals biological processes related to acute kidney injury in Bothrops atrox envenomings. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0012072. [PMID: 38536893 PMCID: PMC11020875 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0012072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a critical systemic complication caused by Bothrops envenoming, a neglected health problem in the Brazilian Amazon. Understanding the underlying mechanisms leading to AKI is crucial for effectively mitigating the burden of this complication. This study aimed to characterize the urinary protein profile of Bothrops atrox snakebite victims who developed AKI. We analyzed three groups of samples collected on admission: healthy subjects (controls, n = 10), snakebite victims who developed AKI (AKI, n = 10), and those who did not evolve to AKI (No-AKI, n = 10). Using liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, we identified and quantified (label-free) 1190 proteins. A panel of 65 proteins was identified exclusively in the urine of snakebite victims, with 32 exclusives to the AKI condition. Proteins more abundant or exclusive in AKI's urine were associated with acute phase response, endopeptidase inhibition, complement cascade, and inflammation. Notable proteins include serotransferrin, SERPINA-1, alpha-1B-glycoprotein, and NHL repeat-containing protein 3. Furthermore, evaluating previously reported biomarkers candidates for AKI and renal injury, we found retinol-binding protein, beta-2-microglobulin, cystatin-C, and hepcidin to be significant in cases of AKI induced by Bothrops envenoming. This work sheds light on physiological disturbances caused by Bothrops envenoming, highlighting potential biological processes contributing to AKI. Such insights may aid in better understanding and managing this life-threatening complication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisele Maria Brasileiro-Martins
- Department of Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
| | | | - Thaís Pinto Nascimento
- Department of Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
- Leonidas and Maria Deane Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Vilhena Silva-Neto
- Department of Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Marlon Dias Mariano Santos
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Amanda C. Camillo-Andrade
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Curitiba, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Marco Aurelio Sartim
- Department of Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
- Department of Research, Nilton Lins University, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Allyson Guimarães Costa
- Department of Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
- Nursing School, Amazonas Federal University, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Manuela B. Pucca
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University, Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Fan Hui Wen
- Immunopathology Laboratory, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Jacqueline Sachett
- Department of Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- Immunopathology Laboratory, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Paulo Costa Carvalho
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Curitiba, Brazil
| | | | - Wuelton M. Monteiro
- Department of Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
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16
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Damsbo A, Rimbault C, Burlet NJ, Vlamynck A, Bisbo I, Belfakir SB, Laustsen AH, Rivera-de-Torre E. A comparative study of the performance of E. coli and K. phaffii for expressing α-cobratoxin. Toxicon 2024; 239:107613. [PMID: 38218383 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
Three-finger toxins (3FTxs) have traditionally been obtained via venom fractionation of whole venoms from snakes. This method often yields functional toxins, but it can be difficult to obtain pure isoforms, as it is challenging to separate the many different toxins with similar physicochemical properties that generally exist in many venoms. This issue can be circumvented via the use of recombinant expression. However, achieving the correct disulfide bond formation in recombinant toxins is challenging and requires extensive optimization of expression and purification methods to enhance stability and functionality. In this study, we investigated the expression of α-cobratoxin, a well-characterized 3FTx from the monocled cobra (Naja kaouthia), in three different expression systems, namely Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) cells with the csCyDisCo plasmid, Escherichia coli SHuffle cells, and Komagataella phaffii (formerly known as Pichia pastoris). While none of the tested systems yielded α-cobratoxin identical to the variant isolated from whole venom, the His6-tagged α-cobratoxin expressed in K. phaffii exhibited a comparable secondary structure according to circular dichroism spectra and similar binding properties to the α7 subunit of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. The findings presented here illustrate the advantages and limitations of the different expression systems and can help guide researchers who wish to express 3FTxs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Damsbo
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Charlotte Rimbault
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Nick J Burlet
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Anneline Vlamynck
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ida Bisbo
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Selma B Belfakir
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; VenomAid Diagnostics ApS, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
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17
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Modahl CM, Han SX, van Thiel J, Vaz C, Dunstan NL, Frietze S, Jackson TNW, Mackessy SP, Kini RM. Distinct regulatory networks control toxin gene expression in elapid and viperid snakes. BMC Genomics 2024; 25:186. [PMID: 38365592 PMCID: PMC10874052 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-024-10090-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Venom systems are ideal models to study genetic regulatory mechanisms that underpin evolutionary novelty. Snake venom glands are thought to share a common origin, but there are major distinctions between venom toxins from the medically significant snake families Elapidae and Viperidae, and toxin gene regulatory investigations in elapid snakes have been limited. Here, we used high-throughput RNA-sequencing to profile gene expression and microRNAs between active (milked) and resting (unmilked) venom glands in an elapid (Eastern Brown Snake, Pseudonaja textilis), in addition to comparative genomics, to identify cis- and trans-acting regulation of venom production in an elapid in comparison to viperids (Crotalus viridis and C. tigris). RESULTS Although there is conservation in high-level mechanistic pathways regulating venom production (unfolded protein response, Notch signaling and cholesterol homeostasis), there are differences in the regulation of histone methylation enzymes, transcription factors, and microRNAs in venom glands from these two snake families. Histone methyltransferases and transcription factor (TF) specificity protein 1 (Sp1) were highly upregulated in the milked elapid venom gland in comparison to the viperids, whereas nuclear factor I (NFI) TFs were upregulated after viperid venom milking. Sp1 and NFI cis-regulatory elements were common to toxin gene promoter regions, but many unique elements were also present between elapid and viperid toxins. The presence of Sp1 binding sites across multiple elapid toxin gene promoter regions that have been experimentally determined to regulate expression, in addition to upregulation of Sp1 after venom milking, suggests this transcription factor is involved in elapid toxin expression. microRNA profiles were distinctive between milked and unmilked venom glands for both snake families, and microRNAs were predicted to target a diversity of toxin transcripts in the elapid P. textilis venom gland, but only snake venom metalloproteinase transcripts in the viperid C. viridis venom gland. These results suggest differences in toxin gene posttranscriptional regulation between the elapid P. textilis and viperid C. viridis. CONCLUSIONS Our comparative transcriptomic and genomic analyses between toxin genes and isoforms in elapid and viperid snakes suggests independent toxin regulation between these two snake families, demonstrating multiple different regulatory mechanisms underpin a venomous phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra M Modahl
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, U.K..
| | - Summer Xia Han
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Fulcrum Therapeutics, Cambridge, MA, U.S.A
| | - Jory van Thiel
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, U.K
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Candida Vaz
- Human Development, Institute for Clinical Sciences (SICS), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Seth Frietze
- Department of Biomedical and Health Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, U.S.A
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, U.S.A
| | - R Manjunatha Kini
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore, Singapore.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, U.S.A..
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18
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Uko SO, Malami I, Ibrahim KG, Lawal N, Bello MB, Abubakar MB, Imam MU. Revolutionizing snakebite care with novel antivenoms: Breakthroughs and barriers. Heliyon 2024; 10:e25531. [PMID: 38333815 PMCID: PMC10850593 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming (SBE) is a global public health concern, primarily due to the lack of effective antivenom for treating snakebites inflicted by medically significant venomous snakes prevalent across various geographic locations. The rising demand for safe, cost-effective, and potent snakebite treatments highlights the urgent need to develop alternative therapeutics targeting relevant toxins. This development could provide promising discoveries to create novel recombinant solutions, leveraging human monoclonal antibodies, synthetic peptides and nanobodies. Such technologies as recombinant DNA, peptide and epitope mapping phage display etc) have the potential to exceed the traditional use of equine polyclonal antibodies, which have long been used in antivenom production. Recombinant antivenom can be engineered to target certain toxins that play a critical role in snakebite pathology. This approach has the potential to produce antivenom with improved efficacy and safety profiles. However, there are limitations and challenges associated with these emerging technologies. Therefore, identifying the limitations is critical for overcoming the associated challenges and optimizing the development of recombinant antivenoms. This review is aimed at presenting a thorough overview of diverse technologies used in the development of recombinant antivenom, emphasizing their limitations and offering insights into prospects for advancing recombinant antivenoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Odo Uko
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Chemical and Life Sciecnes, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Ibrahim Malami
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Ethnopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Kasimu Ghandi Ibrahim
- Department of Basic Medical and Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, Zarqa University, P. O. Box 2000, Zarqa, 13110, Jordan
| | - Nafiu Lawal
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Muhammad Bashir Bello
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
- Vaccine Development Unit, Infectious Disease Research Department, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Murtala Bello Abubakar
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
- Department of Physiology, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Baze University, Abuja, Nigeria
| | - Mustapha Umar Imam
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria
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19
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Bin Haidar H, Almeida JR, Williams J, Guo B, Bigot A, Senthilkumaran S, Vaiyapuri S, Patel K. Differential effects of the venoms of Russell's viper and Indian cobra on human myoblasts. Sci Rep 2024; 14:3184. [PMID: 38326450 PMCID: PMC10850160 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-53366-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Local tissue damage following snakebite envenoming remains a poorly researched area. To develop better strategies to treat snakebites, it is critical to understand the mechanisms through which venom toxins induce envenomation effects including local tissue damage. Here, we demonstrate how the venoms of two medically important Indian snakes (Russell's viper and cobra) affect human skeletal muscle using a cultured human myoblast cell line. The data suggest that both venoms affect the viability of myoblasts. Russell's viper venom reduced the total number of cells, their migration, and the area of focal adhesions. It also suppressed myogenic differentiation and induced muscle atrophy. While cobra venom decreased the viability, it did not largely affect cell migration and focal adhesions. Cobra venom affected the formation of myotubes and induced atrophy. Cobra venom-induced atrophy could not be reversed by small molecule inhibitors such as varespladib (a phospholipase A2 inhibitor) and prinomastat (a metalloprotease inhibitor), and soluble activin type IIb receptor (a molecule used to promote regeneration of skeletal muscle), although the antivenom (raised against the Indian 'Big Four' snakes) has attenuated the effects. However, all these molecules rescued the myotubes from Russell's viper venom-induced atrophy. This study demonstrates key steps in the muscle regeneration process that are affected by both Indian Russell's viper and cobra venoms and offers insights into the potential causes of clinical features displayed in envenomed victims. Further research is required to investigate the molecular mechanisms of venom-induced myotoxicity under in vivo settings and develop better therapies for snakebite-induced muscle damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Husain Bin Haidar
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, UK
- Kuwait Cancer Control Centre, Ministry of Health, Kuwait City, Kuwait
| | - José R Almeida
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, UK
| | - Jarred Williams
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, UK
| | - Bokai Guo
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, UK
| | - Anne Bigot
- INSERM, CNRS, Institute of Myology, Centre of Research in Myology, Sorbonne Universities, UPMC University Paris, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Ketan Patel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, UK.
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20
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de Oliveira ALN, Lacerda MT, Ramos MJ, Fernandes PA. Viper Venom Phospholipase A2 Database: The Structural and Functional Anatomy of a Primary Toxin in Envenomation. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:71. [PMID: 38393149 PMCID: PMC10893444 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16020071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Viper venom phospholipase A2 enzymes (vvPLA2s) and phospholipase A2-like (PLA2-like) proteins are two of the principal toxins in viper venom that are responsible for the severe myotoxic and neurotoxic effects caused by snakebite envenoming, among other pathologies. As snakebite envenoming is the deadliest neglected tropical disease, a complete understanding of these proteins' properties and their mechanisms of action is urgently needed. Therefore, we created a database comprising information on the holo-form, cofactor-bound 3D structure of 217 vvPLA2 and PLA2-like proteins in their physiologic environment, as well as 79 membrane-bound viper species from 24 genera, which we have made available to the scientific community to accelerate the development of new anti-snakebite drugs. In addition, the analysis of the sequenced, 3D structure of the database proteins reveals essential aspects of the anatomy of the proteins, their toxicity mechanisms, and the conserved binding site areas that may anchor universal interspecific inhibitors. Moreover, it pinpoints hypotheses for the molecular origin of the myotoxicity of the PLA2-like proteins. Altogether, this study provides an understanding of the diversity of these toxins and how they are conserved, and it indicates how to develop broad, interspecies, efficient small-molecule inhibitors to target the toxin's many mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Pedro A. Fernandes
- Requimte-Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-000 Porto, Portugal; (A.L.N.d.O.); (M.T.L.); (M.J.R.)
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21
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Shahdadi S, Hamidi F, Fathi B. The effect of Iranian snake, Naja naja oxiana venom on the blood glucose concentration and some biochemical parameters of experimental diabetic rats. Heliyon 2024; 10:e24436. [PMID: 38288016 PMCID: PMC10823082 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Diabetes is a chronic disease resulting from impaired insulin production and function; leading to hyperglycaemia and long-term complications. The treatment for Type I diabetes treatment involves insulin injections while Type II diabetes treatments include drugs such as metformin and sulfonylureas, along with lifestyle changes. These medicines can be expensive and may have adverse effects. Therefore, the search for new therapeutic agents continues. Venoms from various animals yield numerous pharmacologically active compounds. In this study, we investigated the effects of the venom from an Iranian snake, Naja naja oxiana, on blood glucose concentration and certain serum biochemical parameters in male rats with induced diabetes. Diabetes was induced in male rats using either a single injection of streptozotocin (STZ) alone (55 mg/kg i. p.) or STZ (65 mg/kg i. p.) preceded by nicotinamide (230/kg i. p.) administered 15 min earlier. The diabetic rats produced by either method received a single injection of either vehicle or venom (0.2 or 0.4 mg/kg i. p.). In the STZ rats, this was done 13 days after diabetes induction, while in the STZ-nicotinamide rats, venom was injected 3 days after diabetes induction. The venom from Naja naja oxiana significantly reduced blood glucose levels in male rats with diabetes induced by either method. Additionally, the venom decreased serum cholesterol and triglycerides concentrations. However, the venom had no effect on the blood glucose levels of healthy male rats. Pretreatment with the venom did not prevent the induction of diabetes by STZ. These findings suggest that Naja naja oxiana venom exhibits an anti-diabetic effect and could be a potential candidate for effectively controlling diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiva Shahdadi
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Farshid Hamidi
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Behrooz Fathi
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
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22
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Dingwoke EJ, Adamude FA, Salihu A, Abubakar MS, Sallau AB. Toxicological analyses of the venoms of Nigerian vipers Echis ocellatus and Bitis arietans. Trop Med Health 2024; 52:15. [PMID: 38282015 PMCID: PMC10823708 DOI: 10.1186/s41182-024-00581-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Among the medically important snakes in Nigeria, Echis ocellatus and Bitis arietans have the most lethal venom. These venoms were classified according to the presence of snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), snake venom phospholipase A2 (PLA2s), and snake venom serine proteases (SVSPs). Toxicological analyzes were performed to understand the significance of different protein families in venoms. METHODS Proteins were separated from venom using column chromatography. The skin and footpad of mice were used to determine hemorrhagic and edematogenic activities. Caprine blood plasma was used to test fibrinolytic activity in vitro. RESULTS The results showed that, compared to the crude venom, the SVMP fraction induced hemorrhagic effects with a diameter of 26.00 ± 1.00 mm in E. ocellatus and 21.33 ± 1.52 mm in B. arietans. Both SVSP and SVMP had anticoagulant effects; however, the SVSP fraction had a stronger effect, with a longer anticoagulation time of 30.00 ± 3.00 min in E. ocellatus and 26.00 ± 2.00 min in B. arietans. These main venom toxins, SVMPs, SVSPs, and PLA2, were found to have edema-forming effects that were optimal at 2 h after envenomation. PLA2s had the highest edema-inducing activity, with onset 30 min after envenomation. CONCLUSIONS Given the importance of SVMPs in altering the integrity of the membrane structure and impairing the blood coagulation system, an antivenom that can specifically neutralize its activity could inhibit the hemorrhage effects of the venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emeka John Dingwoke
- Department of Tropical Diseases, UNESCO-International Center for Biotechnology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria.
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
| | - Fatima Adis Adamude
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Federal University, Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Aliyu Salihu
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Mujitaba Suleiman Abubakar
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Drug Development, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Abdullahi Balarabe Sallau
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
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23
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McFarlane LO, Pukala TL. Proteomic Investigation of Cape Cobra ( Naja nivea) Venom Reveals First Evidence of Quaternary Protein Structures. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:63. [PMID: 38393141 PMCID: PMC10892407 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16020063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Naja nivea (N. nivea) is classed as a category one snake by the World Health Organization since its envenomation causes high levels of mortality and disability annually. Despite this, there has been little research into the venom composition of N. nivea, with only one full venom proteome published to date. Our current study separated N. nivea venom using size exclusion chromatography before utilizing a traditional bottom-up proteomics approach to unravel the composition of the venom proteome. As expected by its clinical presentation, N. nivea venom was found to consist mainly of neurotoxins, with three-finger toxins (3FTx), making up 76.01% of the total venom proteome. Additionally, cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), vespryns (VESPs), cobra venom factors (CVFs), 5'-nucleotidases (5'NUCs), nerve growth factors (NGFs), phospholipase A2s (PLA2), acetylcholinesterases (AChEs), Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitor (KUN), phosphodiesterases (PDEs), L-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs), hydrolases (HYDs), snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), and snake venom serine protease (SVSP) toxins were also identified in decreasing order of abundance. Interestingly, contrary to previous reports, we find PLA2 toxins in N. nivea venom. This highlights the importance of repeatedly profiling the venom of the same species to account for intra-species variation. Additionally, we report the first evidence of covalent protein complexes in N. nivea venom, which likely contribute to the potency of this venom.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tara L. Pukala
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia;
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24
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Clare RH, Dawson CA, Westhorpe A, Albulescu LO, Woodley CM, Mosallam N, Chong DJW, Kool J, Berry NG, O’Neill PM, Casewell NR. Snakebite drug discovery: high-throughput screening to identify novel snake venom metalloproteinase toxin inhibitors. Front Pharmacol 2024; 14:1328950. [PMID: 38273820 PMCID: PMC10808794 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1328950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming results in ∼100,000 deaths per year, with close to four times as many victims left with life-long sequelae. Current antivenom therapies have several limitations including high cost, variable cross-snake species efficacy and a requirement for intravenous administration in a clinical setting. Next-generation snakebite therapies are being widely investigated with the aim to improve cost, efficacy, and safety. In recent years several small molecule drugs have shown considerable promise for snakebite indication, with oral bioavailability particularly promising for community delivery rapidly after a snakebite. However, only two such drugs have entered clinical development for snakebite. To offset the risk of attrition during clinical trials and to better explore the chemical space for small molecule venom toxin inhibitors, here we describe the first high throughput drug screen against snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs)-a pathogenic toxin family responsible for causing haemorrhage and coagulopathy. Following validation of a 384-well fluorescent enzymatic assay, we screened a repurposed drug library of 3,547 compounds against five geographically distinct and toxin variable snake venoms. Our drug screen resulted in the identification of 14 compounds with pan-species inhibitory activity. Following secondary potency testing, four SVMP inhibitors were identified with nanomolar EC50s comparable to the previously identified matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor marimastat and superior to the metal chelator dimercaprol, doubling the current global portfolio of SVMP inhibitors. Following analysis of their chemical structure and ADME properties, two hit-to-lead compounds were identified. These clear starting points for the initiation of medicinal chemistry campaigns provide the basis for the first ever designer snakebite specific small molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel H. Clare
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Charlotte A. Dawson
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Westhorpe
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | | | - Nada Mosallam
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel J. W. Chong
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Neil G. Berry
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Paul M. O’Neill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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25
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Albulescu LO, Westhorpe A, Clare RH, Woodley CM, James N, Kool J, Berry NG, O’Neill PM, Casewell NR. Optimizing drug discovery for snakebite envenoming via a high-throughput phospholipase A2 screening platform. Front Pharmacol 2024; 14:1331224. [PMID: 38273832 PMCID: PMC10808766 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1331224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that causes as many as 1.8 million envenomings and 140,000 deaths annually. To address treatment limitations that exist with current antivenoms, the search for small molecule drug-based inhibitors that can be administered as early interventions has recently gained traction. Snake venoms are complex mixtures of proteins, peptides and small molecules and their composition varies substantially between and within snake species. The phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are one of the main pathogenic toxin classes found in medically important viper and elapid snake venoms, yet varespladib, a drug originally developed for the treatment of acute coronary syndrome, remains the only PLA2 inhibitor shown to effectively neutralise venom toxicity in vitro and in vivo, resulting in an extremely limited drug portfolio. Here, we describe a high-throughput drug screen to identify novel PLA2 inhibitors for repurposing as snakebite treatments. We present method optimisation of a 384-well plate, colorimetric, high-throughput screening assay that allowed for a throughput of ∼2,800 drugs per day, and report on the screening of a ∼3,500 post-phase I repurposed drug library against the venom of the Russell's viper, Daboia russelii. We further explore the broad-spectrum inhibitory potential and efficacy of the resulting top hits against a range of medically important snake venoms and demonstrate the utility of our method in determining drug EC50s. Collectively, our findings support the future application of this method to fully explore the chemical space to discover novel PLA2-inhibiting drugs of value for preventing severe pathology caused by snakebite envenoming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Westhorpe
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel H. Clare
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | | | - Nivya James
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Neil G. Berry
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Paul M. O’Neill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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26
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Miyamoto JG, Kitano ES, Zelanis A, Nachtigall PG, Junqueira-de-Azevedo I, Sant'Anna SS, Lauria da Silva R, Bersanetti PA, Carmona AK, Barbosa Pereira PJ, Serrano SMT, Vilela Oliva ML, Tashima AK. A novel metalloproteinase-derived cryptide from Bothrops cotiara venom inhibits angiotensin-converting enzyme activity. Biochimie 2024; 216:90-98. [PMID: 37839625 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2023.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
Snake venoms are primarily composed of proteins and peptides, which selectively interact with specific molecular targets, disrupting prey homeostasis. Identifying toxins and the mechanisms involved in envenoming can lead to the discovery of new drugs based on natural peptide scaffolds. In this study, we used mass spectrometry-based peptidomics to sequence 197 peptides in the venom of Bothrops cotiara, including a novel 7-residue peptide derived from a snake venom metalloproteinase. This peptide, named Bc-7a, features a pyroglutamic acid at the N-terminal and a PFR motif at the C-terminal, homologous to bradykinin. Using FRET (fluorescence resonance energy transfer) substrate assays, we demonstrated that Bc-7a strongly inhibits the two domains of angiotensin converting enzyme (Ki < 1 μM). Our findings contribute to the repertoire of biologically active peptides from snake venoms capable of inhibiting angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), beyond current known structural motifs and precursors. In summary, we report a novel snake venom peptide with ACE inhibitory activity, suggesting its potential contribution to the hypotensive effect observed in envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackson Gabriel Miyamoto
- Department of Biochemistry, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Shigueo Kitano
- Laboratory of Applied Toxinology, Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling, Butantan Institute, SP, 05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - André Zelanis
- Functional Proteomics Laboratory, Department of Science and Technology, Federal University of São Paulo (ICT-UNIFESP), São José dos Campos, Brazil
| | - Pedro Gabriel Nachtigall
- Laboratory of Applied Toxinology, Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling, Butantan Institute, SP, 05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Inácio Junqueira-de-Azevedo
- Laboratory of Applied Toxinology, Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling, Butantan Institute, SP, 05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Rogério Lauria da Silva
- Department of Biophysics, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Pedro José Barbosa Pereira
- IBMC - Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal; i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
| | - Solange M T Serrano
- Laboratory of Applied Toxinology, Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling, Butantan Institute, SP, 05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Luiza Vilela Oliva
- Department of Biochemistry, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Keiji Tashima
- Department of Biochemistry, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
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27
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D’Este G, Fabris F, Stazi M, Baggio C, Simonato M, Megighian A, Rigoni M, Negro S, Montecucco C. Agonists of melatonin receptors strongly promote the functional recovery from the neuroparalysis induced by neurotoxic snakes. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0011825. [PMID: 38190386 PMCID: PMC10798625 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Snake envenoming is a major, but neglected, tropical disease. Among venomous snakes, those inducing neurotoxicity such as kraits (Bungarus genus) cause a potentially lethal peripheral neuroparalysis with respiratory deficit in a large number of people each year. In order to prevent the development of a deadly respiratory paralysis, hospitalization with pulmonary ventilation and use of antivenoms are the primary therapies currently employed. However, hospitals are frequently out of reach for envenomated patients and there is a general consensus that additional, non-expensive treatments, deliverable even long after the snake bite, are needed. Traumatic or toxic degenerations of peripheral motor neurons cause a neuroparalysis that activates a pro-regenerative intercellular signaling program taking place at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). We recently reported that the intercellular signaling axis melatonin-melatonin receptor 1 (MT1) plays a major role in the recovery of function of the NMJs after degeneration of motor axon terminals caused by massive Ca2+ influx. Here we show that the small chemical MT1 agonists: Ramelteon and Agomelatine, already licensed for the treatment of insomnia and depression, respectively, are strong promoters of the neuroregeneration after paralysis induced by krait venoms in mice, which is also Ca2+ mediated. The venom from a Bungarus species representative of the large class of neurotoxic snakes (including taipans, coral snakes, some Alpine vipers in addition to other kraits) was chosen. The functional recovery of the NMJ was demonstrated using electrophysiological, imaging and lung ventilation detection methods. According to the present results, we propose that Ramelteon and Agomelatine should be tested in human patients bitten by neurotoxic snakes acting presynaptically to promote their recovery of health. Noticeably, these drugs are commercially available, safe, non-expensive, have a long bench life and can be administered long after a snakebite even in places far away from health facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia D’Este
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Federico Fabris
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Marco Stazi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Chiara Baggio
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Aram Megighian
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Padua Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Michela Rigoni
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Myology Center (CIR-Myo), University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Samuele Negro
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- U.O.C. Clinica Neurologica, Azienda Ospedale-Università Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience, Padova, Italy
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Chamboko T, Love J, Strydom MA, Bester J. Exploring the ex vivo effects of Naja mossambica venom on the ultrastructure and viscoelastic properties of human blood. Res Pract Thromb Haemost 2024; 8:102294. [PMID: 38292349 PMCID: PMC10826811 DOI: 10.1016/j.rpth.2023.102294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Venomous snake bites have been listed as a neglected tropical disease by the World Health Organization. The Mozambique spitting cobra (Naja mossambica) is found in Sub-Saharan African countries, and its venom has been identified to predominantly result in cytotoxic effects. However, there is limited evidence on the possible hemotoxic effects of this venom on human blood. Objectives In this cross-sectional study, we investigated how Mozambique spitting cobra venom affects blood clot formation. Methods Cell morphology and clot architecture were studied by using microscopy techniques. We also studied the effects of the venom on platelets by measuring platelet activity with the global thrombosis test, followed by analyzing the viscoelasticity with thromboelastography using a 0.025 ng/μL venom concentration. Results The most prominent findings indicated that the viscoelastic profile in the venom-treated blood samples formed an unstable and elastic clot. The clot architecture seen with the scanning electron microscopy analysis showed an altered fibrin network and red blood cells, confirmed by the increased axial ratios, and aggregated platelets with spreading. Conclusion These findings may offer insights into the species-specific effects of snake venom on human blood and add value to the clinical workup in confirming envenomation. Further research is needed to correlate the 20 minute whole blood clotting test with measurable values from the thromboelastography within the context of snake envenomation. This may offer a bridge between cost, early diagnosis, and treatment of snake envenomation in resource-constrained countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanyaradzwa Chamboko
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Jenna Love
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Morné A. Strydom
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Janette Bester
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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Xu C, Hutchins ED, Eckalbar W, Pendarvis K, Benson DM, Lake DF, McCarthy FM, Kusumi K. Comparative proteomic analysis of tail regeneration in the green anole lizard, Anolis carolinensis. NATURAL SCIENCES (WEINHEIM, GERMANY) 2024; 4:e20210421. [PMID: 38505006 PMCID: PMC10947082 DOI: 10.1002/ntls.20210421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
As amniote vertebrates, lizards are the most closely related organisms to humans capable of appendage regeneration. Lizards can autotomize, or release their tails as a means of predator evasion, and subsequently regenerate a functional replacement. Green anoles (Anolis carolinensis) can regenerate their tails through a process that involves differential expression of hundreds of genes, which has previously been analyzed by transcriptomic and microRNA analysis. To investigate protein expression in regenerating tissue, we performed whole proteomic analysis of regenerating tail tip and base. This is the first proteomic data set available for any anole lizard. We identified a total of 2,646 proteins - 976 proteins only in the regenerating tail base, 796 only in the tail tip, and 874 in both tip and base. For over 90% of these proteins in these tissues, we were able to assign a clear orthology to gene models in either the Ensembl or NCBI databases. For 13 proteins in the tail base, 9 proteins in the tail tip, and 10 proteins in both regions, the gene model in Ensembl and NCBI matched an uncharacterized protein, confirming that these predictions are present in the proteome. Ontology and pathways analysis of proteins expressed in the regenerating tail base identified categories including actin filament-based process, ncRNA metabolism, regulation of phosphatase activity, small GTPase mediated signal transduction, and cellular component organization or biogenesis. Analysis of proteins expressed in the tail tip identified categories including regulation of organelle organization, regulation of protein localization, ubiquitin-dependent protein catabolism, small GTPase mediated signal transduction, morphogenesis of epithelium, and regulation of biological quality. These proteomic findings confirm pathways and gene families activated in tail regeneration in the green anole as well as identify uncharacterized proteins whose role in regrowth remains to be revealed. This study demonstrates the insights that are possible from the integration of proteomic and transcriptomic data in tail regrowth in the green anole, with potentially broader application to studies in other regenerative models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Xu
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Elizabeth D. Hutchins
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
- Current addresses: Translational Genomics Research Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Walter Eckalbar
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
- Current addresses: School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Ken Pendarvis
- Department of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Derek M. Benson
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Douglas F. Lake
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Fiona M. McCarthy
- Department of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Kenro Kusumi
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
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30
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Phan P, Deshwal A, McMahon TA, Slikas M, Andrews E, Becker B, Kumar TKS. A Review of Rattlesnake Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 16:2. [PMID: 38276526 PMCID: PMC10818703 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Venom components are invaluable in biomedical research owing to their specificity and potency. Many of these components exist in two genera of rattlesnakes, Crotalus and Sistrurus, with high toxicity and proteolytic activity variation. This review focuses on venom components within rattlesnakes, and offers a comparison and itemized list of factors dictating venom composition, as well as presenting their known characteristics, activities, and significant applications in biosciences. There are 64 families and subfamilies of proteins present in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Snake venom serine proteases (SVSP), snake venom metalloproteases (SVMP), and phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are the standard components in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Through this review, we highlight gaps in the knowledge of rattlesnake venom; there needs to be more information on the venom composition of three Crotalus species and one Sistrurus subspecies. We discuss the activity and importance of both major and minor components in biomedical research and drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phuc Phan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA;
| | - Anant Deshwal
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Tyler Anthony McMahon
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Matthew Slikas
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Elodie Andrews
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Brian Becker
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA;
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Hall SR, Rasmussen SA, Crittenden E, Dawson CA, Bartlett KE, Westhorpe AP, Albulescu LO, Kool J, Gutiérrez JM, Casewell NR. Repurposed drugs and their combinations prevent morbidity-inducing dermonecrosis caused by diverse cytotoxic snake venoms. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7812. [PMID: 38097534 PMCID: PMC10721902 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43510-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Morbidity from snakebite envenoming affects approximately 400,000 people annually. Tissue damage at the bite-site often leaves victims with catastrophic life-long injuries and is largely untreatable by current antivenoms. Repurposed small molecule drugs that inhibit specific snake venom toxins show considerable promise for tackling this neglected tropical disease. Using human skin cell assays as an initial model for snakebite-induced dermonecrosis, we show that the drugs 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS), marimastat, and varespladib, alone or in combination, inhibit the cytotoxicity of a broad range of medically important snake venoms. Thereafter, using preclinical mouse models of dermonecrosis, we demonstrate that the dual therapeutic combinations of DMPS or marimastat with varespladib significantly inhibit the dermonecrotic activity of geographically distinct and medically important snake venoms, even when the drug combinations are delivered one hour after envenoming. These findings strongly support the future translation of repurposed drug combinations as broad-spectrum therapeutics for preventing morbidity caused by snakebite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven R Hall
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
- Centre for Drugs & Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Sean A Rasmussen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre and Dalhousie University, 7th Floor of MacKenzie Building, 5788 University Avenue, Halifax, NS, B3H 1V8, Canada
| | - Edouard Crittenden
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Charlotte A Dawson
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Keirah E Bartlett
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Adam P Westhorpe
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
- Centre for Drugs & Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, PO Box 11501-2060, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.
- Centre for Drugs & Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.
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Pereira AFM, Cavalcante JS, Angstmam DG, Almeida C, Soares GS, Pucca MB, Ferreira Junior RS. Unveiling the Pain Relief Potential: Harnessing Analgesic Peptides from Animal Venoms. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2766. [PMID: 38140106 PMCID: PMC10748172 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15122766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The concept of pain encompasses a complex interplay of sensory and emotional experiences associated with actual or potential tissue damage. Accurately describing and localizing pain, whether acute or chronic, mild or severe, poses a challenge due to its diverse manifestations. Understanding the underlying origins and mechanisms of these pain variations is crucial for effective management and pharmacological interventions. Derived from a wide spectrum of species, including snakes, arthropods, mollusks, and vertebrates, animal venoms have emerged as abundant repositories of potential biomolecules exhibiting analgesic properties across a broad spectrum of pain models. This review focuses on highlighting the most promising venom-derived toxins investigated as potential prototypes for analgesic drugs. The discussion further encompasses research prospects, challenges in advancing analgesics, and the practical application of venom-derived toxins. As the field continues its evolution, tapping into the latent potential of these natural bioactive compounds holds the key to pioneering approaches in pain management and treatment. Therefore, animal toxins present countless possibilities for treating pain caused by different diseases. The development of new analgesic drugs from toxins is one of the directions that therapy must follow, and it seems to be moving forward by recommending the composition of multimodal therapy to combat pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Flávia Marques Pereira
- Center for the Study of Venoms and Venomous Animals (CEVAP), São Paulo State University (UNESP—Univ Estadual Paulista), Botucatu 01419-901, SP, Brazil;
| | - Joeliton S. Cavalcante
- Graduate Program in Tropical Diseases, Botucatu Medical School (FMB), São Paulo State University (UNESP—Univ Estadual Paulista), Botucatu 01419-901, SP, Brazil; (J.S.C.); (D.G.A.)
| | - Davi Gomes Angstmam
- Graduate Program in Tropical Diseases, Botucatu Medical School (FMB), São Paulo State University (UNESP—Univ Estadual Paulista), Botucatu 01419-901, SP, Brazil; (J.S.C.); (D.G.A.)
| | - Cayo Almeida
- Center of Mathematics, Computing Sciences and Cognition, Federal University of ABC, Santo André 09280-560, SP, Brazil;
| | - Gean S. Soares
- Delphina Rinaldi Abdel Azil Hospital and Emergency Room (HPSDRAA), Manaus 69093-415, AM, Brazil;
| | - Manuela B. Pucca
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University, Araraquara 14801-320, SP, Brazil;
| | - Rui Seabra Ferreira Junior
- Center for the Study of Venoms and Venomous Animals (CEVAP), São Paulo State University (UNESP—Univ Estadual Paulista), Botucatu 01419-901, SP, Brazil;
- Graduate Program in Tropical Diseases, Botucatu Medical School (FMB), São Paulo State University (UNESP—Univ Estadual Paulista), Botucatu 01419-901, SP, Brazil; (J.S.C.); (D.G.A.)
- Center for Translational Science and Development of Biopharmaceuticals FAPESP/CEVAP, São Paulo State University (UNESP—Univ Estadual Paulista), Botucatu 01419-901, SP, Brazil
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33
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Palermo G, Schouten WM, Alonso LL, Ulens C, Kool J, Slagboom J. Acetylcholine-Binding Protein Affinity Profiling of Neurotoxins in Snake Venoms with Parallel Toxin Identification. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16769. [PMID: 38069093 PMCID: PMC10706727 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242316769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Snakebite is considered a concerning issue and a neglected tropical disease. Three-finger toxins (3FTxs) in snake venoms primarily cause neurotoxic effects since they have high affinity for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Their small molecular size makes 3FTxs weakly immunogenic and therefore not appropriately targeted by current antivenoms. This study aims at presenting and applying an analytical method for investigating the therapeutic potential of the acetylcholine-binding protein (AChBP), an efficient nAChR mimic that can capture 3FTxs, for alternative treatment of elapid snakebites. In this analytical methodology, snake venom toxins were separated and characterised using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) and high-throughput venomics. By subsequent nanofractionation analytics, binding profiling of toxins to the AChBP was achieved with a post-column plate reader-based fluorescence-enhancement ligand displacement bioassay. The integrated method was established and applied to profiling venoms of six elapid snakes (Naja mossambica, Ophiophagus hannah, Dendroaspis polylepis, Naja kaouthia, Naja haje and Bungarus multicinctus). The methodology demonstrated that the AChBP is able to effectively bind long-chain 3FTxs with relatively high affinity, but has low or no binding affinity towards short-chain 3FTxs, and as such provides an efficient analytical platform to investigate binding affinity of 3FTxs to the AChBP and mutants thereof and to rapidly identify bound toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Palermo
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (G.P.); (W.M.S.); (L.L.A.)
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wietse M. Schouten
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (G.P.); (W.M.S.); (L.L.A.)
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luis Lago Alonso
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (G.P.); (W.M.S.); (L.L.A.)
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Chris Ulens
- Laboratory of Structural Neurobiology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (G.P.); (W.M.S.); (L.L.A.)
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Julien Slagboom
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (G.P.); (W.M.S.); (L.L.A.)
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Abu Aisheh M, Kayili HM, Numanoglu Cevik Y, Kanat MA, Salih B. Composition characterization of various viperidae snake venoms using MS-based proteomics N-glycoproteomics and N-glycomics. Toxicon 2023; 235:107328. [PMID: 37884129 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Viperidae snake species is widely abundant and responsible for most envenomation cases in Turkey. The structural and compositional profiles of snake venom have been investigated to study the venom component variation across different species and to profile the venom biological activity variation against prey. In this context, we used proteomics, glycoproteomics and glycomics strategies to characterize the protein, glycoproteins and glycan structural and compositional profiles of various snake venoms in the Viperidae family. Moreover, we compared these profiles using the downstream bioinformatics and machine learning classification modules. The overall mass spectrometry profiles identified 144 different proteins, 36 glycoproteins and 78 distinct N-glycan structures varying in composition across the five venoms. A high amount of the characterized proteins belongs to the glycosylated protein family Trypsin-like serine protease (Tryp_SPc), Disintegrin (DISIN), and ADAM Cysteine-Rich (ACR). Most identified N-glycans have a complex chain carrying galactosylated N-glycans abundantly. The glycan composition data obtained from glycoproteomics aligns consistently with the findings from glycomics. The clustering and principal component analyses (PCA) illustrated the composition-based similarities and differences between each snake venom species' proteome, glycoproteome and glycan profiles. Specifically, the N-glycan profiles of M. xanthina (Mx) and V. a. ammodytes (Vaa) venoms were identical and difficult to differentiate; in contrast, their proteome profiles were distinct. Interestingly, the variety of the proteins across the species highlighted the impact of glycosylation on the diversity of the glycosylated protein families. This proposed high throughput approach provides accurate and comprehensive profiles of the composition and function of various Viperidae snake venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwa Abu Aisheh
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Hacettepe University, 06800, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Haci Mehmet Kayili
- Department of Medical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Karabük University, 78000, Karabük, Turkey
| | - Yasemin Numanoglu Cevik
- Microbiology Reference Laboratory, Turkish Public Health Institute, Ministery of Health, 06430, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Ali Kanat
- Microbiology and Reference Laboratory and Biological Products Department, General Directorate of Public Health, Minister of Health, 06430, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Bekir Salih
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Hacettepe University, 06800, Ankara, Turkey.
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Messadi E. Snake Venom Components as Therapeutic Drugs in Ischemic Heart Disease. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1539. [PMID: 37892221 PMCID: PMC10605524 DOI: 10.3390/biom13101539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Ischemic heart disease (IHD), especially myocardial infarction (MI), is a leading cause of death worldwide. Although coronary reperfusion is the most straightforward treatment for limiting the MI size, it has nevertheless been shown to exacerbate ischemic myocardial injury. Therefore, identifying and developing therapeutic strategies to treat IHD is a major medical challenge. Snake venoms contain biologically active proteins and peptides that are of major interest for pharmacological applications in the cardiovascular system (CVS). This has led to their use for the development and design of new drugs, such as the first-in-class angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor captopril, developed from a peptide present in Bothrops jararaca snake venom. This review discusses the potential usefulness of snake venom toxins for developing effective treatments against IHD and related diseases such as hypertension and atherosclerosis. It describes their biological effects at the molecular scale, their mechanisms of action according to their different pharmacological properties, as well as their subsequent molecular pathways and therapeutic targets. The molecules reported here have either been approved for human medical use and are currently available on the drug market or are still in the clinical or preclinical developmental stages. The information summarized here may be useful in providing insights into the development of future snake venom-derived drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erij Messadi
- Plateforme de Physiologie et Physiopathologie Cardiovasculaires (P2C), Laboratoire des Biomolécules, Venins et Applications Théranostiques (LR20IPT01), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Université Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1068, Tunisia
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Larréché S, Bousquet A, Chevillard L, Gahoual R, Jourdi G, Dupart AL, Bachelot-Loza C, Gaussem P, Siguret V, Chippaux JP, Mégarbane B. Bothrops atrox and Bothrops lanceolatus Venoms In Vitro Investigation: Composition, Procoagulant Effects, Co-Factor Dependency, and Correction Using Antivenoms. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:614. [PMID: 37888645 PMCID: PMC10611193 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15100614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Bothrops venoms are rich in enzymes acting on platelets and coagulation. This action is dependent on two major co-factors, i.e., calcium and phospholipids, while antivenoms variably neutralize venom-related coagulopathy effects. Our aims were (i) to describe the composition of B. atrox and B. lanceolatus venoms; (ii) to study their activity on the whole blood using rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM); (iii) to evaluate the contribution of calcium and phospholipids in their activity; and (iv) to compare the effectiveness of four antivenoms (Bothrofav™, Inoserp™ South America, Antivipmyn™ TRI, and PoliVal-ICP™) on the procoagulant activity of these two venoms. Venom composition was comparable. Both venoms exhibited hypercoagulant effects. B. lanceolatus venom was completely dependent on calcium but less dependent on phospholipids than B. atrox venom to induce in vitro coagulation. The four antivenoms neutralized the procoagulant activity of the two venoms; however, with quantitative differences. Bothrofav™ was more effective against both venoms than the three other antivenoms. The relatively similar venom-induced effects in vitro were unexpected considering the opposite clinical manifestations resulting from envenomation (i.e., systemic bleeding with B. atrox and thrombosis with B. lanceolatus). In vivo studies are warranted to better understand the pathophysiology of systemic bleeding and thrombosis associated with Bothrops bites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Larréché
- Inserm, UMRS-1144, Université Paris Cité, F-75006 Paris, France;
- Department of Medical Biology, Bégin Military Teaching Hospital, F-94160 Saint-Mandé, France; (A.B.); (A.-L.D.)
| | - Aurore Bousquet
- Department of Medical Biology, Bégin Military Teaching Hospital, F-94160 Saint-Mandé, France; (A.B.); (A.-L.D.)
| | - Lucie Chevillard
- Inserm, UMRS-1144, Université Paris Cité, F-75006 Paris, France;
| | - Rabah Gahoual
- Chemical and Biological Technologies for Health Unit, CNRS UMR 8258, Inserm, Université Paris Cité, F-75006 Paris, France;
| | - Georges Jourdi
- Innovative Therapies in Hemostasis, Inserm, Université Paris Cité, F-75006 Paris, France; (G.J.); (C.B.-L.); (P.G.); (V.S.)
- Department of Biological Hematology, Lariboisière Hospital, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, F-75010 Paris, France
| | - Anne-Laure Dupart
- Department of Medical Biology, Bégin Military Teaching Hospital, F-94160 Saint-Mandé, France; (A.B.); (A.-L.D.)
| | - Christilla Bachelot-Loza
- Innovative Therapies in Hemostasis, Inserm, Université Paris Cité, F-75006 Paris, France; (G.J.); (C.B.-L.); (P.G.); (V.S.)
| | - Pascale Gaussem
- Innovative Therapies in Hemostasis, Inserm, Université Paris Cité, F-75006 Paris, France; (G.J.); (C.B.-L.); (P.G.); (V.S.)
- Department of Hematology, Georges Pompidou European Hospital, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Virginie Siguret
- Innovative Therapies in Hemostasis, Inserm, Université Paris Cité, F-75006 Paris, France; (G.J.); (C.B.-L.); (P.G.); (V.S.)
- Department of Biological Hematology, Lariboisière Hospital, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, F-75010 Paris, France
| | - Jean-Philippe Chippaux
- French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development, Université Paris Cité, F-75006 Paris, France;
| | - Bruno Mégarbane
- Inserm, UMRS-1144, Université Paris Cité, F-75006 Paris, France;
- Department of Medical and Toxicological Critical Care, Federation of Toxicology, Lariboisière Hospital, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, F-75010 Paris, France
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da Silva WRGB, de Siqueira Santos L, Lira D, de Oliveira Luna KP, Fook SML, Alves RRN. Who are the most affected by Bothrops snakebite envenoming in Brazil? A Clinical-epidemiological profile study among the regions of the country. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011708. [PMID: 37856557 PMCID: PMC10617728 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming represents an important Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) that mainly affects tropical and subtropical developing countries according to the World Health Organization (WHO). As a priority issue in the tropics, it is estimated that accidental encounter between snakes and humans is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality among all NTDs in the world. In Brazil, an extremely diverse country with continental dimensions, snakebite envenoming is the second leading cause of reported human envenoming. Treating the disease has been an unprecedented challenge for Brazilian Health Systems for decades. Despite access to Antivenom therapy and distributing it free of charge across the country, Brazil faces numerous issues regarding the notification process and accurate treatment targeting for at-risk populations. Thus, this study aimed to identify the temporal epidemiological dynamics of accidents caused by Bothrops snakes in Brazil, the country's major group of venomous snakes, based on secondary information from the online database provided by The Brazilian Notifiable Diseases Information System (SINAN). For this purpose, reported Bothrops snakebites between 2012 and 2021 were counted, then the data were analyzed. We looked at the frequency, occurrence, mortality rates, case fatality rate (CFR), age and gender distribution, and the time lapse between the incident and the initiation of Antivenom therapy. The data were also organized considering regional variations of the country. Throughout the studied period, a total of 202,604 cases of envenoming caused by Bothrops spp. were notified, resulting in 766 fatalities. These accidents were found to occur in variable proportions across different regions in Brazil, with notable concentrations observed in the North, Northeast, and Southeast regions. The epidemiological profile of patients varied greatly between the regions, revealing that snake envenoming is much more a social, economic, and ecological problem than a medical one. In conclusion, our study provides an overview of the clinical and epidemiological profile of envenoming by Bothrops snakes in Brazil. Notably, this is the first study to present such information in a country as vast and diverse as Brazil, encompassing a comparative analysis of its regions using SINAN data, that proves to be a very useful national tool to improve the control and management of envenoming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weslley Ruan Guimarães Borges da Silva
- Department of Biology, Center of Biological and Health Sciences, Paraíba State University, Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Bioinformatics, Department of Biophysics and Pharmacology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
| | - Lucas de Siqueira Santos
- Graduate Program in Geodetic Sciences and Geoinformation Technologies, Department of Cartographic Engineering, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Derick Lira
- Department of Biology, Center of Biological and Health Sciences, Paraíba State University, Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Department of Biology, Paraíba State University, Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Karla Patrícia de Oliveira Luna
- Department of Biology, Center of Biological and Health Sciences, Paraíba State University, Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Science Teaching and Mathematics Education, Department of Biology, Paraíba State University, Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, Department of Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Sayonara Maria Lia Fook
- Graduate Program in Public Health, Department of Pharmacy, State University of Paraíba, Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves
- Department of Biology, Center of Biological and Health Sciences, Paraíba State University, Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Department of Biology, Paraíba State University, Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Ethnobiology and Nature Conservation, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
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Luo P, Ji Y, Liu X, Zhang W, Cheng R, Zhang S, Qian X, Huang C. Affected inflammation-related signaling pathways in snake envenomation: A recent insight. Toxicon 2023; 234:107288. [PMID: 37703930 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/09/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
Snake envenomation is well known to cause grievous pathological signs, including haemorrhagic discharge, necrosis, and respiratory distress. However, inflammatory reactions are also common envenoming manifestations that lead to successive damage, such as oedema, ulceration, lymphadenectasis, systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and even multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Interference with the inflammatory burst is hence important in the clinical treatment of snake envenomation. Here, we summarize the typical snake toxins (or venoms) that cause inflammatory reactions and the underlying signaling pathways. In brief, inflammatory reactions are usually triggered by snake venom phospholipase A2 (svPLA2), snake venom metalloprotease (SVMP), snake venom serine protease (SVSP) and C-type lectin/snaclec (CTL) as well as disintegrin (DIS) via multiple signaling pathways. They are nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat and pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3), nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT) and phosphoinositide 3-Kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/PKB also called PI3K-AKT) signaling pathways. Activation of these pathways promotes the expression of pro-inflammatory molecules such as cytokines, especially interleukin-1β (IL-1β) which causes further inflammatory cascades and manifestations, such as swelling, fever, pain, and severe complications. Remarkably, almost half of introduced snake toxins (or venoms) have anti-inflammatory effects through blocking these pathways and suppressing the expression of pro-inflammatory molecules. Investigation of affected inflammation-related signaling pathways is meaningful to achieve better clinical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peiyi Luo
- Queen Mary School, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330000, PR China.
| | - Yuxin Ji
- Queen Mary School, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330000, PR China.
| | - Xiaohan Liu
- Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, Jiangxi, PR China.
| | - Weiyun Zhang
- Queen Mary School, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330000, PR China.
| | - Ruoxi Cheng
- Queen Mary School, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330000, PR China.
| | - Shuxian Zhang
- Queen Mary School, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330000, PR China.
| | - Xiao Qian
- Queen Mary School, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330000, PR China.
| | - Chunhong Huang
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330000, PR China.
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Borja M, Neri-Castro E, Gutiérrez-Martínez A, Bledsoe R, Zarzosa V, Rodriguez-López B, Strickland JL, Becerra-López J, Valenzuela-Ceballos S, Parkinson CL, Alagón A, Castañeda-Gaytán G. Ontogenetic change in the venom composition of one Mexican black-tailed rattlesnake (Crotalus molossus nigrescens) from Durango, Mexico. Toxicon 2023; 234:107280. [PMID: 37673344 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
To corroborate the ontogenetic shift in the venom composition of the Mexican Black-tailed Rattlesnake (Crotalus molossus nigrescens) previously reported through the census approach, we evaluated the shift in the protein profile, lethality, and proteolytic and phospholipase activities of four venom samples obtained in 2015, 2018, 2019, and 2021 from one C. m. nigrescens individual (CMN06) collected in Durango, Mexico. We demonstrated that the venom of C. m. nigrescens changed from a myotoxin-rich venom to a phospholipase A2 and snake venom metalloproteinase-rich venom. Additionally, the proteolytic and phospholipase activities increased with age, but the lethality decreased approximately three times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Borja
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico; Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Chamilpa, C.P. 62210, Cuernavaca, Mor., Mexico
| | - Arelí Gutiérrez-Martínez
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico
| | - Richard Bledsoe
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico
| | - Vanessa Zarzosa
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Chamilpa, C.P. 62210, Cuernavaca, Mor., Mexico
| | - Bruno Rodriguez-López
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Department of Biology, University of South Alabama, 5871 USA Dr. N., Mobile, AL, 36688, USA
| | - Jorge Becerra-López
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico
| | - Sara Valenzuela-Ceballos
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico
| | | | - Alejandro Alagón
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Chamilpa, C.P. 62210, Cuernavaca, Mor., Mexico
| | - Gamaliel Castañeda-Gaytán
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico.
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Patel RN, Clare RH, Ledsgaard L, Nys M, Kool J, Laustsen AH, Ulens C, Casewell NR. An in vitro assay to investigate venom neurotoxin activity on muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptor activation and for the discovery of toxin-inhibitory molecules. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 216:115758. [PMID: 37604290 PMCID: PMC10570928 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that causes over 100,000 deaths annually. Envenomings result in variable pathologies, but systemic neurotoxicity is among the most serious and is currently only treated with difficult to access and variably efficacious commercial antivenoms. Venom-induced neurotoxicity is often caused by α-neurotoxins antagonising the muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), a ligand-gated ion channel. Discovery of therapeutics targeting α-neurotoxins is hampered by relying on binding assays that do not reveal restoration of receptor activity or more costly and/or lower throughput electrophysiology-based approaches. Here, we report the validation of a screening assay for nAChR activation using immortalised TE671 cells expressing the γ-subunit containing muscle-type nAChR and a fluorescent dye that reports changes in cell membrane potential. Assay validation using traditional nAChR agonists and antagonists, which either activate or block ion fluxes, was consistent with previous studies. We then characterised antagonism of the nAChR by a variety of elapid snake venoms that cause muscle paralysis in snakebite victims, before defining the toxin-inhibiting activities of commercial antivenoms, and new types of snakebite therapeutic candidates, namely monoclonal antibodies, decoy receptors, and small molecules. Our findings show robust evidence of assay uniformity across 96-well plates and highlight the amenability of this approach for the future discovery of new snakebite therapeutics via screening campaigns. The described assay therefore represents a useful first-step approach for identifying α-neurotoxins and their inhibitors in the context of snakebite envenoming, and it should provide wider value for studying modulators of nAChR activity from other sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit N Patel
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK; Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Rachel H Clare
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK; Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Line Ledsgaard
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Mieke Nys
- Laboratory of Structural Neurobiology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, KU Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Kool
- AIMMS Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Chris Ulens
- Laboratory of Structural Neurobiology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, KU Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK; Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK.
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Smith CF, Nikolakis ZL, Perry BW, Schield DR, Meik JM, Saviola AJ, Castoe TA, Parker J, Mackessy SP. The best of both worlds? Rattlesnake hybrid zones generate complex combinations of divergent venom phenotypes that retain high toxicity. Biochimie 2023; 213:176-189. [PMID: 37451532 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2023.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Studying the consequences of hybridization between closely related species with divergent traits can reveal patterns of evolution that shape and maintain extreme trophic adaptations. Snake venoms are an excellent model system for examining the evolutionary and ecological patterns that underlie highly selected polymorphic traits. Here we investigate hybrid venom phenotypes that result from natural introgression between two rattlesnake species that express highly divergent venom phenotypes: Crotalus o. concolor and C. v. viridis. Though not yet documented, interbreeding between these species may lead to novel venom phenotypes with unique activities that break the typical trends of venom composition in rattlesnakes. The characteristics of these unusual phenotypes could unveil the roles of introgression in maintaining patterns of venom composition and variation, including the near ubiquitous dichotomy between neurotoxic or degradative venoms observed across rattlesnakes. We use RADseq data to infer patterns of gene flow and hybrid ancestry between these diverged lineages and link these genetic data with analyses of venom composition, biological activity, and whole animal model toxicity tests to understand the impacts of introgression on venom composition. We find that introgressed populations express admixed venom phenotypes that do not sacrifice biological activity (lethal toxicity) or overall abundance of dominant toxins compared to parental venoms. These hybridized venoms therefore do not represent a trade-off in functionality between the typical phenotypic extremes but instead represent a unique combination of characters whose expression appears limited to the hybrid zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara F Smith
- School of Biological Sciences, 501 20th Street, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
| | - Zachary L Nikolakis
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Blair W Perry
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Drew R Schield
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Jesse M Meik
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tarleton State University, 1333 W. Washington Street, Stephenville, TX, 76402, USA
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, 12801 East 17th Avenue, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Joshua Parker
- Fresno City College, 1101 E. University Avenue, Fresno, CA, 93741, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, 501 20th Street, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA.
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Liao T, Gan M, Qiu Y, Lei Y, Chen Q, Wang X, Yang Y, Chen L, Zhao Y, Niu L, Wang Y, Zhang S, Zhu L, Shen L. miRNAs derived from cobra venom exosomes contribute to the cobra envenomation. J Nanobiotechnology 2023; 21:356. [PMID: 37777744 PMCID: PMC10544165 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-023-02131-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, there is an increasing amount of evidence indicating that exosomes and the miRNAs they contain are crucial players in various biological processes. However, the role of exosomes and miRNAs in snake venom during the envenomation process remains largely unknown. In this study, fresh venom from Naja atra of different ages (2-month-old, 1-year-old, and 5-year-old) was collected, and exosomes were isolated through ultracentrifugation. The study found that exosomes with inactivated proteins and enzymes can still cause symptoms similar to cobra envenomation, indicating that substances other than proteins and enzymes in exosomes may also play an essential role in cobra envenomation. Furthermore, the expression profiles of isolated exosome miRNAs were analyzed. The study showed that a large number of miRNAs were co-expressed and abundant in cobra venom exosomes (CV-exosomes) of different ages, including miR-2904, which had high expression abundance and specific sequences. The specific miR-2094 derived from CV-exosomes (CV-exo-miR-2904) was overexpressed both in vitro and in vivo. As a result, CV-exo-miR-2904 induced symptoms similar to cobra envenomation in mice and caused liver damage, demonstrating that it plays a crucial role in cobra envenomation. These results reveal that CV-exosomes and the miRNAs they contain play a significant regulatory role in cobra envenomation. Our findings provide new insights for the treatment of cobra bites and the development of snake venom-based medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianci Liao
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Mailin Gan
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Yanhao Qiu
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Yuhang Lei
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Qiuyang Chen
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Xingyu Wang
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Yiting Yang
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Lei Chen
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Ye Zhao
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Lili Niu
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Yan Wang
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Shunhua Zhang
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Li Zhu
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
| | - Linyuan Shen
- Farm Animal Genetic Resource Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Animal and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130 China
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Hiremath K, Dodakallanavar J, Sampat GH, Patil VS, Harish DR, Chavan R, Hegde HV, Roy S. Three finger toxins of elapids: structure, function, clinical applications and its inhibitors. Mol Divers 2023:10.1007/s11030-023-10734-3. [PMID: 37749455 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-023-10734-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
The WHO lists snakebite as a "neglected tropical disease". In tropical and subtropical areas, envenoming is an important public health issue. This review article describes the structure, function, chemical composition, natural inhibitors, and clinical applications of Elapids' Three Finger Toxins (3FTX) using scientific research data. The primary venomous substance belonging to Elapidae is 3FTX, that targets nAChR. Three parallel β-sheets combine to create 3FTX, which has four or five disulfide bonds. The three primary types of 3FTX are short-chain, long-chain, and nonconventional 3FTX. The functions of 3FTX depend on the specific toxin subtype and the target receptor or ion channel. The well-known effect of 3FTX is probably neurotoxicity because of the severe consequences of muscular paralysis and respiratory failure in snakebite victims. 3FTX have also been studied for their potential clinical applications. α-bungarotoxin has been used as a molecular probe to study the structure and function of nAChRs (Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors). Acid-sensing ion channel (ASIC) isoforms 1a and 1b are inhibited by Mambalgins, derived from Black mamba venom, which hinders their function and provide an analgesic effect. α- Cobra toxin is a neurotoxin purified from Chinese cobra (Naja atra) binds to nAChR at the neuronal junction and causes an analgesic effect for moderate to severe pain. Some of the plants and their compounds have been shown to inhibit the activity of 3FTX, and their mechanisms of action are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kashinath Hiremath
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Jagadeesh Dodakallanavar
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Ganesh H Sampat
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Vishal S Patil
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Darasaguppe R Harish
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India.
| | - Rajashekar Chavan
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India.
| | - Harsha V Hegde
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Subarna Roy
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
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Tan CH, Tan KY, Tan NH. De Novo Assembly of Venom Gland Transcriptome of Tropidolaemus wagleri (Temple Pit Viper, Malaysia) and Insights into the Origin of Its Major Toxin, Waglerin. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:585. [PMID: 37756011 PMCID: PMC10537322 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The venom proteome of Temple Pit Viper (Tropidolaemus wagleri) is unique among pit vipers, characterized by a high abundance of a neurotoxic peptide, waglerin. To further explore the genetic diversity of its toxins, the present study de novo assembled the venom gland transcriptome of T. wagleri from west Malaysia. Among the 15 toxin gene families discovered, gene annotation and expression analysis reveal the dominating trend of bradykinin-potentiating peptide/angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-C-type natriuretic peptide (BPP/ACEI-CNP, 76.19% of all-toxin transcription) in the transcriptome, followed by P-III snake venom metalloproteases (13.91%) and other toxins. The transcript TwBNP01 of BPP/ACEI-CNP represents a large precursor gene (209 amino acid residues) containing the coding region for waglerin (24 residues). TwBNP01 shows substantial sequence variations from the corresponding genes of its sister species, Tropidolaemus subannulatus of northern Philippines, and other viperid species which diversely code for proline-rich small peptides such as bradykinin-potentiating peptides (BPPs). The waglerin/waglerin-like peptides, BPPs and azemiopsin are proline-rich, evolving de novo from multiple highly diverged propeptide regions within the orthologous BPP/ACEI-CNP genes. Neofunctionalization of the peptides results in phylogenetic constraints consistent with a phenotypic dichotomy, where Tropidolaemus spp. and Azemiops feae convergently evolve a neurotoxic trait while vasoactive BPPs evolve only in other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- College of Life Sciences and Medicine, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.T.); (N.H.T.)
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.T.); (N.H.T.)
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Almeida GDO, de Oliveira IS, Arantes EC, Sampaio SV. Snake venom disintegrins update: insights about new findings. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2023; 29:e20230039. [PMID: 37818211 PMCID: PMC10561651 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2023-0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venom disintegrins are low molecular weight, non-enzymatic proteins rich in cysteine, present in the venom of snakes from the families Viperidae, Crotalidae, Atractaspididae, Elapidae, and Colubridae. This family of proteins originated in venom through the proteolytic processing of metalloproteinases (SVMPs), which, in turn, evolved from a gene encoding an A Disintegrin And Metalloprotease (ADAM) molecule. Disintegrins have a recognition motif for integrins in their structure, allowing interaction with these transmembrane adhesion receptors and preventing their binding to proteins in the extracellular matrix and other cells. This interaction gives disintegrins their wide range of biological functions, including inhibition of platelet aggregation and antitumor activity. As a result, many studies have been conducted in an attempt to use these natural compounds as a basis for developing therapies for the treatment of various diseases. Furthermore, the FDA has approved Tirofiban and Eptifibatide as antiplatelet compounds, and they are synthesized from the structure of echistatin and barbourin, respectively. In this review, we discuss some of the main functional and structural characteristics of this class of proteins and their potential for therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela de Oliveira Almeida
- Department of Clinical Analysis, Toxicology and Food Science, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Isadora Sousa de Oliveira
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Eliane Candiani Arantes
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Suely Vilela Sampaio
- Department of Clinical Analysis, Toxicology and Food Science, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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Terzioglu S, Bittenbinder MA, Slagboom J, van de Velde B, Casewell NR, Kool J. Analytical Size Exclusion Chromatography Coupled with Mass Spectrometry in Parallel with High-Throughput Venomics and Bioassaying for Venom Profiling. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:552. [PMID: 37755978 PMCID: PMC10534738 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 08/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Modern analytical size exclusion chromatography (SEC) is a suitable technique to separate venom toxin families according to their size characteristics. In this study, a method was developed to separate intact venom toxins from Bungarus multicinctus and Daboia russelii venoms via analytical SEC using volatile, non-salt-containing eluents for post-column mass spectrometry, coagulation bioassaying and high-throughput venomics. Two venoms were used to demonstrate the method developed. While the venom of Bungaurs multicinctus is known to exert anticoagulant effects on plasma, in this study, we showed the existence of both procoagulant toxins and anticoagulant toxins. For Daboia russelii venom, the method revealed characteristic procoagulant effects, with a 90 kDa mass toxin detected and matched with the Factor X-activating procoagulant heterotrimeric glycoprotein named RVV-X. The strong procoagulant effects for this toxin show that it was most likely eluted from size exclusion chromatography non-denatured. In conclusion, the separation of snake venom by size gave the opportunity to separate some specific toxin families from each other non-denatured, test these for functional bioactivities, detect the eluting mass on-line via mass spectrometry and identify the eluted toxins using high-throughput venomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sedef Terzioglu
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mátyás A. Bittenbinder
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Julien Slagboom
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bas van de Velde
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Khan NA, Amorim FG, Dunbar JP, Leonard D, Redureau D, Quinton L, Dugon MM, Boyd A. Inhibition of bacterial biofilms by the snake venom proteome. BIOTECHNOLOGY REPORTS (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2023; 39:e00810. [PMID: 37559690 PMCID: PMC10407894 DOI: 10.1016/j.btre.2023.e00810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
Snake venoms possess a range of pharmacological and toxicological activities. Here we evaluated the antibacterial and anti-biofilm activity against methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA and MRSA) of venoms from the Samar spitting cobra Naja samarensis and the Puff adder Bitis arietans. Both venoms prevented biofilm production by pathogenic S. aureus in a growth-independent manner, with the B. arietans venom being most potent. Fractionation showed the active molecule to be heat-labile and >10 kDa in size. Proteomic profiles of N. samarensis venom revealed neurotoxins and cytotoxins, as well as an abundance of serine proteases and three-finger toxins, while serine proteases, metalloproteinases and C-lectin types were abundant in B. arietans venom. These enzymes may have evolved to prevent bacteria colonising the snake venom gland. From a biomedical biotechnology perspective, they have valuable potential for anti-virulence therapy to fight antibiotic resistant microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neyaz A. Khan
- Pathogenic Mechanisms Research Group, School of Natural Sciences, University of Galway, Ireland
| | | | - John P. Dunbar
- Venom Systems & Proteomics Lab, School of Natural Sciences, Ryan Institute, University of Galway, Ireland
| | - Dayle Leonard
- Pathogenic Mechanisms Research Group, School of Natural Sciences, University of Galway, Ireland
- Venom Systems & Proteomics Lab, School of Natural Sciences, Ryan Institute, University of Galway, Ireland
| | - Damien Redureau
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, MolSys RU, University of Liège, Belgium
| | - Loïc Quinton
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, MolSys RU, University of Liège, Belgium
| | - Michel M. Dugon
- Venom Systems & Proteomics Lab, School of Natural Sciences, Ryan Institute, University of Galway, Ireland
| | - Aoife Boyd
- Pathogenic Mechanisms Research Group, School of Natural Sciences, University of Galway, Ireland
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Schulte L, Damm M, Avella I, Uhrig L, Erkoc P, Schiffmann S, Fürst R, Timm T, Lochnit G, Vilcinskas A, Lüddecke T. Venomics of the milos viper ( Macrovipera schweizeri) unveils patterns of venom composition and exochemistry across blunt-nosed viper venoms. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 10:1254058. [PMID: 37719269 PMCID: PMC10500195 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2023.1254058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Snakebite is a neglected tropical disease and a globally important driver of death and morbidity. Vipers of the genus Macrovipera (Viperidae: Viperinae) are among the snakes of higher medical importance in the Old World. Despite the medical relevance of Macrovipera venoms, the knowledge regarding them is heterogeneously distributed with virtually all works conducted so far focusing on subspecies of Macrovipera lebetinus, while other species within the genus are largely overlooked. Here we present the first proteomic evaluation of the venom from the Greek endemic Milos viper (Macrovipera schweizeri). In line with clinical symptoms typically elicited by Macrovipera envenomations, Milos viper venom primarily comprises coagulotoxic and cytotoxic protein families, such as metalloproteinases (svMP) and serine proteases (svSP). Methods: We conducted comparative bioactivity assays on venoms from M. schweizeri and the M. lebetinus subspecies M. lebetinus cernovi, M. lebetinus obtusa, and M. lebetinus turanica, and showed that they all exhibit similarities in levels of cytotoxicity proteolytic activity, and inhibition of prokaryotic growth. Lastly, we compared Macrovipera venom profiles by 1D-SDS-PAGE and RP-HPLC, as well as our proteomic data with previously published Macrovipera venom proteomes. Results and discussion: The analyzes performed to reveal that a general venom profile seems to be conserved across blunt-nosed vipers, and that, M. schweizeri envenomations, similarly to those caused by other blunt-nosed vipers, are able to cause significant tissue damage. The present work represents an important starting point for the development of comparative studies across the full taxonomic range of the genus Macrovipera and can potentially help optimize the treatment of envenomations caused by M. schweizeri.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lennart Schulte
- Department of Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Giessen, Germany
- Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- LOEWE-Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Maik Damm
- LOEWE-Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Ignazio Avella
- CIBIO, Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, InBIO Associated Laboratory, University Port, Porto, Portugal
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- CIBIO, BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Lilien Uhrig
- Department of Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Giessen, Germany
| | - Pelin Erkoc
- LOEWE-Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Frankfurt, Germany
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Susanne Schiffmann
- LOEWE-Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Frankfurt, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (ITMP), Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Robert Fürst
- LOEWE-Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Frankfurt, Germany
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Thomas Timm
- Institute of Biochemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Günter Lochnit
- Institute of Biochemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Andreas Vilcinskas
- Department of Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Giessen, Germany
- Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- LOEWE-Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Tim Lüddecke
- Department of Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Giessen, Germany
- LOEWE-Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Frankfurt, Germany
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Vanuopadath M, Rajan K, Alangode A, Nair SS, Nair BG. The Need for Next-Generation Antivenom for Snakebite Envenomation in India. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:510. [PMID: 37624267 PMCID: PMC10467155 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15080510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The limitations posed by currently available antivenoms have emphasized the need for alternative treatments to counteract snakebite envenomation. Even though exact epidemiological data are lacking, reports have indicated that most global snakebite deaths are reported in India. Among the many problems associated with snakebite envenomation, issues related to the availability of safer and more efficient antivenoms are of primary concern. Since India has the highest number of global snakebite deaths, efforts should be made to reduce the burden associated with snakebite envenoming. Alternative methods, including aptamers, camel antivenoms, phage display techniques for generating high-affinity antibodies and antibody fragments, small-molecule inhibitors, and natural products, are currently being investigated for their effectiveness. These alternative methods have shown promise in vitro, but their in vivo effectiveness should also be evaluated. In this review, the issues associated with Indian polyvalent antivenoms in neutralizing venom components from geographically distant species are discussed in detail. In a nutshell, this review gives an overview of the current drawbacks of using animal-derived antivenoms and several alternative strategies that are currently being widely explored.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Bipin Gopalakrishnan Nair
- School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690 525, Kerala, India; (M.V.); (K.R.); (A.A.); (S.S.N.)
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M Morris N, A Blee J, Hauert S. Global parameter optimisation and sensitivity analysis of antivenom pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Toxicon 2023; 232:107206. [PMID: 37356552 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
In recent years it has become possible to design snakebite antivenoms with diverse pharmacokinetic properties. Owing to the pharmacokinetic variability of venoms, the choice of antivenom scaffold may influence a treatment's neutralisation coverage. Computation offers a useful medium through which to assess the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of envenomation-treatment systems, as antivenoms with identical neutralising capacities can be simulated. In this study, we simulate envenomation and treatment with a variety of antivenoms, to define the properties of effective antivenoms. Systemic envenomation and treatment were described using a two-compartment pharmacokinetic model. Treatment of Naja sumatrana and Cryptelytrops purpureomaculatus envenomation was simulated with a set of 200,000 theoretical antivenoms across 10 treatment time delays. These two venoms are well-characterised and have differing pharmacokinetic properties. The theoretical antivenom set varied across molecular weight, dose, kon, koff, and valency. The best and worst treatments were identified using an area under the curve metric, and a global sensitivity analysis was performed to quantify the influence of the input parameters on treatment outcome. The simulations show that scaffolds of diverse molecular formats can be effective. Molecular weight and valency have a negligible direct impact on treatment outcome, however low molecular weight scaffolds offer more flexibility across the other design parameters, particularly when treatment is delayed. The simulations show kon to primarily mediate treatment efficacy, with rates above 105 M-1s-1 required for the most effective treatments. koff has the greatest impact on the performance of less effective scaffolds. While the same scaffold preferences for improved treatment are seen for both model snakes, the parameter bounds for C. purpureomaculatus envenomation are more constrained. This paper establishes a computational framework for the optimisation of antivenom design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie M Morris
- Department of Engineering Mathematics, Ada Lovelace Building, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TW, UK.
| | - Johanna A Blee
- Department of Engineering Mathematics, Ada Lovelace Building, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TW, UK.
| | - Sabine Hauert
- Department of Engineering Mathematics, Ada Lovelace Building, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TW, UK.
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