1
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Zaini A, Dalit L, Sheikh AA, Zhang Y, Thiele D, Runting J, Rodrigues G, Ng J, Bramhall M, Scheer S, Hailes L, Groom JR, Good-Jacobson KL, Zaph C. Heterogeneous Tfh cell populations that develop during enteric helminth infection predict the quality of type 2 protective response. Mucosal Immunol 2023; 16:642-657. [PMID: 37392971 DOI: 10.1016/j.mucimm.2023.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/03/2023]
Abstract
T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are an important component of germinal center (GC)-mediated humoral immunity. Yet, how a chronic type 1 versus protective type 2 helminth infection modulates Tfh-GC responses remains poorly understood. Here, we employ the helminth Trichuris muris model and demonstrate that Tfh cell phenotypes and GC are differentially regulated in acute versus chronic infection. The latter failed to induce Tfh-GC B cell responses, with Tfh cells expressing Τ-bet and interferon-γ. In contrast, interleukin-4-producing Tfh cells dominate responses to an acute, resolving infection. Heightened expression and increased chromatin accessibility of T helper (Th)1- and Th2 cell-associated genes are observed in chronic and acute induced Tfh cells, respectively. Blockade of the Th1 cell response by T-cell-intrinsic T-bet deletion promoted Tfh cell expansion during chronic infection, pointing to a correlation between a robust Tfh cell response and protective immunity to parasites. Finally, blockade of Tfh-GC interactions impaired type 2 immunity, revealing the critical protective role of GC-dependent Th2-like Tfh cell responses during acute infection. Collectively, these results provide new insights into the protective roles of Tfh-GC responses and identify distinct transcriptional and epigenetic features of Tfh cells that emerge during resolving or chronic T. muris infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aidil Zaini
- Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Clayton, Australia; Department of Immunology and Pathology, Central Clinical School, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Lennard Dalit
- Division of Immunology, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Amania A Sheikh
- Division of Immunology, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Yan Zhang
- Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Clayton, Australia
| | - Daniel Thiele
- Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, Australia; Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Jessica Runting
- Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Clayton, Australia
| | - Grace Rodrigues
- Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Clayton, Australia
| | - Judy Ng
- Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Clayton, Australia
| | - Michael Bramhall
- Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Clayton, Australia; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Sebastian Scheer
- Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Clayton, Australia
| | - Lauren Hailes
- Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Clayton, Australia
| | - Joanna R Groom
- Division of Immunology, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Kim L Good-Jacobson
- Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Clayton, Australia.
| | - Colby Zaph
- Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Clayton, Australia.
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2
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Gmyrek GB, Berube AN, Sjoelund VH, Carr DJJ. HSV-1 0∆NLS vaccine elicits a robust B lymphocyte response and preserves vision without HSV-1 glycoprotein M or thymidine kinase recognition. Sci Rep 2022; 12:15920. [PMID: 36151255 PMCID: PMC9508094 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-20180-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Effective experimental prophylactic vaccines against viral pathogens such as herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) have been shown to protect the host through T and/or B lymphocyte-driven responses. Previously, we found a live-attenuated HSV-1 mutant, 0ΔNLS used as a prophylactic vaccine, provided significant protection against subsequent ocular HSV-1 challenge aligned with a robust neutralizing antibody response. Yet, how the virus mutant elicited the humoral immune response relative to parental virus was unknown. Herein, we present the characterization of B cell subsets in vaccinated mice at times after primary vaccination and following boost compared to the parental virus, termed GFP105. We found that 0∆NLS-vaccinated mice possessed more CD4+ follicular helper T (TFH) cells, germinal B cells and class-switched B cells within the first 7 days post-vaccination. Moreover, 0∆NLS vaccination resulted in an increase in plasmablasts and plasma cells expressing amino-acid transporter CD98 along with an elevated titer of HSV-1-specific antibody compared to GFP105-vaccinated animals. Furthermore, O∆NLS-vaccine-induced CD4+ (TFH) cells produced significantly more IL-21 compared to mice immunized with the parental HSV-1 strain. In contrast, there were no differences in the number of regulatory B cells comparing the two groups of immunized mice. In comparing sera recognition of HSV-1-encoded proteins, it was noted antiserum from GFP105-vaccinated mice immunoprecipitated HSV-1 thymidine kinase (TK) and glycoprotein M (gM) whereas sera from 0∆NLS-immunized mice did not even though both groups of vaccinated mice displayed similar neutralizing antibody titers to HSV-1 and were highly resistant to ocular HSV-1 challenge. Collectively, the results suggest (1) the live-attenuated HSV-1 mutant 0∆NLS elicits a robust B cell response that drives select B cell responses greater than the parental HSV-1 and (2) HSV-1 TK and gM are likely expendable components in efficacy of a humoral response to ocular HSV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grzegorz B. Gmyrek
- grid.266902.90000 0001 2179 3618Departments of Ophthalmology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (OUHSC), 608 Stanton L. Young Blvd, DMEI PA415, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA
| | - Amanda N. Berube
- grid.266902.90000 0001 2179 3618Departments of Ophthalmology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (OUHSC), 608 Stanton L. Young Blvd, DMEI PA415, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA
| | - Virginie H. Sjoelund
- grid.266902.90000 0001 2179 3618Laboratory for Molecular Biology and Cytometry Research, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA
| | - Daniel J. J. Carr
- grid.266902.90000 0001 2179 3618Departments of Ophthalmology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (OUHSC), 608 Stanton L. Young Blvd, DMEI PA415, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA ,grid.266902.90000 0001 2179 3618Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA
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3
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Ariyaratne A, Kim SY, Pollo SMJ, Perera S, Liu H, Nguyen WNT, Leon Coria A, de Cassia Luzzi M, Bowron J, Szabo EK, Patel KD, Wasmuth JD, Nair MG, Finney CAM. Trickle infection with Heligmosomoides polygyrus results in decreased worm burdens but increased intestinal inflammation and scarring. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1020056. [PMID: 36569914 PMCID: PMC9773095 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1020056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Intestinal roundworms cause chronic debilitating disease in animals, including humans. Traditional experimental models of these types of infection use a large single-dose infection. However, in natural settings, hosts are exposed to parasites on a regular basis and when mice are exposed to frequent, smaller doses of Heligmosomoides polygyrus, the parasites are cleared more quickly. Whether this more effective host response has any negative consequences for the host is not known. Results Using a trickle model of infection, we found that worm clearance was associated with known resistance-related host responses: increased granuloma and tuft cell numbers, increased levels of granuloma IgG and decreased intestinal transit time, as well as higher serum IgE levels. However, we found that the improved worm clearance was also associated with an inflammatory phenotype in and around the granuloma, increased smooth muscle hypertrophy/hyperplasia, and elevated levels of Adamts gene expression. Discussion To our knowledge, we are the first to identify the involvement of this protein family of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in host responses to helminth infections. Our results highlight the delicate balance between parasite clearance and host tissue damage, which both contribute to host pathology. When continually exposed to parasitic worms, improved clearance comes at a cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anupama Ariyaratne
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Host Parasite Interactions Training Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Sang Yong Kim
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States
| | - Stephen M J Pollo
- Host Parasite Interactions Training Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Shashini Perera
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Host Parasite Interactions Training Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Hongrui Liu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Host Parasite Interactions Training Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - William N T Nguyen
- Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Aralia Leon Coria
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Host Parasite Interactions Training Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Mayara de Cassia Luzzi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Host Parasite Interactions Training Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Joel Bowron
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Host Parasite Interactions Training Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Edina K Szabo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Host Parasite Interactions Training Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Kamala D Patel
- Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - James D Wasmuth
- Host Parasite Interactions Training Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Meera G Nair
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States
| | - Constance A M Finney
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Host Parasite Interactions Training Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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4
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Zaini A, Good-Jacobson KL, Zaph C. Context-dependent roles of B cells during intestinal helminth infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009340. [PMID: 33983946 PMCID: PMC8118336 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The current approaches to reduce the burden of chronic helminth infections in endemic areas are adequate sanitation and periodic administration of deworming drugs. Yet, resistance against some deworming drugs and reinfection can still rapidly occur even after treatment. A vaccine against helminths would be an effective solution at preventing reinfection. However, vaccines against helminth parasites have yet to be successfully developed. While T helper cells and innate lymphoid cells have been established as important components of the protective type 2 response, the roles of B cells and antibodies remain the most controversial. Here, we review the roles of B cells during intestinal helminth infection. We discuss the potential factors that contribute to the context-specific roles for B cells in protection against diverse intestinal helminth parasite species, using evidence from well-defined murine model systems. Understanding the precise roles of B cells during resistance and susceptibility to helminth infection may offer a new perspective of type 2 protective immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aidil Zaini
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kim L. Good-Jacobson
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Colby Zaph
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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5
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Tangye SG, Ma CS. Regulation of the germinal center and humoral immunity by interleukin-21. J Exp Med 2020; 217:132621. [PMID: 31821441 PMCID: PMC7037251 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20191638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we review the critical and non-redundant functions of IL-21 in regulating humoral immune responses. We particularly focus on studies in natura—from individuals from inborn errors of immunity that impact on IL-21 production and/or function. Cytokines play critical roles in regulating the development, survival, differentiation, and function of immune cells. Cytokines exert their function by binding specific receptor complexes on the surface of immune cells and activating intracellular signaling pathways, thereby resulting in induction of specific transcription factors and regulated expression of target genes. While the function of cytokines is often fundamental for the generation of robust and effective immunity following infection or vaccination, aberrant production or function of cytokines can underpin immunopathology. IL-21 is a pleiotropic cytokine produced predominantly by CD4+ T cells. Gene-targeting studies in mice, in vitro analyses of human and murine lymphocytes, and the recent discoveries and analyses of humans with germline loss-of-function mutations in IL21 or IL21R have revealed diverse roles of IL-21 in immune regulation and effector function. This review will focus on recent advances in IL-21 biology that have highlighted its critical role in T cell–dependent B cell activation, germinal center reactions, and humoral immunity and how impaired responses to, or production of, IL-21 can lead to immune dysregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart G Tangye
- Immunology Theme, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales Sydney, Darlinghurst, Australia.,Clinical Immunogenomics Consortium of Australasia, Darlinghurst, Australia
| | - Cindy S Ma
- Immunology Theme, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales Sydney, Darlinghurst, Australia.,Clinical Immunogenomics Consortium of Australasia, Darlinghurst, Australia
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6
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Solaymani-Mohammadi S, Eckmann L, Singer SM. Interleukin (IL)-21 in Inflammation and Immunity During Parasitic Diseases. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:401. [PMID: 31867283 PMCID: PMC6904299 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic diseases cause significant morbidity and mortality in the developing and underdeveloped countries. No efficacious vaccines are available against most parasitic diseases and there is a critical need for developing novel vaccine strategies for care. IL-21 is a pleiotropic cytokine whose functions in protection and immunopathology during parasitic diseases have been explored in limited ways. IL-21 and its cognate receptor, IL-21R, are highly expressed in parasitized organs of infected humans as well in murine models of the human parasitic diseases. Prior studies have indicated the ability of the IL-21/IL-21R signaling axis to regulate the effector functions (e.g., cytokine production) of T cell subsets by enhancing the expression of T-bet and STAT4 in human T cells, resulting in an augmented production of IFN-γ. Mice deficient for either IL-21 (Il21−/−) or IL-21R (Il21r−/−) showed significantly reduced inflammatory responses following parasitic infections as compared with their WT counterparts. Targeting the IL-21/IL-21R signaling axis may provide a novel approach for the development of new therapeutic agents for the prevention of parasite-induced immunopathology and tissue destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahram Solaymani-Mohammadi
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Lars Eckmann
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Steven M Singer
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States
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7
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Wu N, Wang B, Cui ZW, Zhang XY, Cheng YY, Xu X, Li XM, Wang ZX, Chen DD, Zhang YA. Integrative Transcriptomic and microRNAomic Profiling Reveals Immune Mechanism for the Resilience to Soybean Meal Stress in Fish Gut and Liver. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1154. [PMID: 30246797 PMCID: PMC6140834 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In aquafeeds, fish-meal has been commonly replaced with plant protein, which often causes enteritis. Currently, foodborne enteritis has few solutions in regards to prevention or cures. The recovery mechanism from enteritis in herbivorous fish may further help understand prevention or therapy. However, few reports could be found regarding the recovery or resilience to fish foodborne enteritis. In this study, grass carp was used as an animal model for soybean meal induced enteritis and it was found that the fish could adapt to the soybean meal at a moderate level of substitution. Resilience to soybean meal stress was found in the 40% soybean meal group for juvenile fish at growth performance, morphological and gene expression levels, after a 7-week feeding trial. Furthermore, the intestinal transcriptomic data, including transcriptome and miRNAome, was applied to demonstrate resilience mechanisms. The result of this study revealed that in juvenile grass carp after a 7-week feeding cycle with 40% soybean meal, the intestine recovered via enhancing both an immune tolerance and wound healing, the liver gradually adapted via re-balancing immune responses, such as phagosome and complement cascades. Also, many immune factors in the gut and liver were systemically revealed among stages of on-setting, remising, and recovering (or relief). In addition, miRNA regulation played a key role in switching immune states. Thus, the present data systemically demonstrated that the molecular adaptation mechanism of fish gut-liver immunity is involved in the resilience to soybean meal stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Disease Control, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, China
| | - Biao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Zheng-Wei Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,College of Modern Agriculture Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiang-Yang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,College of Modern Agriculture Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ying-Yin Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Xuan Xu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Agricultural Bioinformatics, College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xian-Mei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,College of Modern Agriculture Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhao-Xi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,College of Modern Agriculture Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Dan-Dan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Disease Control, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, China
| | - Yong-An Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Disease Control, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, China
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8
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Ariyaratne A, Szabo EK, Bowron J, Finney CAM. Increases in helminth-induced IL-21 protein levels disappear upon sample freezing. Cytokine 2018; 108:179-181. [PMID: 29684754 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2018.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
IL-21 is a much studied cytokine that has been implicated in the regulation of TH1, TH2, TH17 and regulatory immune responses; its signalling is a promising therapeutic target for autoimmune, inflammatory and infectious diseases. Despite its biological importance, measuring IL-21 reliably has proved difficult. ELISAs are commonly used to measure cytokines in various biological samples. However, results obtained are only as good as the quality of the sample. Here, we show that when using fresh samples, a significant increase in IL-21 was measured in the intestinal homogenate of mice infected with the intestinal worm Heligmosomoides polygyrus. This difference disappeared when samples were frozen in either liquid nitrogen for two days or at -80 °C for three weeks, with levels in both naïve and infected animals decreasing. This was not observed for the IL-13 cytokine, where freezing had no impact on levels measured. Our study highlights the importance of sample storage to measuring biomarkers. Since modulating IL-21 signalling is such an important potential therapeutic avenue, accurately measuring the levels of this cytokine is key to assessing its role in various research models and clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anupama Ariyaratne
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Edina K Szabo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Joel Bowron
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Constance A M Finney
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
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9
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Meli AP, Fontés G, Avery DT, Leddon SA, Tam M, Elliot M, Ballesteros-Tato A, Miller J, Stevenson MM, Fowell DJ, Tangye SG, King IL. The Integrin LFA-1 Controls T Follicular Helper Cell Generation and Maintenance. Immunity 2017; 45:831-846. [PMID: 27760339 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2016.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Revised: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are a CD4+ T cell subset critical for long-lived humoral immunity. We hypothesized that integrins play a decisive role in Tfh cell biology. Here we show that Tfh cells expressed a highly active form of leukocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) that was required for their survival within the germinal center niche. In addition, LFA-1 promoted expression of Bcl-6, a transcriptional repressor critical for Tfh cell differentiation, and inhibition of LFA-1 abolished Tfh cell generation and prevented protective humoral immunity to intestinal helminth infection. Furthermore, we demonstrated that expression of Talin-1, an adaptor protein that regulates LFA-1 affinity, dictated Tfh versus Th2 effector cell differentiation. Collectively, our results define unique functions for LFA-1 in the Tfh cell effector program and suggest that integrin activity is important in lineage decision-making events in the adaptive immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre P Meli
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Microbiome and Disease Tolerance Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Ghislaine Fontés
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Microbiome and Disease Tolerance Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Danielle T Avery
- The Immunology Research Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Scott A Leddon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, Aab Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Mifong Tam
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Microbiome and Disease Tolerance Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Michael Elliot
- Sydney Head and Neck Cancer Institute, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
| | - Andre Ballesteros-Tato
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Jim Miller
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, Aab Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Mary M Stevenson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Microbiome and Disease Tolerance Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Deborah J Fowell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, Aab Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Stuart G Tangye
- The Immunology Research Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Irah L King
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Microbiome and Disease Tolerance Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada.
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10
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Citrobacter rodentium: a model enteropathogen for understanding the interplay of innate and adaptive components of type 3 immunity. Mucosal Immunol 2017; 10:1108-1117. [PMID: 28612839 PMCID: PMC5969517 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2017.47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Citrobacter rodentium is a natural murine intestinal pathogen that shares a core set of virulence factors with the related human pathogens enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) and enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC). C. rodentium is now the most widely used small animal model for studying the molecular underpinnings of EPEC and EHEC infections in vivo, including: enterocyte attachment; virulence; colonization resistance; and mucosal immunity. In this review, we discuss type 3 immunity in the context of C. rodentium infection and discuss recent publications that use this model to understand how the innate and adaptive components of immunity intersect to mediate host protection against enteric pathogens and maintain homeostasis with the microbiota.
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11
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Meli AP, Fontés G, Leung Soo C, King IL. T Follicular Helper Cell-Derived IL-4 Is Required for IgE Production during Intestinal Helminth Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 199:244-252. [PMID: 28533444 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1700141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
IgE production plays a crucial role in protective as well as pathogenic type 2 immune responses. Although the cytokine IL-4 is required for the development of IgE-producing plasma cells, the source of IL-4 and cellular requirements for optimal IgE responses remain unclear. Recent evidence suggests that T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are the primary producer of IL-4 in the reactive lymph node during type 2 immune responses. As Tfh cells are also required for the development of plasmablasts derived from germinal center and extrafollicular sources, we hypothesized that this cell subset is essential for the IgE plasmablast response. In this study, we show that during intestinal helminth infection, IL-4 derived from Tfh cells is required for IgE class switching and plasmablast formation. Notably, early IgE class switching did not require germinal center formation. Additionally, Tfh cell-derived IL-4 was required to maintain the Th2 response in the mesenteric lymph nodes of infected mice. Collectively, our results indicate that IL-4-producing Tfh cells are central orchestrators of the type 2 immune response in the reactive lymph nodes during parasitic helminth infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre P Meli
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Microbiome and Disease Tolerance Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Ghislaine Fontés
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Microbiome and Disease Tolerance Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Cindy Leung Soo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Microbiome and Disease Tolerance Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Irah L King
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Microbiome and Disease Tolerance Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
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12
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Tian Y, Zajac AJ. IL-21 and T Cell Differentiation: Consider the Context. Trends Immunol 2016; 37:557-568. [PMID: 27389961 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Revised: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating studies demonstrate that IL-21 modulates the differentiation of various CD4 and CD8 T cell subsets and provide insights into the underlying cellular and molecular processes that are influenced by this cytokine. Intriguingly, the effects of IL-21 on T cells can be complex and vary depending on the experimental system used. We review our current understanding of the roles of IL-21 in the generation of phenotypically distinct CD4 and CD8 T cell populations and discuss the potential environmental cues, cellular factors, and molecular mediators that impact the actions of IL-21. We propose that IL-21 acts in a context-dependent manner to accentuate T cell subset development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Tian
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-2170, USA
| | - Allan J Zajac
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-2170, USA.
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13
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Coquet JM, Schuijs MJ, Smyth MJ, Deswarte K, Beyaert R, Braun H, Boon L, Karlsson Hedestam GB, Nutt SL, Hammad H, Lambrecht BN. Interleukin-21-Producing CD4(+) T Cells Promote Type 2 Immunity to House Dust Mites. Immunity 2015; 43:318-30. [PMID: 26287681 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2015.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Asthma is a T helper 2 (Th2)-cell-mediated disease; however, recent findings implicate Th17 and innate lymphoid cells also in regulating airway inflammation. Herein, we have demonstrated profound interleukin-21 (IL-21) production after house dust mite (HDM)-driven asthma by using T cell receptor (TCR) transgenic mice reactive to Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus 1 and an IL-21GFP reporter mouse. IL-21-producing cells in the mediastinal lymph node (mLN) bore characteristics of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells, whereas IL-21(+) cells in the lung did not express CXCR5 (a chemokine receptor expressed by Tfh cells) and were distinct from effector Th2 or Th17 cells. Il21r(-/-) mice developed reduced type 2 responses and the IL-21 receptor (IL-21R) enhanced Th2 cell function in a cell-intrinsic manner. Finally, administration of recombinant IL-21 and IL-25 synergistically promoted airway eosinophilia primarily via effects on CD4(+) lymphocytes. This highlights an important Th2-cell-amplifying function of IL-21-producing CD4(+) T cells in allergic airway inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M Coquet
- VIB Inflammation Research Center (IRC), Gent University, Zwijnaarde 9052B, Belgium; Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institute, Stockholm 171 77, Sweden.
| | - Martijn J Schuijs
- VIB Inflammation Research Center (IRC), Gent University, Zwijnaarde 9052B, Belgium
| | - Mark J Smyth
- Immunology in Cancer and Infection Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia; School of Medicine, University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia
| | - Kim Deswarte
- VIB Inflammation Research Center (IRC), Gent University, Zwijnaarde 9052B, Belgium
| | - Rudi Beyaert
- VIB Inflammation Research Center (IRC), Gent University, Zwijnaarde 9052B, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Gent University, Gent 9000, Belgium
| | - Harald Braun
- VIB Inflammation Research Center (IRC), Gent University, Zwijnaarde 9052B, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Gent University, Gent 9000, Belgium
| | - Louis Boon
- Bioceros, Utrecht 3584CM, the Netherlands
| | | | - Steven L Nutt
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; The Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Hamida Hammad
- VIB Inflammation Research Center (IRC), Gent University, Zwijnaarde 9052B, Belgium; Department of Respiratory Medicine, Gent University Hospital, Gent 9000, Belgium
| | - Bart N Lambrecht
- VIB Inflammation Research Center (IRC), Gent University, Zwijnaarde 9052B, Belgium; Department of Respiratory Medicine, Gent University Hospital, Gent 9000, Belgium; Department of Pulmonary Medicine, ErasmusMC, Rotterdam 3015CD, the Netherlands
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14
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Gravitt PE, Marks M, Kosek M, Huang C, Cabrera L, Olortegui MP, Medrano AM, Trigoso DR, Qureshi S, Bardales GS, Manrique-Hinojosa J, Cardenas AZ, Larraondo MA, Cok J, Qeadan F, Siracusa M, Gilman RH. Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections Are Associated With an Increase in Human Papillomavirus Prevalence and a T-Helper Type 2 Cytokine Signature in Cervical Fluids. J Infect Dis 2015; 213:723-30. [PMID: 26486638 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiv498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND An ecological correlation between invasive cervical cancer incidence and burden of soil-transmitted helminths (STH) is hypothesized to explain the excess in detectable human papillomavirus (HPV) infection in Latin America, via a global T-helper type 2 (Th2)-biased mucosal immune response secondary to STH infection. METHODS The association between current STH infection and HPV prevalence was compared in regions of Peru where STH is or is not endemic. Adjusted prevalence ratios (PRs) with robust variance were estimated as an effect measure of STH infection on HPV prevalence in each study site. Soluble immune marker profiles in STH-infected and STH-uninfected women were compared using Spearman rank correlation with the Sidak correction. RESULTS Among women in the helminth-endemic region of the Peruvian Amazon, those with STH infection women had a 60% higher prevalence of HPV, compared with those without STH infection (PR, 1.6; 95% confidence interval, 1.0-2.7). Non-STH parasitic/protozoal infections in the non-STH-endemic population of Peru were not associated with HPV prevalence. In Iquitos, A Th2 immune profile was observed in cervical fluid from helminth-infected women but not helminth-uninfected women. CONCLUSIONS A proportion of the increased HPV prevalence at older ages observed in Latin America may be due to a population-level difference in the efficiency of immunological control of HPV across the lifespan due to endemic STH infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Morgan Marks
- Department of Epidemiology Department of Pharmacoepidemiology, Merck Research Laboratories, Whitehouse Station
| | - Margaret Kosek
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland Biomedical Research Unit, Asociación Benéfica PRISMA
| | - Christine Huang
- Departamento de Ginecologia, Hospital Regional de Loreto, Iquitos
| | - Lilia Cabrera
- Biomedical Research Unit, Asociación Benéfica PRISMA
| | | | | | | | - Sarah Qureshi
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | | | | | | | | | - Jaime Cok
- Hospital Cayetano Heredia, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Fares Qeadan
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque
| | - Mark Siracusa
- Department of Medicine, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark
| | - Robert H Gilman
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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15
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Johnston CJC, Robertson E, Harcus Y, Grainger JR, Coakley G, Smyth DJ, McSorley HJ, Maizels R. Cultivation of Heligmosomoides polygyrus: an immunomodulatory nematode parasite and its secreted products. J Vis Exp 2015:e52412. [PMID: 25867600 PMCID: PMC4401400 DOI: 10.3791/52412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Heligmosomoides polygyrus (formerly known as Nematospiroides dubius, and also referred to by some as H. bakeri) is a gastrointestinal helminth that employs multiple immunomodulatory mechanisms to establish chronic infection in mice and closely resembles prevalent human helminth infections. H. polygyrus has been studied extensively in the field of helminth-derived immune regulation and has been found to potently suppress experimental models of allergy and autoimmunity (both with active infection and isolated secreted products). The protocol described in this paper outlines management of the H. polygyrus life cycle for consistent production of L3 larvae, recovery of adult parasites, and collection of their excretory-secretory products (HES).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elaine Robertson
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh
| | - Yvonne Harcus
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh
| | | | - Gillian Coakley
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh
| | - Danielle J Smyth
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh
| | - Henry J McSorley
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh
| | - Rick Maizels
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh;
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16
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Pérez-Mazliah D, Ng DHL, Freitas do Rosário AP, McLaughlin S, Mastelic-Gavillet B, Sodenkamp J, Kushinga G, Langhorne J. Disruption of IL-21 signaling affects T cell-B cell interactions and abrogates protective humoral immunity to malaria. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004715. [PMID: 25763578 PMCID: PMC4370355 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-21 signaling is important for germinal center B-cell responses, isotype switching and generation of memory B cells. However, a role for IL-21 in antibody-mediated protection against pathogens has not been demonstrated. Here we show that IL-21 is produced by T follicular helper cells and co-expressed with IFN-γ during an erythrocytic-stage malaria infection of Plasmodium chabaudi in mice. Mice deficient either in IL-21 or the IL-21 receptor fail to resolve the chronic phase of P. chabaudi infection and P. yoelii infection resulting in sustained high parasitemias, and are not immune to re-infection. This is associated with abrogated P. chabaudi-specific IgG responses, including memory B cells. Mixed bone marrow chimeric mice, with T cells carrying a targeted disruption of the Il21 gene, or B cells with a targeted disruption of the Il21r gene, demonstrate that IL-21 from T cells signaling through the IL-21 receptor on B cells is necessary to control chronic P. chabaudi infection. Our data uncover a mechanism by which CD4+ T cells and B cells control parasitemia during chronic erythrocytic-stage malaria through a single gene, Il21, and demonstrate the importance of this cytokine in the control of pathogens by humoral immune responses. These data are highly pertinent for designing malaria vaccines requiring long-lasting protective B-cell responses. The importance of antibody and B-cell responses for control of the erythrocytic-stage of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium, was first described when immune serum, passively transferred into Plasmodium falciparum-infected children, reduced parasitemia. This was later confirmed in experimental models in which mice deficient in B cells were unable to eliminate erythrocytic-stage infections. The signals required to activate these protective long-lasting B cell responses towards Plasmodium have not been investigated. IL-21 has been shown to be important for development of B-cell responses after immunization; however, a direct requirement for IL-21 in the control of infection via B-cell dependent mechanisms has never been demonstrated. In this paper, we have used mouse models of erythrocytic P. chabaudi and P. yoelii 17X(NL) infections in combination with IL-21/IL-21R deficiency to show that IL-21 from CD4+ T cells is required to eliminate Plasmodium infection by activating protective, long-lasting B-cell responses. Disruption of IL-21 signaling in B cells prevents the elimination of the parasite resulting in sustained high parasitemias, with no development of memory B-cells, lack of antigen-specific plasma cells and antibodies, and thus no protective immunity against a second challenge infection. Our data demonstrate the absolute requirement of IL-21 for B-cell control of this systemic infection. This has important implications for the design of vaccines against Plasmodium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damián Pérez-Mazliah
- Division of Parasitology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), London, United Kingdom
| | - Dorothy Hui Lin Ng
- Division of Parasitology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Sarah McLaughlin
- Division of Parasitology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), London, United Kingdom
| | - Béatris Mastelic-Gavillet
- Division of Parasitology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), London, United Kingdom
| | - Jan Sodenkamp
- Division of Parasitology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), London, United Kingdom
| | - Garikai Kushinga
- Division of Parasitology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), London, United Kingdom
| | - Jean Langhorne
- Division of Parasitology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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17
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review highlights the recent identification of human interleukin-21 (IL-21) and interleukin-21 receptor (IL-21R) deficiencies as novel entities of primary immunodeficiency. RECENT FINDINGS We recently described the first patients with IL-21R deficiency who had cryptosporidial infections associated with chronic cholangitis and liver disease. All IL-21R-deficient patients suffered from recurrent respiratory tract infections. Immunological work-up revealed impaired B cell proliferation and immunoglobulin class-switch, reduced T cell effector functions, and variable natural killer cell dysfunctions. Recently, these findings have been extended by the discovery of one patient with a mutation in the IL21 gene. This patient predominantly manifested with very early onset inflammatory bowel disease and recurrent respiratory infections. Laboratory examination showed reduced circulating B cells and impaired B cell class-switch. SUMMARY Human IL-21 and IL-21R deficiencies cause severe, primary immunodeficiency reminiscent of common variable immunodeficiency. Early diagnosis is critical to prevent life-threatening complications, such as secondary liver failure. In view of the critical role of IL-21 in controlling immune homeostasis, early hematopoietic stem cell transplantation might be considered as therapeutic intervention in affected children.
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18
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Basophil-mediated protection against gastrointestinal helminths requires IgE-induced cytokine secretion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:E5169-77. [PMID: 25404305 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1412663111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Basophils orchestrate protection against reinfections with gastrointestinal helminths and ticks, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. We investigated the role of Fc receptors on basophils, the antibody isotypes IgG1 and IgE, and basophil-derived IL-4/IL-13 during challenge infections with Heligmosomoides polygyrus and Nippostrongylus brasiliensis. Using mixed bone marrow chimeras, we found that activating Fc receptors on basophils were required for protective immunity but not for regulation of basophil homeostasis. Furthermore, rapid worm expulsion was impaired in IgE-deficient but not in IgG1-deficient mice. Basophils promoted the recruitment of other effector cells into the small intestine and induced expression of the antihelminthic proteins resistin-like molecule β and mucin 5ac. Selective deletion of IL-4/IL-13 in basophils resulted in impaired worm expulsion. Collectively, our results indicate that IgE-mediated activation of basophils and the release of basophil-derived IL-4/IL-13 are critical steps in protective immunity against helminths. Therefore, development of effective vaccines against helminths should consider boosting the IL-4/IgE/basophil axis of the immune system.
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19
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Winstead CJ. Follicular helper T cell-mediated mucosal barrier maintenance. Immunol Lett 2014; 162:39-47. [PMID: 25149860 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2014.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Revised: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The basic functions of the immune system are protection from pathogens and maintenance of tolerance to self. The maintenance of commensal microbiota at mucosal surfaces adds a layer of complexity to these basic functions. Recent reports suggest follicular helper T cells (Tfh), a CD4(+) T cell subset specialized to provide help to B cells undergoing isotype switching and affinity maturation in germinal centers (GC), interact with the microbiota and are essential to maintenance of mucosal barriers. Complicating the issue is ongoing controversy in the field regarding origin of the Tfh subset and its distinction from other effector CD4 T cell phenotypes (Th1/Th17/Treg). This review focuses on the differentiation, phenotypic plasticity, and function of CD4 T cells, with an emphasis on commensal-specific GC responses in the gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen J Winstead
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology, Birmingham, AL, United States.
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20
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Harris NL, Pleass R, Behnke JM. Understanding the role of antibodies in murine infections with Heligmosomoides (polygyrus) bakeri: 35 years ago, now and 35 years ahead. Parasite Immunol 2014; 36:115-24. [PMID: 23889357 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2013] [Accepted: 07/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The rodent intestinal nematode H.p.bakeri has played an important role in the exploration of the host-parasite relationship of chronic nematode infections for over six decades, since the parasite was first isolated in the 1950s by Ehrenford. It soon became a popular laboratory model providing a tractable experimental system that is easy to maintain in the laboratory and far more cost-effective than other laboratory nematode-rodent model systems. Immunity to this parasite is complex, dependent on antibodies, but confounded by the parasite's potent immunosuppressive secretions that facilitate chronic survival in murine hosts. In this review, we remind readers of the state of knowledge in the 1970s, when the first volume of Parasite Immunology was published, focusing on the role of antibodies in protective immunity. We show how our understanding of the host-parasite relationship then developed over the following 35 years to date, we propose testable hypotheses for future researchers to tackle, and we speculate on how the new technologies will be applied to enable an increasingly refined understanding of the role of antibodies in host-protective immunity, and its evasion, to be achieved in the longer term.
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Affiliation(s)
- N L Harris
- Global Health Institute and Swiss Vaccine Research Institute, École Polytechnique Fédèrale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
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21
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Spolski R, Leonard WJ. Interleukin-21: a double-edged sword with therapeutic potential. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2014; 13:379-95. [PMID: 24751819 DOI: 10.1038/nrd4296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 377] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-21 is a cytokine with broad pleiotropic actions that affect the differentiation and function of lymphoid and myeloid cells. Since its discovery in 2000, a tremendous amount has been learned about its biological actions and the molecular mechanisms controlling IL-21-mediated cellular responses. IL-21 regulates both innate and adaptive immune responses, and it not only has key roles in antitumour and antiviral responses but also exerts major effects on inflammatory responses that promote the development of autoimmune diseases and inflammatory disorders. Numerous studies have shown that enhancing or inhibiting the action of IL-21 has therapeutic effects in animal models of a wide range of diseases, and various clinical trials are underway. The current challenge is to understand how to specifically modulate the actions of IL-21 in the context of each specific immune response or pathological situation. In this Review, we provide an overview of the basic biology of IL-21 and discuss how this information has been - and can be - exploited therapeutically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosanne Spolski
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Warren J Leonard
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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22
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Moens L, Tangye SG. Cytokine-Mediated Regulation of Plasma Cell Generation: IL-21 Takes Center Stage. Front Immunol 2014; 5:65. [PMID: 24600453 PMCID: PMC3927127 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During our life, we are surrounded by continuous threats from a diverse range of invading pathogens. Our immune system has evolved multiple mechanisms to efficiently deal with these threats so as to prevent them from causing disease. Terminal differentiation of mature B cells into plasma cells (PC) – the antibody (Ab) secreting cells of the immune system – is critical for the generation of protective and long-lived humoral immune responses. Indeed, efficient production of antigen (Ag)-specific Ab by activated B cells underlies the success of most currently available vaccines. The mature B-cell pool is composed of several subsets, distinguished from one according to size, surface marker expression, location, and Ag exposure, and they all have the capacity to differentiate into PCs. For a B-cell to acquire the capacity to produce Abs, it must undergo an extensive differentiation process driven by changes in gene expression. Two broad categories of Ags exist that cause B-cell activation and differentiation: T cell dependent (TD) or T cell independent (TI). In addition to the B-cell subset and nature of the Ag, it is important to consider the cytokine environment that can also influence how B-cell differentiation is achieved. Thus, while many cytokines can induce Ab-secretion by B cells after activation with mimics of TD and TI stimuli in vitro, they can have different efficacies and specificities, and can often preferentially induce production of one particular Ig isotype over another. Here, we will provide an overview of in vitro studies (mouse and human origin) that evaluated the role of different cytokines in inducing the differentiation of distinct B-cell subsets to the PC lineage. We will place particular emphasis on IL-21, which has emerged as the most potent inducer of terminal B-cell differentiation in humans. We will also focus on the role of IL-21 and defects in B-cell function and how these contribute to human immunopathologies such as primary immunodeficiencies and B-cell mediated autoimmune conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leen Moens
- Immunology and Immunodeficiency Group, Immunology Research Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research , Darlinghurst, NSW , Australia
| | - Stuart G Tangye
- Immunology and Immunodeficiency Group, Immunology Research Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research , Darlinghurst, NSW , Australia ; St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales , Darlinghurst, NSW , Australia
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23
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Tellier J, Nutt SL. The unique features of follicular T cell subsets. Cell Mol Life Sci 2013; 70:4771-84. [PMID: 23852544 PMCID: PMC11113495 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-013-1420-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Revised: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 06/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The germinal center (GC) reaction is critical for humoral immunity, but also contributes adversely to a variety of autoimmune diseases. While the major protective function of GCs is mediated by plasma cells and memory B cells, follicular helper T (TFH) cells represent a specialized T cell subset that provides essential help to the antigen-specific B cells in the form of membrane-bound ligands and secreted factors such as IL-21. Recent studies have revealed that TFH cells are capable of considerable functional diversity as well as possessing the ability to form memory cells. The molecular basis of this plasticity and heterogeneity is only now emerging. It has also become apparent that several other populations of follicular T cells exist, including natural killer T cells and regulatory T cells. In this review we will discuss the function of follicular T cells and interaction of these populations within the GC response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Tellier
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia,
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24
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Phares TW, DiSano KD, Hinton DR, Hwang M, Zajac AJ, Stohlman SA, Bergmann CC. IL-21 optimizes T cell and humoral responses in the central nervous system during viral encephalitis. J Neuroimmunol 2013; 263:43-54. [PMID: 23992866 PMCID: PMC3796038 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2013.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Revised: 07/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Acute coronavirus encephalomyelitis is controlled by T cells while humoral responses suppress virus persistence. This study defines the contribution of interleukin (IL)-21, a regulator of T and B cell function, to central nervous system (CNS) immunity. IL-21 receptor deficiency did not affect peripheral T cell activation or trafficking, but dampened granzyme B, gamma interferon and IL-10 expression by CNS T cells and reduced serum and intrathecal humoral responses. Viral control was already lost prior to humoral CNS responses, but demyelination remained comparable. These data demonstrate a critical role of IL-21 in regulating CNS immunity, sustaining viral persistence and preventing mortality. IL-21 optimizes CNS CD4 and CD8 T cell responses during viral encephalomyelitis. IL-21 promotes peripheral and CNS humoral immunity. IL-21 promotes CNS viral control and prevents mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy W. Phares
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Krista D. DiSano
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242, USA
| | - David R. Hinton
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Mihyun Hwang
- Department of Immunology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Allan J. Zajac
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Stephen A. Stohlman
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Cornelia C. Bergmann
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Corresponding author at: Department of Neuroscience, Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, NC30, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA. Tel.: + 1 216 444 5922; fax: + 1 216 444 7927.
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Auderset F, Schuster S, Fasnacht N, Coutaz M, Charmoy M, Koch U, Favre S, Wilson A, Trottein F, Alexander J, Luther SA, MacDonald HR, Radtke F, Tacchini-Cottier F. Notch Signaling Regulates Follicular Helper T Cell Differentiation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 191:2344-50. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1300643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Dorfmeier CL, Tzvetkov EP, Gatt A, McGettigan JP. Investigating the role for IL-21 in rabies virus vaccine-induced immunity. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2129. [PMID: 23516660 PMCID: PMC3597479 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2012] [Accepted: 02/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Over two-thirds of the world's population lives in regions where rabies is endemic, resulting in over 15 million people receiving multi-dose post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) and over 55,000 deaths per year globally. A major goal in rabies virus (RABV) research is to develop a single-dose PEP that would simplify vaccination protocols, reduce costs associated with RABV prevention, and save lives. Protection against RABV infections requires virus neutralizing antibodies; however, factors influencing the development of protective RABV-specific B cell responses remain to be elucidated. Here we used a mouse model of IL-21 receptor-deficiency (IL-21R-/-) to characterize the role for IL-21 in RABV vaccine-induced immunity. IL-21R-/- mice immunized with a low dose of a live recombinant RABV-based vaccine (rRABV) produced only low levels of primary or secondary anti-RABV antibody response while wild-type mice developed potent anti-RABV antibodies. Furthermore, IL-21R-/- mice immunized with low-dose rRABV were only minimally protected against pathogenic RABV challenge, while all wild-type mice survived challenge, indicating that IL-21R signaling is required for antibody production in response to low-dose RABV-based vaccination. IL-21R-/- mice immunized with a higher dose of vaccine produced suboptimal anti-RABV primary antibody responses, but showed potent secondary antibodies and protection similar to wild-type mice upon challenge with pathogenic RABV, indicating that IL-21 is dispensable for secondary antibody responses to live RABV-based vaccines when a primary response develops. Furthermore, we show that IL-21 is dispensable for the generation of Tfh cells and memory B cells in the draining lymph nodes of immunized mice but is required for the detection of optimal GC B cells or plasma cells in the lymph node or bone marrow, respectively, in a vaccine dose-dependent manner. Collectively, our preliminary data show that IL-21 is critical for the development of optimal vaccine-induced primary but not secondary antibody responses against RABV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corin L. Dorfmeier
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Evgeni P. Tzvetkov
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Anthony Gatt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - James P. McGettigan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Jefferson Vaccine Center, Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Kimmel Cancer Center, Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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27
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Gutierrez T, Mayeux JM, Ortega SB, Karandikar NJ, Li QZ, Rakheja D, Zhou XJ, Satterthwaite AB. IL-21 promotes the production of anti-DNA IgG but is dispensable for kidney damage in lyn-/- mice. Eur J Immunol 2012; 43:382-93. [PMID: 23169140 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201142095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2011] [Revised: 10/27/2012] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The autoimmune disease systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by loss of tolerance to nuclear Ags and a heightened inflammatory environment, which together result in end organ damage. Lyn-deficient mice, a model of systemic lupus erythematosus, lack an inhibitor of B-cell and myeloid cell activation. This results in B-cell hyper-responsiveness, plasma cell accumulation, autoantibodies, and glomerulonephritis (GN). IL-21 is associated with autoimmunity in mice and humans and promotes B-cell differentiation and class switching. Here, we explore the role of IL-21 in the autoimmune phenotypes of lyn(-/-) mice. We find that IL-21 mRNA is reduced in the spleens of lyn(-/-) IL-6(-/-) and lyn(-/-) Btk(lo) mice, neither of which produce pathogenic autoantibodies or develop significant GN. While IL-21 is dispensable for plasma cell accumulation and IgM autoantibodies in lyn(-/-) mice, it is required for anti-DNA IgG antibodies and some aspects of T-cell activation. Surprisingly, GN still develops in lyn(-/-) IL-21(-/-) mice. This likely results from the presence of IgG autoantibodies against a limited set of non-DNA Ags. These studies identify a specific role for IL-21 in the class switching of anti-DNA B cells and demonstrate that neither IL-21 nor anti-DNA IgG is required for kidney damage in lyn(-/-) mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni Gutierrez
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-8884, USA
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28
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Reynolds LA, Filbey KJ, Maizels RM. Immunity to the model intestinal helminth parasite Heligmosomoides polygyrus. Semin Immunopathol 2012; 34:829-46. [PMID: 23053394 PMCID: PMC3496515 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-012-0347-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Heligmosomoides polygyrus is a natural intestinal parasite of mice, which offers an excellent model of the immunology of gastrointestinal helminth infections of humans and livestock. It is able to establish long-term chronic infections in many strains of mice, exerting potent immunomodulatory effects that dampen both protective immunity and bystander reactions to allergens and autoantigens. Immunity to the parasite develops naturally in some mouse strains and can be induced in others through immunization; while the mechanisms of protective immunity are not yet fully defined, both antibodies and a host cellular component are required, with strongest evidence for a role of alternatively activated macrophages. We discuss the balance between resistance and susceptibility in this model system and highlight new themes in innate and adaptive immunity, immunomodulation, and regulation of responsiveness in helminth infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A. Reynolds
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT UK
| | - Kara J. Filbey
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT UK
| | - Rick M. Maizels
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT UK
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT UK
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29
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Maizels RM, Hewitson JP, Murray J, Harcus YM, Dayer B, Filbey KJ, Grainger JR, McSorley HJ, Reynolds LA, Smith KA. Immune modulation and modulators in Heligmosomoides polygyrus infection. Exp Parasitol 2012; 132:76-89. [PMID: 21875581 PMCID: PMC6485391 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2011.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2011] [Revised: 08/09/2011] [Accepted: 08/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The intestinal nematode parasite Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri exerts widespread immunomodulatory effects on both the innate and adaptive immune system of the host. Infected mice adopt an immunoregulated phenotype, with abated allergic and autoimmune reactions. At the cellular level, infection is accompanied by expanded regulatory T cell populations, skewed dendritic cell and macrophage phenotypes, B cell hyperstimulation and multiple localised changes within the intestinal environment. In most mouse strains, these act to block protective Th2 immunity. The molecular basis of parasite interactions with the host immune system centres upon secreted products termed HES (H. polygyrus excretory-secretory antigen), which include a TGF-β-like ligand that induces de novo regulatory T cells, factors that modify innate inflammatory responses, and molecules that block allergy in vivo. Proteomic and transcriptomic definition of parasite proteins, combined with biochemical identification of immunogenic molecules in resistant mice, will provide new candidate immunomodulators and vaccine antigens for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rick M Maizels
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK.
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Tangye SG, Deenick EK, Palendira U, Ma CS. T cell-B cell interactions in primary immunodeficiencies. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2012; 1250:1-13. [PMID: 22288566 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06361.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Regulated interactions between cells of the immune system facilitate the generation of successful immune responses, thereby enabling efficient neutralization and clearance of pathogens and the establishment of both cell- and humoral-mediated immunological memory. The corollary of this is that impediments to efficient cell-cell interactions, normally necessary for differentiation and effector functions of immune cells, underly the clinical features and disease pathogenesis of primary immunodeficiencies. In affected individuals, these defects manifest as impaired long-term humoral immunity and susceptibility to infection by specific pathogens. In this review, we discuss the importance of, and requirements for, effective interactions between B cells and T cells during the formation of CD4(+) T follicular helper cells and the elicitation of cytotoxic function of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells, as well as how these processes are abrogated in primary immunodeficiencies due to loss-of-function mutations in defined genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart G Tangye
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia.
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31
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Abstract
It is well established that the generation of a high-affinity long-lived antibody response requires the presence of T cells, specifically CD4+ T cells. These CD4+ T cells support the generation of a germinal centre (GC) response where somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation take place leading to the generation of memory B cells and plasma cells, which provide long-lasting protection. Greater insight into the nature of the CD4+ T cells involved in this process was provided by two studies in 2000 that described CD4+ T cells residing in the B cell follicle that expressed CXCR5. As a result these cells were named follicular B helper T cells, now more commonly known as T follicular helper (Tfh) cells. Since then there has been enormous growth in our understanding of these cells, now considered a distinct T helper (Th) cell lineage that can arise from naive CD4+ T cells following activation. This review summarizes some of the most recent work that has characterized Tfh cells and the pathways that lead to their generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elissa K Deenick
- Immunology Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia.
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King IL, Fortier A, Tighe M, Dibble J, Watts GFM, Veerapen N, Haberman AM, Besra GS, Mohrs M, Brenner MB, Leadbetter EA. Invariant natural killer T cells direct B cell responses to cognate lipid antigen in an IL-21-dependent manner. Nat Immunol 2011; 13:44-50. [PMID: 22120118 DOI: 10.1038/ni.2172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2011] [Accepted: 10/25/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Mouse invariant natural killer T cells (iNKT cells) provide cognate and noncognate help for lipid and protein-specific B cells, respectively. However, the long-term outcome for B cells after cognate help is provided by iNKT cells is unknown at present. Here we found that cognate iNKT cell help resulted in a B cell differentiation program characterized by extrafollicular plasmablasts, germinal-center formation, affinity maturation and a robust primary immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody response that was uniquely dependent on iNKT cell-derived interleukin 21 (IL-21). However, cognate help from iNKT cells did not generate an enhanced humoral memory response. Thus, cognate iNKT cell help for lipid-specific B cells induces a unique signature that is a hybrid of classic T cell-dependent and T cell-independent type 2 B cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irah L King
- Trudeau Institute, Saranac Lake, New York, USA
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Mekhaiel DNA, Daniel-Ribeiro CT, Cooper PJ, Pleass RJ. Do regulatory antibodies offer an alternative mechanism to explain the hygiene hypothesis? Trends Parasitol 2011; 27:523-9. [PMID: 21943801 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2011.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2011] [Revised: 08/17/2011] [Accepted: 08/18/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The 'hygiene hypothesis', or lack of microbial and parasite exposure during early life, is postulated as an explanation for the recent increase in autoimmune and allergic diseases in developed countries. The favored mechanism is that microbial and parasite-derived products interact directly with pathogen recognition receptors to subvert proinflammatory signaling via T regulatory cells, thereby inducing anti-inflammatory effects and control of autoimmune disease. Parasites, such as helminths, are considered to have a major role in the induction of immune regulatory mechanisms among children living in developing countries. Invoking Occam's razor, we believe we can select an alternative mechanism to explain the hygiene hypothesis, based on antibody-mediated inhibition of immune responses that may more simply explain the available evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- David N A Mekhaiel
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
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34
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Germinal center B and follicular helper T cells: siblings, cousins or just good friends? Nat Immunol 2011; 12:472-7. [DOI: 10.1038/ni.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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