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Staples JE, Gibney KB, Panella AJ, Prince HE, Basile AJ, Laven J, Sejvar JJ, Fischer M. Duration of West Nile Virus Immunoglobulin M Antibodies up to 81 Months Following West Nile Virus Disease Onset. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2022; 106:tpmd211234. [PMID: 35405658 PMCID: PMC9209930 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.21-1234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) IgM antibodies typically indicate a recent infection. However, WNV IgM antibodies can remain detectable for months to years following illness onset. We found that 23% (11/47) of samples tested with a WNV ELISA and 43% (20/47) of samples tested with WNV microsphere immunoassay (MIA) at 16-19 months following WNV illness onset were positive for IgM antibodies. The proportion of samples testing positive for WNV IgM by ELISA decreased over time, but 5% (2/44) of individuals remained positive at 60-63 months after their acute illness and 4% (2/50) were WNV IgM equivocal at 72-81 months. Testing by MIA showed the same general trend of decreased proportion positive over time though the rates of positivity were higher at most time points compared with the ELISA, including 6% (3/50) of participant's samples identified as IgM positive by MIA at 72-81 months post their acute illness. With the MIA, there also was a high proportion of samples with nonspecific results at each time point; average of 23% across all time points. Clinicians and public health officials should consider these findings along with clinical and epidemiologic data when interpreting WNV IgM antibody test results.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Erin Staples
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Katherine B. Gibney
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
- Epidemic Intelligence Service Program, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Amanda J. Panella
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Harry E. Prince
- Quest Diagnostics Infectious Disease, Inc., San Juan Capistrano, California
| | - Alison J. Basile
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Janeen Laven
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - James J. Sejvar
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Marc Fischer
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Ciota AT. Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Taxonomy, Genomics, and Evolution. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2022; 59:14-19. [PMID: 34734630 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjab079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV; Togaviridae, Alphavirus) is an arthropod-borne virus (arbovirus) primarily maintained in an enzootic cycle between Culiseta melanura (Coquillett) and passerine birds. EEEV, which has the highest reported case- fatality rate among arbovirus in the Americas, is responsible for sporadic outbreaks in the Eastern and Midwest United States. Infection is associated with severe neurologic disease and mortality in horses, humans, and other vertebrate hosts. Here, we review what is known about EEEV taxonomy, functional genomics, and evolution, and identify gaps in knowledge regarding the role of EEEV genetic diversity in transmission and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander T Ciota
- The Arbovirus Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Albany School of Public Health, Rensselaer, NY
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3
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Noden BH, Cote NM, Reiskind MH, Talley JL. Invasive Plants as Foci of Mosquito-Borne Pathogens: Red Cedar in the Southern Great Plains of the USA. ECOHEALTH 2021; 18:475-486. [PMID: 34613506 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-021-01562-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is the most significant mosquito-borne disease affecting humans in the United States. Eastern redcedar (ERC) is a native encroaching plant in the southern Great Plains that greatly alters abiotic conditions and bird and mosquito populations. This study tested the hypotheses that mosquito communities and their likelihood of WNV infection differ between ERC and other habitats in the southern Great Plains of the United States. We found support for our first hypothesis, with significantly more Culex tarsalis and Culex erraticus in ERC than deciduous and grass habitats. Mosquito communities in Central Oklahoma were more diverse (21 species) than western Oklahoma (11 species) but this difference was not associated with vegetation. Our second hypothesis was also supported, with significantly more WNV-infected Culex from ERC in both regions, as was our third hypothesis, with significantly more Culex tarsalis and Culex pipiens collected in ERC than other habitats in urban areas. The connection of mosquito-borne disease with invasive plants suggests that land management initiatives can affect human health and should be considered in light of public health impact. Evidence from other vector-borne disease suggests invasive plants, both in the Great Plains and globally, may facilitate the transmission of vector-borne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce H Noden
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University, 127 Noble Research Center, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
| | - Noel M Cote
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University, 127 Noble Research Center, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Michael H Reiskind
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, 2310 Gardner Hall, Raleigh, NC, 27696, USA
| | - Justin L Talley
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University, 127 Noble Research Center, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
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4
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Snyder RE, Cooksey GS, Kramer V, Jain S, Vugia DJ. West Nile Virus-Associated Hospitalizations, California, 2004-2017. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73:441-447. [PMID: 32525967 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND West Nile virus (WNV) is the most commonly reported mosquito-borne disease in the USA. California reports more WNV disease than any other state. METHODS We identified WNV-associated hospitalizations from 2004 through 2017 in California and estimated hospitalization incidence using Patient Discharge Data. We described demographic, geographic, and clinical characteristics of WNV hospitalizations; identified risk factors for in-hospital death; and tabulated hospitalization charges. RESULTS From 2004 through 2017, 3109 Californians were hospitalized with WNV (median, 214 patients/year; range, 72-449). The majority were male (1983; 63.8%) and aged ≥60 years (1766; 56.8%). The highest median annual hospitalization rate (0.88 hospitalizations/100 000 persons) was in the Central Valley, followed by southern California (0.59 hospitalizations/100 000 persons). Most patients (2469; 79.4%) had ≥1 underlying condition, including hypertension, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, or immunosuppression due to medications or disease. Median hospitalization length of stay was 12 days (interquartile range, 6-23 days). During hospitalization, 1317 (42%) patients had acute respiratory failure and/or sepsis/septic shock, 772 (24.8%) experienced acute kidney failure, and 470 (15.1%) had paralysis; 272 (8.8%) patients died. Nearly 47% (1444) of patients were discharged for additional care. During these 14 years, $838 680 664 (mean $59.9 million/year) was charged for WNV hospitalizations, 73.9% through government payers at a median charge of $142 321/patient. CONCLUSIONS WNV-associated hospitalizations were substantial and costly in California. Hospitalization incidence was higher in males, elderly persons, and patients with underlying conditions. WNV persists as a costly and severe public health threat in California.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert E Snyder
- Infectious Diseases Branch, Division of Communicable Disease Control, California Department of Public Health, Sacramento and Richmond, California, USA
| | - Gail Sondermeyer Cooksey
- Infectious Diseases Branch, Division of Communicable Disease Control, California Department of Public Health, Sacramento and Richmond, California, USA
| | - Vicki Kramer
- Infectious Diseases Branch, Division of Communicable Disease Control, California Department of Public Health, Sacramento and Richmond, California, USA
| | - Seema Jain
- Infectious Diseases Branch, Division of Communicable Disease Control, California Department of Public Health, Sacramento and Richmond, California, USA
| | - Duc J Vugia
- Infectious Diseases Branch, Division of Communicable Disease Control, California Department of Public Health, Sacramento and Richmond, California, USA
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5
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Pierson BC, Cardile AP, Okwesili AC, Downs IL, Reisler RB, Boudreau EF, Kortepeter MG, Koca CD, Ranadive MV, Petitt PL, Kanesa-Thasan N, Rivard RG, Liggett DL, Haller JM, Norris SL, Purcell BK, Pittman PR, Saunders DL, Keshtkar Jahromi M. Safety and immunogenicity of an inactivated eastern equine encephalitis virus vaccine. Vaccine 2021; 39:2780-2790. [PMID: 33888325 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.03.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is a mosquito borne alphavirus spread primarily in Atlantic and Gulf Coast regions of the United States. EEEV is the causative agent of a devastating meningoencephalitis syndrome, with approximately 30% mortality and significant morbidity. There is no licensed human vaccine against EEEV. An inactivated EEEV vaccine has been offered under investigational new drug (IND) protocols at the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) since 1976. METHODS Healthy at-risk laboratory personnel received inactivated PE-6 strain EEEV (TSI-GSD 104) vaccine under two separate IND protocols. Protocol FY 99-11 (2002-2008) had a primary series consisting of doses on day 0, 7, and 28. Protocol FY 06-31 (2008-2016) utilized a primary series with doses on day 0 and 28, and month 6. Participants with an inadequate immune response, plaque reduction neutralization test with 80% cut-off (PRNT80) titer < 40, received booster vaccination. Volunteers with prior EEEV vaccination were eligible to enroll for booster doses based on annual titer evaluation. RESULTS The FY06-31 dosing schema resulted in significantly greater post-primary series immune response (PRNT80 ≥ 40) rates (84% vs 54%) and geometric mean titers (184.1 vs 39.4). The FY 06-31 dosing schema also resulted in significantly greater cumulative annual immune response rates from 1 to up to 7 years post vaccination (75% vs 59%) and geometric mean of titers (60.1 vs 43.0). The majority of probably or definitely related adverse events were mild and local; there were no probably or definitely related serious adverse events. CONCLUSIONS Inactivated PE-6 EEEV vaccine is safe and immunogenic in at-risk laboratory personnel. A prolonged primary series, with month 6 dose, significantly improved vaccine immunogenicity both post-primary series and longitudinally on annual titers. Despite decades of safe use under IND, full licensure is not planned due to manufacturing constraints, and ongoing development of alternatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin C Pierson
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States.
| | - Anthony P Cardile
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Arthur C Okwesili
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Isaac L Downs
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Ronald B Reisler
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Ellen F Boudreau
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Mark G Kortepeter
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Craig D Koca
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Manmohan V Ranadive
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Patricia L Petitt
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Niranjan Kanesa-Thasan
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Robert G Rivard
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Dani L Liggett
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Jeannine M Haller
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Sarah L Norris
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Bret K Purcell
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Phillip R Pittman
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - David L Saunders
- Division of Medicine, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Maryam Keshtkar Jahromi
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 733 N Broadway, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
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Hossain MS, Hossan MI, Mizan S, Moin AT, Yasmin F, Akash AS, Powshi SN, Hasan AR, Chowdhury AS. Immunoinformatics approach to designing a multi-epitope vaccine against Saint Louis Encephalitis Virus. INFORMATICS IN MEDICINE UNLOCKED 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imu.2020.100500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
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Miley KM, Downs J, Beeman SP, Unnasch TR. Impact of the Southern Oscillation Index, Temperature, and Precipitation on Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Activity in Florida. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2020; 57:1604-1613. [PMID: 32436566 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjaa084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), an Alphavirus from family Togaviridae, is a highly pathogenic arbovirus affecting the eastern United States, especially Florida. Effects of the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), precipitation, and cooling degree days on EEEV horse case data in Florida from 2004 to 2018 were modeled using distributed lag nonlinear models (DLNMs). The analysis was conducted at statewide and regional scales. DLNMs were used to model potential delayed effects of the covariates on monthly counts of horse cases. Both models confirmed a seasonal trend in EEEV transmission and found that precipitation, cooling degree days, and the SOI were all predictors of monthly numbers of horse cases. EEEV activity in horses was associated with higher amounts of rainfall during the month of transmission at the statewide scale, as well as the prior 3 mo at the regional scale, fewer cooling degree days during the month of transmission and the preceding 3 mo and high SOI values during the month and the previous 2 mo, and SOI values in the prior 2 to 8 mo. Horse cases were lower during El Niño winters but higher during the following summer, while La Niña winters were associated with higher numbers of cases and fewer during the following summer. At the regional scale, extremely low levels of precipitation were associated with a suppression of EEEV cases for 3 mo. Given the periodicity and potential predictability of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycles, precipitation, and temperature, these results may provide a method for predicting EEEV risk potential in Florida.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristi M Miley
- Global Health Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd, Suite 304, Tampa, FL
| | - Joni Downs
- School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, 4202 E Fowler Ave, Tampa, FL
| | - Sean P Beeman
- Global Health Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd, Suite 304, Tampa, FL
| | - Thomas R Unnasch
- Global Health Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd, Suite 304, Tampa, FL
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8
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Pouch SM, Katugaha SB, Shieh WJ, Annambhotla P, Walker WL, Basavaraju SV, Jones J, Huynh T, Reagan-Steiner S, Bhatnagar J, Grimm K, Stramer SL, Gabel J, Lyon GM, Mehta AK, Kandiah P, Neujahr DC, Javidfar J, Subramanian RM, Parekh SM, Shah P, Cooper L, Psotka MA, Radcliffe R, Williams C, Zaki SR, Staples JE, Fischer M, Panella AJ, Lanciotti RS, Laven JJ, Kosoy O, Rabe IB, Gould CV. Transmission of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus From an Organ Donor to 3 Transplant Recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 69:450-458. [PMID: 30371754 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In fall 2017, 3 solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients from a common donor developed encephalitis within 1 week of transplantation, prompting suspicion of transplant-transmitted infection. Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) infection was identified during testing of endomyocardial tissue from the heart recipient. METHODS We reviewed medical records of the organ donor and transplant recipients and tested serum, whole blood, cerebrospinal fluid, and tissue from the donor and recipients for evidence of EEEV infection by multiple assays. We investigated blood transfusion as a possible source of organ donor infection by testing remaining components and serum specimens from blood donors. We reviewed data from the pretransplant organ donor evaluation and local EEEV surveillance. RESULTS We found laboratory evidence of recent EEEV infection in all organ recipients and the common donor. Serum collected from the organ donor upon hospital admission tested negative, but subsequent samples obtained prior to organ recovery were positive for EEEV RNA. There was no evidence of EEEV infection among donors of the 8 blood products transfused into the organ donor or in products derived from these donations. Veterinary and mosquito surveillance showed recent EEEV activity in counties nearby the organ donor's county of residence. Neuroinvasive EEEV infection directly contributed to the death of 1 organ recipient and likely contributed to death in another. CONCLUSIONS Our investigation demonstrated EEEV transmission through SOT. Mosquito-borne transmission of EEEV to the organ donor was the likely source of infection. Clinicians should be aware of EEEV as a cause of transplant-associated encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M Pouch
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Shalika B Katugaha
- Infectious Diseases Physicians, Inc, Inova Fairfax Hospital Heart and Vascular Institute, Falls Church, Virginia
| | - Wun-Ju Shieh
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Pallavi Annambhotla
- Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - William L Walker
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado.,Epidemic Intelligence Service, Center for Surveillance, Epidemiology and Laboratory Services, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Sridhar V Basavaraju
- Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jefferson Jones
- Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Thanhthao Huynh
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Sarah Reagan-Steiner
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Julu Bhatnagar
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Kacie Grimm
- American Red Cross, Gaithersburg, Maryland, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Susan L Stramer
- American Red Cross, Gaithersburg, Maryland, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Julie Gabel
- Georgia Department of Public Health, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - G Marshall Lyon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Aneesh K Mehta
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Prem Kandiah
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - David C Neujahr
- Division of Pulmonary Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jeffrey Javidfar
- Department of Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Ram M Subramanian
- Division of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Samir M Parekh
- Division of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Palak Shah
- Department of Heart Failure and Transplantation, Inova Fairfax Hospital Heart and Vascular Institute, Falls Church, Virginia
| | - Lauren Cooper
- Department of Heart Failure and Transplantation, Inova Fairfax Hospital Heart and Vascular Institute, Falls Church, Virginia
| | - Mitchell A Psotka
- Department of Heart Failure and Transplantation, Inova Fairfax Hospital Heart and Vascular Institute, Falls Church, Virginia
| | - Rachel Radcliffe
- Division of Acute Disease Epidemiology, South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control, Columbia
| | | | - Sherif R Zaki
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - J Erin Staples
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Marc Fischer
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Amanda J Panella
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | | | - Janeen J Laven
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Olga Kosoy
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Ingrid B Rabe
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Carolyn V Gould
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
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9
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Skaff NK, Cheng Q, Clemesha RES, Collender PA, Gershunov A, Head JR, Hoover CM, Lettenmaier DP, Rohr JR, Snyder RE, Remais JV. Thermal thresholds heighten sensitivity of West Nile virus transmission to changing temperatures in coastal California. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201065. [PMID: 32752986 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Temperature is widely known to influence the spatio-temporal dynamics of vector-borne disease transmission, particularly as temperatures vary across critical thermal thresholds. When temperature conditions exhibit such 'transcritical variation', abrupt spatial or temporal discontinuities may result, generating sharp geographical or seasonal boundaries in transmission. Here, we develop a spatio-temporal machine learning algorithm to examine the implications of transcritical variation for West Nile virus (WNV) transmission in the Los Angeles metropolitan area (LA). Analysing a large vector and WNV surveillance dataset spanning 2006-2016, we found that mean temperatures in the previous month strongly predicted the probability of WNV presence in pools of Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes, forming distinctive inhibitory (10.0-21.0°C) and favourable (22.7-30.2°C) mean temperature ranges that bound a narrow 1.7°C transitional zone (21-22.7°C). Temperatures during the most intense months of WNV transmission (August/September) were more strongly associated with infection probability in Cx. quinquefasciatus pools in coastal LA, where temperature variation more frequently traversed the narrow transitional temperature range compared to warmer inland locations. This contributed to a pronounced expansion in the geographical distribution of human cases near the coast during warmer-than-average periods. Our findings suggest that transcritical variation may influence the sensitivity of transmission to climate warming, and that especially vulnerable locations may occur where present climatic fluctuations traverse critical temperature thresholds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas K Skaff
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Qu Cheng
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Rachel E S Clemesha
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Philip A Collender
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Alexander Gershunov
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Jennifer R Head
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Christopher M Hoover
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | | | - Jason R Rohr
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, and Environmental Change Initiative, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Robert E Snyder
- California Department of Public Health, Vector-Borne Disease Section, Sacramento, CA 95814, USA
| | - Justin V Remais
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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10
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Venkat H, Krow-Lucal E, Kretschmer M, Sylvester T, Levy C, Adams L, Fitzpatrick K, Laven J, Kosoy O, Sunenshine R, Smith K, Townsend J, Chevinsky J, Hennessey M, Jones J, Komatsu K, Fischer M, Hills S. Comparison of Characteristics of Patients with West Nile Virus or St. Louis Encephalitis Virus Neuroinvasive Disease During Concurrent Outbreaks, Maricopa County, Arizona, 2015. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2020; 20:624-629. [PMID: 32251616 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2019.2572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) and St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) are closely related mosquito-borne flaviviruses that can cause neuroinvasive disease. No concurrent WNV and SLEV disease outbreaks have previously been identified. When concurrent outbreaks occurred in 2015 in Maricopa County, Arizona, we collected data to describe the epidemiology, and to compare features of patients with WNV and SLEV neuroinvasive disease. We performed enhanced case finding, and gathered information from medical records and patient interviews. A case was defined as a clinically compatible illness and laboratory evidence of WNV, SLEV, or unspecified flavivirus infection in a person residing in Maricopa County in 2015. We compared demographic and clinical features of WNV and SLEV neuroinvasive cases; for this analysis, a case was defined as physician-documented encephalitis or meningitis and a white blood cell count >5 cells/mm3 in cerebrospinal fluid. In total, we identified 82 cases, including 39 WNV, 21 SLEV, and 22 unspecified flavivirus cases. The comparative analysis included 21 WNV and 14 SLEV neuroinvasive cases. Among neuroinvasive cases, the median age of patients with SLEV (63 years) was higher than WNV (52 years). Patients had similar symptoms; rash was identified more frequently in WNV (33%) neuroinvasive cases than in SLEV (7%) cases, but this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.11). In summary, during the first known concurrent WNV and SLEV disease outbreaks, no specific clinical features were identified that could differentiate between WNV and SLEV neuroinvasive cases. Health care providers should consider both infections in patients with aseptic meningitis or encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Venkat
- Arizona Department of Health Services, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.,Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.,Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Elisabeth Krow-Lucal
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Tammy Sylvester
- Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Craig Levy
- Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Laura Adams
- Arizona Department of Health Services, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.,Career Epidemiology Field Officer Program, Center for Preparedness and Response, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Kathryn Fitzpatrick
- Arizona State Public Health Laboratory, Arizona Department of Health Services, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Janeen Laven
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Olga Kosoy
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Rebecca Sunenshine
- Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.,Career Epidemiology Field Officer Program, Center for Preparedness and Response, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Kirk Smith
- Vector Control Division, Maricopa County Environmental Services Department, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - John Townsend
- Vector Control Division, Maricopa County Environmental Services Department, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Jennifer Chevinsky
- Epidemiology Elective Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Morgan Hennessey
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Jefferson Jones
- Arizona Department of Health Services, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.,Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.,Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Ken Komatsu
- Arizona Department of Health Services, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Marc Fischer
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Susan Hills
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
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11
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Tokarz RE, Smith RC. Crossover Dynamics of Culex (Diptera: Culicidae) Vector Populations Determine WNV Transmission Intensity. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2020; 57:289-296. [PMID: 31310655 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjz122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
First introduced into the United States in 1999, West Nile virus (WNV) has become endemic and has established itself as the predominant mosquito-borne arbovirus in North America. Transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus Culex, regional landscapes influence local vector species abundance, creating different mosquito ecologies that drive local transmission dynamics. In central Iowa, two mosquito species, Culex restuans Theobald and Culex pipiens Linnaeus, serve as the predominant mosquito vectors. Importantly, these mosquito populations are influenced by seasonal patterns in their abundance, with Cx. restuans preferring cool, early spring temperatures, while Cx. pipiens prefer the warmer, mid- to late-summer months. The point of the season at which Cx. pipiens becomes the dominant species is generally referred to as a 'crossover' period. To better understand the influence of crossover dynamics on WNV transmission, we examined environmental and mosquito abundance data, as well as mosquito infection rates and human disease cases from 2016 to 2018. We demonstrate that temperature influences the timing and duration of the crossover period, influencing mosquito abundance and human disease transmission. Together, these results suggest that Culex species crossover is an important variable of WNV transmission dynamics, which may provide an early warning indicators of increased WNV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan E Tokarz
- Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
| | - Ryan C Smith
- Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
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12
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Curren EJ, Lindsey NP, Fischer M, Hills SL. St. Louis Encephalitis Virus Disease in the United States, 2003-2017. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2019; 99:1074-1079. [PMID: 30182919 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.18-0420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV), an arthropod-borne flavivirus, can cause disease presentations ranging from mild febrile illness through severe encephalitis. We reviewed U.S. national SLEV surveillance data for 2003 through 2017, including human disease cases and nonhuman infections. Over the 15-year period, 198 counties from 33 states and the District of Columbia reported SLEV activity; 94 (47%) of those counties reported SLEV activity only in nonhuman species. A total of 193 human cases of SLEV disease were reported, including 148 cases of neuroinvasive disease. A median of 10 cases were reported per year. The national average annual incidence of reported neuroinvasive disease cases was 0.03 per million. States with the highest average annual incidence of reported neuroinvasive disease cases were Arkansas, Arizona, and Mississippi. No large outbreaks occurred during the reporting period. The most commonly reported clinical syndromes were encephalitis (N = 116, 60%), febrile illness (N = 35, 18%), and meningitis (N = 25, 13%). Median age of cases was 57 years (range 2-89 years). The case fatality rate was 6% (11/193) and all deaths were among patients aged > 45 years with neuroinvasive disease. Nonhuman surveillance data indicated wider SLEV activity in California, Nevada, and Florida than the human data alone suggested. Prevention depends on community efforts to reduce mosquito populations and personal protective measures to decrease exposure to mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Curren
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.,Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Nicole P Lindsey
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Marc Fischer
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Susan L Hills
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
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13
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McGuckin Wuertz K, Treuting PM, Hemann EA, Esser-Nobis K, Snyder AG, Graham JB, Daniels BP, Wilkins C, Snyder JM, Voss KM, Oberst A, Lund J, Gale M. STING is required for host defense against neuropathological West Nile virus infection. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007899. [PMID: 31415679 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile Virus (WNV), an emerging and re-emerging RNA virus, is the leading source of arboviral encephalitic morbidity and mortality in the United States. WNV infections are acutely controlled by innate immunity in peripheral tissues outside of the central nervous system (CNS) but WNV can evade the actions of interferon (IFN) to facilitate CNS invasion, causing encephalitis, encephalomyelitis, and death. Recent studies indicate that STimulator of INterferon Gene (STING), canonically known for initiating a type I IFN production and innate immune response to cytosolic DNA, is required for host defense against neurotropic RNA viruses. We evaluated the role of STING in host defense to control WNV infection and pathology in a murine model of infection. When challenged with WNV, STING knock out (-/-) mice displayed increased morbidity and mortality compared to wild type (WT) mice. Virologic analysis and assessment of STING activation revealed that STING signaling was not required for control of WNV in the spleen nor was WNV sufficient to mediate canonical STING activation in vitro. However, STING-/- mice exhibited a clear trend of increased viral load and virus dissemination in the CNS. We found that STING-/- mice exhibited increased and prolonged neurological signs compared to WT mice. Pathological examination revealed increased lesions, mononuclear cellular infiltration and neuronal death in the CNS of STING-/- mice, with sustained pathology after viral clearance. We found that STING was required in bone marrow derived macrophages for early control of WNV replication and innate immune activation. In vivo, STING-/- mice developed an aberrant T cell response in both the spleen and brain during WNV infection that linked with increased and sustained CNS pathology compared to WT mice. Our findings demonstrate that STING plays a critical role in immune programming for the control of neurotropic WNV infection and CNS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn McGuckin Wuertz
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Department of Defense; United States Army Medical Department, San Antonio, TX, United States of America
| | - Piper M Treuting
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Emily A Hemann
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Katharina Esser-Nobis
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Annelise G Snyder
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Jessica B Graham
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Brian P Daniels
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, United States of America
| | - Courtney Wilkins
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Jessica M Snyder
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Kathleen M Voss
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Andrew Oberst
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Lund
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Michael Gale
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
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14
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Heberlein-Larson LA, Tan Y, Stark LM, Cannons AC, Shilts MH, Unnasch TR, Das SR. Complex Epidemiological Dynamics of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus in Florida. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2019; 100:1266-1274. [PMID: 30860014 PMCID: PMC6493969 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.18-0783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) infection results in high mortality in infected horses and humans. Florida has been identified as an important source of EEEV epidemics to other states in the United States. In this study, we further characterized the epidemiological and evolutionary dynamics of EEEV in Florida. Epidemiological analysis of sentinel chicken seroconversion rates to EEEV infections during 2005-2016 suggested significant seasonality of EEEV activity in Florida. We observed significant annual activity of EEEV in the North and North Central regions, with little significant seasonality in the Panhandle region. Phylogenetic analysis of complete EEEV genome sequences from different host sources and regions in Florida during 1986-2014 revealed extensive genetic diversity and spatial dispersal of the virus within Florida and relatively more clustering of the viruses in the Panhandle region. We found no significant association between EEEV genetic variation and host source. Overall, our study revealed a complex epidemiological dynamic of EEEV within Florida, implicating the Panhandle region as a possible source of the virus with sustained year-round transmission. These findings will help in implementing targeted control measures that can have the most impact in reducing or eliminating EEEV and other mosquito-borne viral infections within Florida and in the rest of the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea A. Heberlein-Larson
- Florida Department of Health, Bureau of Public Health Laboratories, Tampa, Florida
- Global Health Infectious Disease Research Program, Department of Global Health, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
| | - Yi Tan
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Lillian M. Stark
- Florida Department of Health, Bureau of Public Health Laboratories, Tampa, Florida
| | - Andrew C. Cannons
- Florida Department of Health, Bureau of Public Health Laboratories, Tampa, Florida
| | - Meghan H. Shilts
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Thomas R. Unnasch
- Global Health Infectious Disease Research Program, Department of Global Health, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
| | - Suman R. Das
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
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15
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Nguyen C, Gray M, Burton TA, Foy SL, Foster JR, Gendernalik AL, Rückert C, Alout H, Young MC, Boze B, Ebel GD, Clapsaddle B, Foy BD. Evaluation of a novel West Nile virus transmission control strategy that targets Culex tarsalis with endectocide-containing blood meals. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007210. [PMID: 30845250 PMCID: PMC6424467 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Control of arbovirus transmission remains focused on vector control through application of insecticides directly to the environment. However, these insecticide applications are often reactive interventions that can be poorly-targeted, inadequate for localized control during outbreaks, and opposed due to environmental and toxicity concerns. In this study, we developed endectocide-treated feed as a systemic endectocide for birds to target blood feeding Culex tarsalis, the primary West Nile virus (WNV) bridge vector in the western United States, and conducted preliminary tests on the effects of deploying this feed in the field. In lab tests, ivermectin (IVM) was the most effective endectocide tested against Cx. tarsalis and WNV-infection did not influence mosquito mortality from IVM. Chickens and wild Eurasian collared doves exhibited no signs of toxicity when fed solely on bird feed treated with concentrations up to 200 mg IVM/kg of diet, and significantly more Cx. tarsalis that blood fed on these birds died (greater than 80% mortality) compared to controls (less than 25% mortality). Mosquito mortality following blood feeding correlated with IVM serum concentrations at the time of blood feeding, which dropped rapidly after the withdrawal of treated feed. Preliminary field testing over one WNV season in Fort Collins, Colorado demonstrated that nearly all birds captured around treated bird feeders had detectable levels of IVM in their blood. However, entomological data showed that WNV transmission was non-significantly reduced around treated bird feeders. With further development, deployment of ivermectin-treated bird feed might be an effective, localized WNV transmission control tool. West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne virus that causes significant disease and death every year in humans, domesticated animals, and wildlife. Control of WNV transmission is focused on controlling the mosquito vector through applications of insecticides directly to the environment. In this study, we evaluate a novel control strategy for WNV transmission by targeting the main mosquito bridge vector in the Great Plains region, Culex tarsalis, through its blood feeding behavior. Because Culex tarsalis favor taking blood meals from particular bird species, our strategy aims to target these bird species with endectocide-treated bird feed that will result in lethal blood meals for Cx. tarsalis. In this study, we developed a safe and effective formulation of ivermectin-treated diet that resulted in increased mortality for Cx. tarsalis blood fed on birds consuming this treated diet as compared to mosquitoes feeding on control birds. We also conducted a pilot field trial in Fort Collins, Colorado to test this strategy in a natural transmission cycle, which demonstrated promising results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chilinh Nguyen
- Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Meg Gray
- Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - Timothy A. Burton
- Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - Soleil L. Foy
- Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - John R. Foster
- Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - Alex Lazr Gendernalik
- Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - Claudia Rückert
- Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | | | - Michael C. Young
- Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - Broox Boze
- Vector Disease Control International, Little Rock, AR, United States of America
| | - Gregory D. Ebel
- Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | | | - Brian D. Foy
- Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
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16
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French CD, Willoughby RE, Pan A, Wong SJ, Foley JF, Wheat LJ, Fernandez J, Encarnacion R, Ondrush JM, Fatteh N, Paez A, David D, Javaid W, Amzuta IG, Neilan AM, Robbins GK, Brunner AM, Hu WT, Mishchuk DO, Slupsky CM. NMR metabolomics of cerebrospinal fluid differentiates inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0007045. [PMID: 30557317 PMCID: PMC6312347 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 12/31/2018] [Accepted: 12/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Myriad infectious and noninfectious causes of encephalomyelitis (EM) have similar clinical manifestations, presenting serious challenges to diagnosis and treatment. Metabolomics of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was explored as a method of differentiating among neurological diseases causing EM using a single CSF sample. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS 1H NMR metabolomics was applied to CSF samples from 27 patients with a laboratory-confirmed disease, including Lyme disease or West Nile Virus meningoencephalitis, multiple sclerosis, rabies, or Histoplasma meningitis, and 25 controls. Cluster analyses distinguished samples by infection status and moderately by pathogen, with shared and differentiating metabolite patterns observed among diseases. CART analysis predicted infection status with 100% sensitivity and 93% specificity. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE These preliminary results suggest the potential utility of CSF metabolomics as a rapid screening test to enhance diagnostic accuracies and improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin D. French
- Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Rodney E. Willoughby
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Disease, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- * E-mail: (REW); (CMS)
| | - Amy Pan
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Disease, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Susan J. Wong
- Wadsworth Center Diagnostic Immunology Laboratory, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - John F. Foley
- Intermountain Healthcare, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - L. Joseph Wheat
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Josefina Fernandez
- Hospital Infantil Robert Reid Cabral, Santo Domingo, Distrito Nacional, República Dominicana
| | - Rafael Encarnacion
- Hospital Infantil Robert Reid Cabral, Santo Domingo, Distrito Nacional, República Dominicana
| | | | - Naaz Fatteh
- Inova Fairfax Hospital, Fairfax, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Andres Paez
- Departamento de Ciencias Basicas, Universidad de la Salle, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Dan David
- Rabies Lab, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Beit Dagan, Israel
| | - Waleed Javaid
- Department of Medicine, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, United States of America
| | - Ioana G. Amzuta
- Department of Medicine, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, United States of America
| | - Anne M. Neilan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Gregory K. Robbins
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Andrew M. Brunner
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - William T. Hu
- Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Darya O. Mishchuk
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Carolyn M. Slupsky
- Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (REW); (CMS)
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17
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Goo L, Debbink K, Kose N, Sapparapu G, Doyle MP, Wessel AW, Richner JM, Burgomaster KE, Larman BC, Dowd KA, Diamond MS, Crowe JE, Pierson TC. A protective human monoclonal antibody targeting the West Nile virus E protein preferentially recognizes mature virions. Nat Microbiol 2018; 4:71-77. [PMID: 30455471 PMCID: PMC6435290 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-018-0283-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV), a member of the Flavivirus genus, is a leading cause of viral encephalitis in the United States1. The development of neutralizing antibodies against the flavivirus envelope (E) protein is critical for immunity and vaccine protection2. Previously identified candidate therapeutic mouse and human neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) target epitopes within the E domain III lateral ridge and the domain I-II hinge region, respectively3. To explore the neutralizing antibody repertoire elicited by WNV infection for potential therapeutic application, we isolated 10 mAbs from WNV-infected individuals. MAb WNV-86 neutralized WNV with a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 2 ng/mL, one of the most potently neutralizing flavivirus-specific antibodies ever isolated. WNV-86 targets an epitope in E domain II, and preferentially recognizes mature virions lacking an uncleaved form of the chaperone protein prM, unlike most flavivirus-specific antibodies4. In vitro selection experiments revealed a neutralization escape mechanism involving a glycan addition to E domain II. Finally, a single dose of WNV-86 administered two days post-infection protected mice from lethal WNV challenge. This study identifies a highly potent human neutralizing mAb with therapeutic potential that targets an epitope preferentially displayed on mature virions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Goo
- Viral Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.,Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kari Debbink
- Viral Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Nurgun Kose
- Vanderbilt Vaccine Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Gopal Sapparapu
- Department of Pediatrics, and the Vanderbilt Vaccine Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Michael P Doyle
- Department of Pathobiology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Alex W Wessel
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, and The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Justin M Richner
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, and The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Katherine E Burgomaster
- Viral Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Bridget C Larman
- Viral Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kimberly A Dowd
- Viral Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Michael S Diamond
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, and The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - James E Crowe
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathobiology, Microbiology and Immunology, and the Vanderbilt Vaccine Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
| | - Theodore C Pierson
- Viral Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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18
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Byrd BD, Williams CJ, Staples JE, Burkhalter KL, Savage HM, Doyle MS. Notes from the Field: Spatially Associated Coincident and Noncoincident Cases of La Crosse Encephalitis - North Carolina, 2002-2017. MMWR-MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT 2018; 67:1104-1105. [PMID: 30286057 PMCID: PMC6171896 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6739a8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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19
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Sadeghi M, Altan E, Deng X, Barker CM, Fang Y, Coffey LL, Delwart E. Virome of > 12 thousand Culex mosquitoes from throughout California. Virology 2018; 523:74-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2018.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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20
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Aroh C, Liang C, Raj P, Wakeland B, Yan N, Wakeland E. Co-circulation dynamics and persistence of newly introduced clades of 2012 outbreak associated West Nile Virus in Texas, 2012-2015. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 66:13-17. [PMID: 30153478 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The second largest outbreak of West Nile encephalitis and West Nile fever ever recorded occurred in the United States (U.S) in the summer of 2012. The outbreak was related to the widespread circulation of closely related clades, or groups, of West Nile virus (WNV) into multiple states where they were not previously found. Whether the invading 2012 strains were able to circulate and overwinter in states with their own endemic population of WNV is unknown and the effect of viral genetics on adaptation and persistence in a new ecological niche is unclear. In this study, we sequenced 70 mosquito isolates from multiple counties throughout Texas in 2012-2015. We identified isolates representative of previously described 2012 WNV groups (Groups 8-10) and discovered a novel group which we called Group 11. Although we identified isolates representative of WNV endemic (2/70) to Texas, most isolates (68/70) were related to the invading 2012 strains, and of these Group 10 (45/68) was predominant. We also observed differences among the 2012 WNV groups correlating to their genotype. Group 10 WNV in Texas, which carry two putative positively selected variants, had limited introductions into Texas, wide circulation, and strong evidence of continued persistence perhaps indicative of overwintering. In contrast, Groups 8 and 11, without positively selected variants, had multiple introductions into Texas, limited circulation, and limited persistence. Lastly, we identified a potential transmission source in New York for incoming Group 8 WNV into Texas. Altogether our study suggests that mutations in the WNV genome may influence the range and dynamics of WNV circulation, and the ability of different strains to persist in new ecological niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chukwuemika Aroh
- UT Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, USA.
| | - Chaoying Liang
- UT Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Prithvi Raj
- UT Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Benjamin Wakeland
- UT Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Nan Yan
- UT Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Edward Wakeland
- UT Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, USA.
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21
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Lindsey NP, Staples JE, Fischer M. Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus in the United States, 2003-2016. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2018; 98:1472-1477. [PMID: 29557336 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is a mosquito-borne alphavirus found in the eastern United States. Eastern equine encephalitis virus disease in humans is rare but can result in severe, often fatal, illness. This report summarizes the national EEEV surveillance data for 2003 through 2016, including human disease cases and nonhuman infections. Over the 14-year period, 633 counties from 33 states reported EEEV activity; 88% of those counties reported EEEV activity only in nonhuman species. A total of 121 human cases of EEEV disease were reported, with a median of eight cases reported annually. The national average annual incidence of EEEV neuroinvasive disease was 0.03 cases per million population. States with the highest average annual incidence included New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Maine, and Alabama. Eastern equine encephalitis virus neuroinvasive disease incidence was highest among males and among persons aged < 5 and > 60 years. Overall, 118 (98%) case patients were hospitalized and 50 (41%) died. The case fatality ratio was highest among case patients aged ≥ 70 years. Nonhuman surveillance data indicate that the geographic range of EEEV is much greater than human cases alone might suggest. In areas where the virus circulates, health-care providers should consider EEEV infection in the differential diagnosis for meningitis and encephalitis. Providers are encouraged to report suspected cases to their public health department to facilitate diagnosis and consider interventions to mitigate the risk of further transmission. Because human vaccines against EEEV are not available, prevention depends on community efforts to reduce mosquito populations and personal protective measures to decrease exposure to mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole P Lindsey
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - J Erin Staples
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Marc Fischer
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
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22
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Krow-Lucal ER, Lindsey NP, Fischer M, Hills SL. Powassan Virus Disease in the United States, 2006-2016. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2018; 18:286-290. [PMID: 29652642 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2017.2239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Powassan virus (POWV) is a tick-borne flavivirus that causes rare, but often severe, disease in humans. POWV neuroinvasive disease was added to the U.S. nationally notifiable disease list in 2001 and nonneuroinvasive disease was added in 2004. The only previous review of the epidemiology of POWV disease in the United States based on cases reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) covered the period from 1999 through 2005. METHODS We describe the epidemiology and clinical features of laboratory-confirmed POWV disease cases reported to CDC from 2006 through 2016. RESULTS There were 99 cases of POWV disease reported during the 11-year period, including 89 neuroinvasive and 10 nonneuroinvasive disease cases. There was a median of seven cases per year (range: 1-22), with the highest numbers of cases reported in 2011 (n = 16), 2013 (n = 15), and 2016 (n = 22). Cases occurred throughout the year, but peaked in May and June. Cases were reported primarily from northeastern and north-central states. Overall, 72 (73%) cases were in males and the median age was 62 years (range: 3 months-87 years). Of the 11 (11%) cases who died, all were aged >50 years. The average annual incidence of neuroinvasive POWV disease was 0.0025 cases per 100,000 persons. CONCLUSIONS POWV disease can be a severe disease and has been diagnosed with increased frequency in recent years. However, this might reflect increased disease awareness, improved test availability, and enhanced surveillance efforts. Clinicians should consider POWV disease in patients presenting with acute encephalitis or aseptic meningitis who are resident in, or have traveled to, an appropriate geographic region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth R Krow-Lucal
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Nicole P Lindsey
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Marc Fischer
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Susan L Hills
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
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23
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Burakoff A, Lehman J, Fischer M, Staples JE, Lindsey NP. West Nile Virus and Other Nationally Notifiable Arboviral Diseases - United States, 2016. MMWR-MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT 2018; 67:13-17. [PMID: 29324725 PMCID: PMC5769797 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6701a3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) are transmitted to humans primarily through the bites of infected mosquitoes and ticks. West Nile virus (WNV) is the leading cause of domestically acquired arboviral disease in the continental United States (1,2). Other arboviruses, including La Crosse, Powassan, Jamestown Canyon, St. Louis encephalitis, and eastern equine encephalitis viruses, cause sporadic cases of disease and occasional outbreaks. This report summarizes surveillance data reported to CDC for 2016 for nationally notifiable arboviruses. It excludes dengue, chikungunya, and Zika viruses, as these are primarily nondomestic viruses typically acquired through travel. Forty-seven states and the District of Columbia (DC) reported 2,240 cases of domestic arboviral disease, including 2,150 (96%) WNV disease cases. Of the WNV disease cases, 1,310 (61%) were classified as neuroinvasive disease (e.g., meningitis, encephalitis, acute flaccid paralysis), for a national incidence of 0.41 cases per 100,000 population. After WNV, the most frequently reported arboviruses were La Crosse (35 cases), Powassan (22), and Jamestown Canyon (15) viruses. Because arboviral diseases continue to cause serious illness, maintaining surveillance is important to direct prevention activities.
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24
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Ginsberg HS, Bargar TA, Hladik ML, Lubelczyk C. Management of Arthropod Pathogen Vectors in North America: Minimizing Adverse Effects on Pollinators. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2017; 54:1463-1475. [PMID: 28968680 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjx146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Tick and mosquito management is important to public health protection. At the same time, growing concerns about declines of pollinator species raise the question of whether vector control practices might affect pollinator populations. We report the results of a task force of the North American Pollinator Protection Campaign (NAPPC) that examined potential effects of vector management practices on pollinators, and how these programs could be adjusted to minimize negative effects on pollinating species. The main types of vector control practices that might affect pollinators are landscape manipulation, biocontrol, and pesticide applications. Some current practices already minimize effects of vector control on pollinators (e.g., short-lived pesticides and application-targeting technologies). Nontarget effects can be further diminished by taking pollinator protection into account in the planning stages of vector management programs. Effects of vector control on pollinator species often depend on specific local conditions (e.g., proximity of locations with abundant vectors to concentrations of floral resources), so planning is most effective when it includes collaborations of local vector management professionals with local experts on pollinators. Interventions can then be designed to avoid pollinators (e.g., targeting applications to avoid blooming times and pollinator nesting habitats), while still optimizing public health protection. Research on efficient targeting of interventions, and on effects on pollinators of emerging technologies, will help mitigate potential deleterious effects on pollinators in future management programs. In particular, models that can predict effects of integrated pest management on vector-borne pathogen transmission, along with effects on pollinator populations, would be useful for collaborative decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Howard S Ginsberg
- USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, University of Rhode Island, RI Field Station, Woodward Hall - PSE, Kingston, RI 02881
| | - Timothy A Bargar
- USGS Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, 7920 NW 71st St., Gainesville, FL 32653
| | - Michelle L Hladik
- USGS California Water Science Center, 6000 J St., Placer Hall, Sacramento, CA 95819
| | - Charles Lubelczyk
- Maine Medical Center Research Institute, Vector-Borne Disease Laboratory, 81 Research Dr., Scarborough, ME 04074
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25
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Venkat H, Adams L, Sunenshine R, Krow-Lucal E, Levy C, Kafenbaum T, Sylvester T, Smith K, Townsend J, Dosmann M, Kamel H, Patron R, Kuehnert M, Annambhotla P, Basavaraju SV, Rabe IB. St. Louis encephalitis virus possibly transmitted through blood transfusion-Arizona, 2015. Transfusion 2017; 57:2987-2994. [PMID: 28905395 DOI: 10.1111/trf.14314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND St. Louis encephalitis virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that infrequently causes epidemic central nervous system infections. In the United States, blood donors are not screened for St. Louis encephalitis virus infection, and transmission through blood transfusion has not been reported. During September 2015, St. Louis encephalitis virus infection was confirmed in an Arizona kidney transplant recipient. An investigation was initiated to determine the infection source. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS The patient was interviewed, and medical records were reviewed. To determine the likelihood of mosquito-borne infection, mosquito surveillance data collected at patient and blood donor residences in timeframes consistent with their possible exposure periods were reviewed. To investigate other routes of exposure, organ and blood donor and recipient specimens were obtained and tested for evidence of St. Louis encephalitis virus infection. RESULTS The patient presented with symptoms of central nervous system infection. Recent St. Louis encephalitis virus infection was serologically confirmed. The organ donor and three other organ recipients showed no laboratory or clinical evidence of St. Louis encephalitis virus infection. Among four donors of blood products received by the patient via transfusion, one donor had a serologically confirmed, recent St. Louis encephalitis virus infection. Exposure to an infected mosquito was unlikely based on the patient's minimal outdoor exposure. In addition, no St. Louis encephalitis virus-infected mosquito pools were identified around the patient's residence. CONCLUSION This investigation provides evidence of the first reported possible case of St. Louis encephalitis virus transmission through blood product transfusion. Health care providers and public health professionals should maintain heightened awareness for St. Louis encephalitis virus transmission through blood transfusion in settings where outbreaks are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Venkat
- Epidemic Intelligence Service Program, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia.,Arizona Department of Health Services, Phoenix, Arizona.,Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - Laura Adams
- Arizona Department of Health Services, Phoenix, Arizona.,Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response, Career Epidemiology Field Officer Program, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Rebecca Sunenshine
- Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Phoenix, Arizona.,Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response, Career Epidemiology Field Officer Program, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Elisabeth Krow-Lucal
- Epidemic Intelligence Service Program, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia.,CDC Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Craig Levy
- Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - Tammy Kafenbaum
- Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - Tammy Sylvester
- Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - Kirk Smith
- Maricopa County Environmental Services Vector Control Division, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - John Townsend
- Maricopa County Environmental Services Vector Control Division, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - Melissa Dosmann
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona
| | | | - Roberto Patron
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona
| | | | | | | | - Ingrid B Rabe
- CDC Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Fort Collins, Colorado
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26
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Pallares AC, Winokur EJ. West Nile Encephalitis in the Emergency Department: Prevalence and Recognition. J Emerg Nurs 2017; 43:506-511. [PMID: 28712523 DOI: 10.1016/j.jen.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2017] [Revised: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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27
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Boucher A, Herrmann JL, Morand P, Buzelé R, Crabol Y, Stahl JP, Mailles A. Epidemiology of infectious encephalitis causes in 2016. Med Mal Infect 2017; 47:221-235. [PMID: 28341533 DOI: 10.1016/j.medmal.2017.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
We performed a literature search in the Medline database, using the PubMed website. The incidence of presumably infectious encephalitis is estimated at 1.5-7 cases/100,000 inhabitants/year, excluding epidemics. Infectious encephalitis and immune-mediated encephalitis share similar clinical signs and symptoms. The latter accounts for a significant proportion of presumably infectious encephalitis cases without any established etiological diagnosis; as shown from a prospective cohort study where 21% of cases were due to an immune cause. Several infectious agents are frequently reported in all studies: Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is the most frequent pathogen in 65% of studies, followed by Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in several studies. Enteroviruses are also reported; being the most frequent viruses in two studies, and the 2nd or 3rd viruses in five other studies. There are important regional differences, especially in case of vector-borne transmission: Asia and the Japanese encephalitis virus, Eastern and Northern Europe/Eastern Russia and the tick-borne encephalitis virus, Northern America and Flavivirus or Alphavirus. Bacteria can also be incriminated: Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Listeria monocytogenes are the most frequent, after HSV and VZV, in a French prospective study. The epidemiology of encephalitis is constantly evolving. Epidemiological data may indicate the emergence and/or dissemination of new causative agents. The dissemination and emergence of causative agents are fostered by environmental, social, and economical changes, but prevention programs (vaccination, vector controls) help reduce the incidence of other infectious diseases and associated encephalitis (e.g., measles).
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Affiliation(s)
- A Boucher
- Maladies infectieuses, CHU de Lille, 59000 Lille, France
| | - J L Herrmann
- Microbiologie, CHU de Garches, 92380 Garches, France
| | - P Morand
- Virologie, CHU Grenoble Alpes, 38700 La Tronche, France
| | - R Buzelé
- Médecine interne, centre hospitalier de Saint-Brieuc, 22027 Saint-Brieuc, France
| | - Y Crabol
- Médecine interne, centre hospitalier Vannes-Aufray, 56000 Vannes, France
| | - J P Stahl
- Maladies infectieuses, CHU Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble - "European Study Group for the Infections of the Brain (ESGIB)", 38700 La Tronche, France.
| | - A Mailles
- Direction des maladies infectieuses, santé publique France - "European Study Group for the Infections of the Brain (ESGIB)", 94410 Saint-Maurice, France
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28
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DeFelice NB, Little E, Campbell SR, Shaman J. Ensemble forecast of human West Nile virus cases and mosquito infection rates. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14592. [PMID: 28233783 PMCID: PMC5333106 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is now endemic in the continental United States; however, our ability to predict spillover transmission risk and human WNV cases remains limited. Here we develop a model depicting WNV transmission dynamics, which we optimize using a data assimilation method and two observed data streams, mosquito infection rates and reported human WNV cases. The coupled model-inference framework is then used to generate retrospective ensemble forecasts of historical WNV outbreaks in Long Island, New York for 2001–2014. Accurate forecasts of mosquito infection rates are generated before peak infection, and >65% of forecasts accurately predict seasonal total human WNV cases up to 9 weeks before the past reported case. This work provides the foundation for implementation of a statistically rigorous system for real-time forecast of seasonal outbreaks of WNV. Since its introduction to the US in 1999, the West Nile virus (WNV) has become endemic in the Americas. Here, the authors develop a model of WNV transmission dynamics between birds, mosquitoes and humans, which they integrate in conjunction with data assimilation methods, mosquito infection data and reported human cases in a New York county to show its utility for forecasting infection rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B DeFelice
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | - Eliza Little
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | - Scott R Campbell
- Arthropod-Borne Disease Laboratory, Suffolk County Department of Health Services, Yaphank, New York 11980, USA
| | - Jeffrey Shaman
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
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29
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Krow-Lucal E, Lindsey NP, Lehman J, Fischer M, Staples JE. West Nile Virus and Other Nationally Notifiable Arboviral Diseases - United States, 2015. MMWR-MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT 2017; 66:51-55. [PMID: 28103209 PMCID: PMC5657660 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6602a3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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30
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Garlick J, Lee TJ, Shepherd P, Linam WM, Pastula DM, Weinstein S, Schexnayder SM. Locally Acquired Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Disease, Arkansas, USA. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 22:2216-2217. [PMID: 27662563 PMCID: PMC5189158 DOI: 10.3201/eid2212.160844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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31
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Abstract
The history of the first commercial antibiotics is briefly reviewed, together with data from the US and WHO, showing the decrease in death due to infectious diseases over the 20th century, from just under half of all deaths, to less than 10%. The second half of the 20th century saw the new use of antibiotics as growth promoters for food animals in the human diet, and the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st saw the beginning and rapid rise of advanced microbial resistance to antibiotics.
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32
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Eshun O, Gerry A, Hayes WK. Mosquito Capture Rate Using CO2-Baited Traps in Relation to Distance From Water and Height: Implications for Avian Disease Transmission. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2016; 53:1378-1384. [PMID: 27493249 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjw120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that enzootic transmission of pathogens such as West Nile virus (WNV) by mosquitoes is governed by host-bird interactions, including mosquito preferences for specific species and developmental stages of host birds, host bird availability, and host defensive behavior. Here, we examined how the attack rate of five mosquito species in southern California was influenced by the position of CO2-baited traps in relation to distance from water and trap height. We identified 44,207 female mosquitoes representing five species: Aedes vexans Meigen, Anopheles franciscanus McCracken, Anopheles hermsi Barr & Guptavanij, and the two most abundant species which are also WNV vectors, Culex erythrothorax Dyar and Culex tarsalis Coquillett. Mosquito captures decreased markedly with trap height, and also decreased with distance from a riparian area but not with distance from an open water source lacking a vegetated border. The results of this study suggest that WNV-competent ornithophilic mosquitoes may amplify the virus especially in reservoir birds that roost or nest close to the ground and near riparian vegetation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Eshun
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350 (; )
| | - Alec Gerry
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
| | - William K Hayes
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350 (; )
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33
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Brostoff T, Pesavento PA, Barker CM, Kenney JL, Dietrich EA, Duggal NK, Bosco-Lauth AM, Brault AC. MicroRNA reduction of neuronal West Nile virus replication attenuates and affords a protective immune response in mice. Vaccine 2016; 34:5366-5375. [PMID: 27637937 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.08.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an important agent of human encephalitis that has quickly become endemic across much of the United States since its identification in North America in 1999. While the majority (∼75%) of infections are subclinical, neurologic disease can occur in a subset of cases, with outcomes including permanent neurologic damage and death. Currently, there are no WNV vaccines approved for use in humans. This study introduces a novel vaccine platform for WNV to reduce viral replication in the central nervous system while maintaining peripheral replication to elicit strong neutralizing antibody titers. Vaccine candidates were engineered to incorporate microRNA (miRNA) target sequences for a cognate miRNA expressed only in neurons, allowing the host miRNAs to target viral transcription through endogenous RNA silencing. To maintain stability, these targets were incorporated in multiple locations within the 3'-untranslated region, flanking sequences essential for viral replication without affecting the viral open reading frame. All candidates replicated comparably to wild type WNV in vitro within cells that did not express the cognate miRNA. Insertional control viruses were also capable of neuroinvasion and neurovirulence in vivo in CD-1 mice. Vaccine viruses were safe at all doses tested and did not demonstrate mutations associated with a reversion to virulence when serially passaged in mice. All vaccine constructs were protective from lethal challenge in mice, producing 93-100% protection at the highest dose tested. Overall, this is a safe and effective attenuation strategy with broad potential application for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terza Brostoff
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Patricia A Pesavento
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Christopher M Barker
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Joan L Kenney
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Dietrich
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Nisha K Duggal
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Angela M Bosco-Lauth
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Aaron C Brault
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
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34
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Papa A, Kotrotsiou T, Papadopoulou E, Reusken C, GeurtsvanKessel C, Koopmans M. Challenges in laboratory diagnosis of acute viral central nervous system infections in the era of emerging infectious diseases: the syndromic approach. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2016; 14:829-36. [PMID: 27458693 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2016.1215914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Many acute viral infections of the central nervous system (CNS) remain without etiological diagnosis. Specific treatment is available for only few of them; however, accurate diagnosis is essential for patient's life and public health. AREAS COVERED In the current article, the main parameters playing a role for a successful etiological diagnosis of acute CNS infections are analysed and the syndromic approach based on clinical and demographic data combined with surrogated indicators is discussed. For the development of a relevant test panel, knowledge on the microbes causing CNS infections in a particular geographic region is essential. The modern screening strategies covering a large panel of potential causative agents are described. Examples of the successful application of next generation sequencing in the identification of etiological agents, including novel and emerging viruses, are given. Expert commentary: Knowledge on epidemiology of the viruses, expertise on syndromic grouping of the etiological agents and advances in technology enable the laboratory diagnosis of acute CNS infections, and the rapid identification, containment and mitigation of probable outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Papa
- a Department of Microbiology, Medical School , Aristotle University of Thessaloniki , Thessaloniki , Greece
| | - Tzimoula Kotrotsiou
- a Department of Microbiology, Medical School , Aristotle University of Thessaloniki , Thessaloniki , Greece
| | - Elpida Papadopoulou
- a Department of Microbiology, Medical School , Aristotle University of Thessaloniki , Thessaloniki , Greece
| | - Chantal Reusken
- b Viroscience Department , Erasmus Medical Centre , Rotterdam , The Netherlands
| | | | - Marion Koopmans
- b Viroscience Department , Erasmus Medical Centre , Rotterdam , The Netherlands
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35
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Hospital-based enhanced surveillance for West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease. Epidemiol Infect 2016; 144:3170-3175. [DOI: 10.1017/s0950268816001138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYAccurate data on the incidence of West Nile virus (WNV) disease are important for directing public health education and control activities. The objective of this project was to assess the underdiagnosis of WNV neuroinvasive disease through laboratory testing of patients with suspected viral meningitis or encephalitis at selected hospitals serving WNV-endemic regions in three states. Of the 279 patients with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) specimens tested for WNV immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies, 258 (92%) were negative, 19 (7%) were positive, and two (1%) had equivocal results. Overall, 63% (12/19) of patients with WNV IgM-positive CSF had WNV IgM testing ordered by their attending physician. Seven (37%) cases would not have been identified as probable WNV infections without the further testing conducted through this project. These findings indicate that over a third of WNV infections in patients with clinically compatible neurological illness might be undiagnosed due to either lack of testing or inappropriate testing, leading to substantial underestimates of WNV neuroinvasive disease burden. Efforts should be made to educate healthcare providers and laboratorians about the local epidemiology of arboviral diseases and the optimal tests to be used in different clinical situations.
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Shaffner J, Jones TF, Moncayo AC. Challenges to Arboviral Surveillance in Tennessee: Health-Care Providers' Attitudes and Behaviors. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2016; 94:1330-5. [PMID: 27022148 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.15-0493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Surveillance of arboviruses depends on health-care providers' ability to diagnose and report human cases of disease. The purposes of this study were to assess Tennessee providers' 1) self-efficacy toward diagnosis and management, 2) clinical practices, and 3) variation in these measures by provider characteristics. A survey was e-mailed to 13,851 providers, of which 916 (7%) responded. Respondents diagnosed more arboviruses in the previous year than were recorded in surveillance records, an indication of underreporting. Respondents had low to moderate self-efficacy toward diagnosis and management of arboviruses. Although more than 70% (N = 589) used paired serology, only 46% (N = 396) asked patients to return for a convalescent specimen draw within the correct time frame. One of the most commonly reported barriers to testing was uncertainty about which tests to order. Providers working in family medicine and urgent care, nurse practitioners, and those at outpatient facilities had lower rates of high self-efficacy than their counterparts working in other settings and from other specialties. Clinical practices were influenced by specialty, designation, setting, and geography but not by years of experience. Education to improve arboviral surveillance in Tennessee is warranted. Topics could include proper diagnosis and management, appropriate testing and overcoming barriers to testing, and public health reporting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Shaffner
- Vector-Borne Diseases Section, Division of Communicable and Environmental Diseases and Emergency Preparedness, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Timothy F Jones
- Vector-Borne Diseases Section, Division of Communicable and Environmental Diseases and Emergency Preparedness, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Abelardo C Moncayo
- Vector-Borne Diseases Section, Division of Communicable and Environmental Diseases and Emergency Preparedness, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, Tennessee
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Kosoy O, Rabe I, Geissler A, Adjemian J, Panella A, Laven J, Basile AJ, Velez J, Griffith K, Wong D, Fischer M, Lanciotti RS. Serological Survey for Antibodies to Mosquito-Borne Bunyaviruses Among US National Park Service and US Forest Service Employees. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2016; 16:191-8. [PMID: 26855300 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2015.1865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Serum samples from 295 employees of Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GRSM), Rocky Mountain National Park (ROMO), and Grand Teton National Park with adjacent Bridger-Teton National Forest (GRTE-BTNF) were subjected to serological analysis for mosquito-borne bunyaviruses. The sera were analyzed for neutralizing antibodies against six orthobunyaviruses: La Crosse virus (LACV), Jamestown Canyon virus (JCV), snowshoe hare virus (SSHV), California encephalitis virus, and Trivittatus virus (TVTV) belonging to the California serogroup and Cache Valley virus (CVV) belonging to the Bunyamwera serogroup. Sera were also tested for immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibodies against LACV and JCV by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The proportion of employees with neutralizing antibodies to any California serogroup bunyavirus was similar in all three sites, with the prevalence ranging from 28% to 36%. The study demonstrated a seroprevalence of 3% to CVV across the three parks. However, proportions of persons with antibodies to specific viruses differed between parks. Participants residing in the eastern regions had a higher seroprevalence to LACV, with 24% (18/75) GRSM employees being seropositive. In contrast, SSHV seroprevalence was limited to employees from the western sites, with 1.7% (1/60) ROMO and 3.8% (6/160) GRTE-BTNF employees being positive. Seroprevalence to JCV was noted in employees from all sites at rates of 6.7% in GRSM, 21.7% in ROMO, and 15.6% in GRTE-BTNF. One employee each from ROMO (1.7%) and GRTE-BTNF (1.9%) were positive for TVTV. This study also has illustrated the greater sensitivity and specificity of plaque reduction neutralization test compared to IgG ELISA in conducting serosurveys for LACV and JCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Kosoy
- 1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Ingrid Rabe
- 1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Aimee Geissler
- 2 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | - Amanda Panella
- 1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Janeen Laven
- 1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Alison J Basile
- 1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Jason Velez
- 1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Kevin Griffith
- 1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - David Wong
- 3 Office of Public Health, United States National Park Service , Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Marc Fischer
- 1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
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Venkat H, Krow-Lucal E, Hennessey M, Jones J, Adams L, Fischer M, Sylvester T, Levy C, Smith K, Plante L, Komatsu K, Staples JE, Hills S. Concurrent Outbreaks of St. Louis Encephalitis Virus and West Nile Virus Disease - Arizona, 2015. MMWR-MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT 2015; 64:1349-50. [PMID: 26656306 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6448a5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) and West Nile virus (WNV) are closely related mosquito-borne flaviviruses that can cause outbreaks of acute febrile illness and neurologic disease. Both viruses are endemic throughout much of the United States and have the same Culex species mosquito vectors and avian hosts (1); however, since WNV was first identified in the United States in 1999, SLEV disease incidence has been substantially lower than WNV disease incidence, and no outbreaks involving the two viruses circulating in the same location at the same time have been identified. Currently, there is a commercially available laboratory test for diagnosis of acute WNV infection, but there is no commercially available SLEV test, and all SLEV testing must be performed at public health laboratories. In addition, because antibodies against SLEV and WNV can cross-react on standard diagnostic tests, confirmatory neutralizing antibody testing at public health laboratories is usually required to determine the flavivirus species (2). This report describes the first known concurrent outbreaks of SLEV and WNV disease in the United States.
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Brown HE, Young A, Lega J, Andreadis TG, Schurich J, Comrie A. Projection of Climate Change Influences on U.S. West Nile Virus Vectors. EARTH INTERACTIONS 2015; 19:18. [PMID: 27057131 PMCID: PMC4821504 DOI: 10.1175/ei-d-15-0008.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
While estimates of the impact of climate change on health are necessary for health care planners and climate change policy makers, models to produce quantitative estimates remain scarce. We describe a freely available dynamic simulation model parameterized for three West Nile virus vectors, which provides an effective tool for studying vector-borne disease risk due to climate change. The Dynamic Mosquito Simulation Model is parameterized with species specific temperature-dependent development and mortality rates. Using downscaled daily weather data, we estimate mosquito population dynamics under current and projected future climate scenarios for multiple locations across the country. Trends in mosquito abundance were variable by location, however, an extension of the vector activity periods, and by extension disease risk, was almost uniformly observed. Importantly, mid-summer decreases in abundance may be off-set by shorter extrinsic incubation periods resulting in a greater proportion of infective mosquitoes. Quantitative descriptions of the effect of temperature on the virus and mosquito are critical to developing models of future disease risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi E. Brown
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Alex Young
- Department of Mathematics, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Joceline Lega
- Department of Mathematics, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Theodore G. Andreadis
- Center for Vector Biology & Zoonotic Diseases, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - Andrew Comrie
- School of Geography & Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Lindsey NP, Lehman JA, Staples JE, Fischer M. West Nile Virus and Other Nationally Notifiable Arboviral Diseases - United States, 2014. MMWR-MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT 2015; 64:929-34. [PMID: 26334477 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6434a1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) are transmitted to humans primarily through the bites of infected mosquitoes and ticks. West Nile virus (WNV) is the leading cause of domestically acquired arboviral disease in the United States (1). However, several other arboviruses also cause sporadic cases and seasonal outbreaks. This report summarizes surveillance data reported to CDC in 2014 for WNV and other nationally notifiable arboviruses, excluding dengue. Forty-two states and the District of Columbia (DC) reported 2,205 cases of WNV disease. Of these, 1,347 (61%) were classified as WNV neuroinvasive disease (e.g., meningitis, encephalitis, or acute flaccid paralysis), for a national incidence of 0.42 cases per 100,000 population. After WNV, the next most commonly reported cause of arboviral disease was La Crosse virus (80 cases), followed by Jamestown Canyon virus (11), St. Louis encephalitis virus (10), Powassan virus (8), and Eastern equine encephalitis virus (8). WNV and other arboviruses cause serious illness in substantial numbers of persons each year. Maintaining surveillance programs is important to help direct prevention activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole P Lindsey
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC
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Harris MC, Yang F, Jackson DM, Dotseth EJ, Paulson SL, Hawley DM. La Crosse Virus Field Detection and Vector Competence of Culex Mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015; 93:461-7. [PMID: 26175029 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
La Crosse virus (LACV), a leading cause of arboviral pediatric encephalitis in the United States, is emerging in Appalachia. Here, we report field and laboratory evidence that suggest LACV may be using Culex mosquitoes as additional vectors in this region. This bunyavirus was detected by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction in two pools of Culex mosquitoes in southwestern Virginia and in six pools in West Virginia. To assess vector competence, we offered LACV blood meals to field-collected Culex restuans Theobald, Cx. pipiens L., and Aedes triseriatus (Say). Both Culex species were susceptible to infection. LACV-positive salivary expectorate, indicative of the ability to transmit, was detected in a small proportion of Cx. restuans (9%) and Cx. pipiens (4%) compared with Ae. triseriatus (40%). In a companion study of Cx. restuans only, we found that adults derived from nutritionally stressed larvae were significantly more likely to disseminate and transmit LACV. Our results indicate a potential role of Culex spp. in LACV dynamics that should be explored further in endemic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Camille Harris
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Division of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Office of Epidemiology and Prevention Services, West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources, Charleston, West Virginia
| | - Fan Yang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Division of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Office of Epidemiology and Prevention Services, West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources, Charleston, West Virginia
| | - Dorian M Jackson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Division of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Office of Epidemiology and Prevention Services, West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources, Charleston, West Virginia
| | - Eric J Dotseth
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Division of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Office of Epidemiology and Prevention Services, West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources, Charleston, West Virginia
| | - Sally L Paulson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Division of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Office of Epidemiology and Prevention Services, West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources, Charleston, West Virginia
| | - Dana M Hawley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia; Division of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Office of Epidemiology and Prevention Services, West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources, Charleston, West Virginia
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Dietrich EA, Bowen RA, Brault AC. An ex vivo avian leukocyte culture model for West Nile virus infection. J Virol Methods 2015; 218:19-22. [PMID: 25783683 PMCID: PMC4583197 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2015.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2014] [Revised: 02/20/2015] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) replicates in a wide variety of avian species, which act as amplification hosts. In particular, WNV generates high titers and elicits severe pathology in American crows (AMCRs; Corvus brachyrhynchos), a species that has been used as a sentinel for WNV transmission. Although the specific cellular targets of WNV replication in AMCRs are not well defined, preliminary evidence suggests that leukocytes may be an important target of early replication. Therefore, development of a protocol for ex vivo culture of AMCR leukocytes as a model for assessing differential avian host susceptibility is described herein. WNV growth in these cultures mirrored in vivo viremia profiles. These data indicate that ex vivo leukocyte cultures can be used for preliminary pathological assessment of novel WNV strains and potentially of other flaviviruses that use avian reservoir hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Dietrich
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 3156 Rampart Road, Fort Collins, CO 80521, United States
| | - Richard A Bowen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, 1683 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1683, United States
| | - Aaron C Brault
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 3156 Rampart Road, Fort Collins, CO 80521, United States.
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43
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Magnetic resonance imaging in viral and prion diseases of the central nervous system. Top Magn Reson Imaging 2015; 23:293-302. [PMID: 25296274 DOI: 10.1097/rmr.0000000000000033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The early detection and specific diagnosis of viral infections of the central nervous system are important because many of these diseases are potentially treatable. However, clinical symptoms and physical examination are often nonspecific, and rapid diagnostic tests are available for some, but not all, viruses. Neuroimaging, in conjunction with clinical history and laboratory tests, plays an important role in narrowing the differential diagnoses. In this article, we review the clinical features, imaging characteristics, diagnosis, and treatment of the more common viral infections and prions that involve the central nervous system.
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Garcia MN, Hasbun R, Murray KO. Persistence of West Nile virus. Microbes Infect 2014; 17:163-8. [PMID: 25499188 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2014.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Revised: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a widespread global pathogen that results in significant morbidity and mortality. Data from animal models provide evidence of persistent renal and neurological infection from WNV; however, the possibility of persistent infection in humans and long-term neurological and renal outcomes related to viral persistence remain largely unknown. In this paper, we provide a review of the literature related to persistent infection in parallel with the findings from cohorts of patients with a history of WNV infection. The next steps for enhancing our understanding of WNV as a persistent pathogen are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa N Garcia
- Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Rodrigo Hasbun
- University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, School of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Kristy O Murray
- Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Svoboda WK, Martins LC, Malanski LDS, Shiozawa MM, Spohr KAH, Hilst CLS, Aguiar LM, Ludwig G, Passos FDC, Silva LRD, Headley SA, Navarro IT. Serological evidence for Saint Louis encephalitis virus in free-ranging New World monkeys and horses within the upper Paraná River basin region, Southern Brazil. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2014; 47:280-6. [PMID: 25075477 DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0083-2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) primarily occurs in the Americas and produces disease predominantly in humans. This study investigated the serological presence of SLEV in nonhuman primates and horses from southern Brazil. METHODS From June 2004 to December 2005, sera from 133 monkeys (Alouatta caraya, n=43; Sapajus nigritus, n=64; Sapajus cay, n=26) trap-captured at the Paraná River basin region and 23 blood samples from farm horses were obtained and used for the serological detection of a panel of 19 arboviruses. All samples were analyzed in a hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay; positive monkey samples were confirmed in a mouse neutralization test (MNT). Additionally, all blood samples were inoculated into C6/36 cell culture for viral isolation. RESULTS Positive seroreactivity was only observed for SLEV. A prevalence of SLEV antibodies in sera was detected in Alouatta caraya (11.6%; 5/43), Sapajus nigritus (12.5%; 8/64), and S. cay (30.8%; 8/26) monkeys with the HI assay. Of the monkeys, 2.3% (1/42) of A. caraya, 6.3% 94/64) of S. nigritus, and 15.4% (4/26) of S. cay were positive for SLEV in the MNT. Additionally, SLEV antibodies were detected by HI in 39.1% (9/23) of the horses evaluated in this study. Arboviruses were not isolated from any blood sample. CONCLUSIONS These results confirmed the presence of SLEV in nonhuman primates and horses from southern Brazil. These findings most likely represent the first detection of this virus in nonhuman primates beyond the Amazon region. The detection of SLEV in animals within a geographical region distant from the Amazon basin suggests that there may be widespread and undiagnosed dissemination of this disease in Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walfrido Kühl Svoboda
- Instituto Latino-Americano de Ciências da Vida e da Natureza (ILACVN), Universidade Federal da Integração Latino-Americana (UNILA), Foz do Iguaçu, PR, Brasil
| | - Lívia Carício Martins
- Departamento de Arbovirologia e Febres Hemorrágicas, Instituto Evandro Chagas, Ananindeua, PA, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Lucas M Aguiar
- Universidade Federal da Integração Latino-Americana, Foz do Iguaçu, PR
| | - Gabriela Ludwig
- Centro Nacional de Pesquisa e Conservação de Primatas Brasileiros, Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade, João Pessoa, PB
| | | | | | - Selwyn Arlington Headley
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, PR, Basil
| | - Italmar Teodorico Navarro
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, PR, Basil
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Andreadis SS, Dimotsiou OC, Savopoulou-Soultani M. Variation in adult longevity of Culex pipiens f. pipiens, vector of the West Nile Virus. Parasitol Res 2014; 113:4315-9. [PMID: 25284257 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-014-4152-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The common house mosquito, Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae), which is considered the primary bridge vector of West Nile Virus (WNV) to humans, is a wide spread insect pest with medical importance and consists of two distinct bioforms, Cx. pipiens f. pipiens and Cx. pipiens f. molestus. Here, we consider the adult lifespan of male and female Cx. pipiens f. pipiens under controlled conditions at five constant temperature regimes (15, 20, 25, 27.5, and 30 °C). Our results show that adult longevity was affected by temperature, as it significantly decreased with increase in temperature. At the highest tested temperature, mean adult longevity did not exceed 12 days for both sexes and thus makes impossible the risk of WNV transmission. On the other hand at the lowest temperature, longevity was extremely high with some individuals surviving up to 129 and 132 days, males and females, respectively, and thus enable them to function as potential vectors of WNV for a prolonged period of time. As far as sex is concerned, adult females displayed a 1.2-1.4-fold longer longevity compared to the male ones. However, this difference was significant only at the lowest and highest tested temperature regime. This information is useful in determining the critical temperatures which may affect the distribution of Cx. pipiens and consequently the risk of WNV transmission. Moreover, the effect of environmental temperature should be considered when evaluating the abundance of these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- S S Andreadis
- Laboratory of Applied Zoology and Parasitology, Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece,
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West Nile Virus and Other Arboviral Diseases-United States, 2013. Am J Transplant 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/ajt.12997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Gaensbauer JT, Lindsey NP, Messacar K, Staples JE, Fischer M. Neuroinvasive arboviral disease in the United States: 2003 to 2012. Pediatrics 2014; 134:e642-50. [PMID: 25113294 PMCID: PMC5662468 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2014-0498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the epidemiologic and clinical syndromes associated with pediatric neuroinvasive arboviral infections among children in the United States from 2003 through 2012. METHODS We reviewed data reported by state health departments to ArboNET, the national arboviral surveillance system, for 2003 through 2012. Children (<18 years) with neuroinvasive arboviral infections (eg, meningitis, encephalitis, or acute flaccid paralysis) were included. Demographic, clinical syndrome, outcome, geographic, and temporal data were analyzed for all cases. RESULTS During the study period, 1217 cases and 22 deaths due to pediatric neuroinvasive arboviral infection were reported from the 48 contiguous states. La Crosse virus (665 cases; 55%) and West Nile virus (505 cases; 41%) were the most common etiologies identified. Although less common, Eastern equine encephalitis virus (30 cases; 2%) resulted in 10 pediatric deaths. La Crosse virus primarily affected younger children, whereas West Nile virus was more common in older children and adolescents. West Nile virus disease cases occurred throughout the country, whereas La Crosse and the other arboviruses were more focally distributed. CONCLUSIONS Neuroinvasive arboviral infections were an important cause of pediatric disease from 2003 through 2012. Differences in the epidemiology and clinical disease result from complex interactions among virus, vector, host, and the environment. Decreasing the morbidity and mortality from these agents depends on vector control, personal protection to reduce mosquito and tick bites, and blood donor screening. Effective surveillance is critical to inform clinicians and public health officials about the epidemiologic features of these diseases and to direct prevention efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- James T. Gaensbauer
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Nicole P. Lindsey
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Kevin Messacar
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado
| | - J. Erin Staples
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Marc Fischer
- Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
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West Nile virus isolated from a Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in northwestern Missouri, USA, 2012. J Wildl Dis 2014; 50:976-8. [PMID: 25098303 DOI: 10.7589/2013-11-295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We describe the isolation of West Nile virus (WNV; Flaviviridae, Flavivirus) from blood of a Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) collected in northwestern Missouri, USA in August 2012. Sequencing determined that the virus was related to lineage 1a WNV02 strains. We discuss the role of wildlife in WNV disease epidemiology.
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50
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Bastos MS, Lessa N, Naveca FG, Monte RL, Braga WS, Figueiredo LTM, Ramasawmy R, Mourão MPG. Detection of Herpesvirus, Enterovirus, and Arbovirus infection in patients with suspected central nervous system viral infection in the Western Brazilian Amazon. J Med Virol 2014; 86:1522-7. [PMID: 24760682 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.23953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Acute infections of the central nervous system (CNS) can be caused by various pathogens. In this study, the presence of herpesviruses (HHV), enteroviruses (EVs), and arboviruses were investigated in CSF samples from 165 patients with suspected CNS viral infection through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse transcriptase PCR. The genomes of one or more viral agents were detected in 29.7% (49/165) of the CSF samples. EVs were predominant (16/49; 32.6%) followed by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) (22.4%), Varicella-Zoster virus (VZV) (20.4%), Cytomegalovirus (CMV) (18.4%), herpes simplex virus (HSV-1) (4.1%), (HSV-2) (4.1%), and the arboviruses (14.3%). Four of the arboviruses were of dengue virus (DENV) and three of oropouche virus (OROV). The detection of different viruses in the CNS of patients with meningitis or encephalitis highlight the importance of maintaining an active laboratory monitoring diagnostics with rapid methodology of high sensitivity in areas of viral hyperendemicity that may assist in clinical decisions and in the choice of antiviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele S Bastos
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil; Universidade do Estado do Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
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