Reducing Intestinal Digestion and Absorption of Fat Using a Nature-Derived Biopolymer: Interference of Triglyceride Hydrolysis by Nanocellulose

Inhibitory effects of nobiletin-mediated interfacial instability of bile salt emulsified oil droplets on lipid digestion

Previous lipase inhibitors studies mainly focus on the binding between inhibitors and lipase, ignoring the impact of inhibitors on the oil-water interface of lipid droplets. This study aimed to investigate the effect of nobiletin (NBT) from Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium on the oil-water interface properties and lipid digestion. Here, we found that NBT could destroy bile salt (BS)-stabilized lipid droplets and thus inhibited free fatty acid release, owing to the interaction between NBT and BS at the oil-water interface, and reducing the stability of the oil-water interface (the stability index decreased from 91.15 ± 2.6 % to 66.5 ± 3.6 %). Further, the molecular dynamics simulation and isothermal titration calorimetry revealed that NBT could combine with BS at oil-water interface through intermolecular interactions, including hydrogen bonds, Van der Waals force, and steric hindrance. These results suggest that the interfacial instability of NBT mediated BS emulsified oil droplets may be another pathway to inhibit lipid digestion.

Versatile Deprotonation-Induced Exfoliation and Functionalization of Biological Nanofibrils for Actuation and Fluorescence

Biological nanofibrils not only are characteristic of many species of biomasses but also serve as a promising type of sustainable nanomaterials for various applications. However, their production has long relied on an invasive and energy-consuming mechanical shear. A noninvasive and versatile approach remains challenging to exfoliate different types of biomasses into nanofibrils. In this study, we showed a versatile and nonaggressive intercalative deprotonation agent of organic base, which could efficiently deprotonate various biomasses for energy-saving exfoliation and functionalization, including cellulose, chitin, and silk. Both carboxylic nanofibrils and nanofibrils with pristine chemical structures could be produced in high yields through manual shaking or sonication. By further grafting photoresponsive groups via transesterification, intelligent NFs were generated featuring ultraviolet-responsive fluorescence and hydrophilicity. These responsive fluorescence and actuation behaviors promised their potential as green encryption and anticounterfeiting nanomaterials.

Artificial Intelligence-Guided Gut-Microenvironment-Triggered Imaging Sensor Reveals Potential Indicators of Parkinson's Disease

The gut-brain axis has recently emerged as a crucial link in the development and progression of Parkinson's disease (PD). Dysregulation of the gut microbiota has been implicated in the pathogenesis of this disease, sparking growing interest in the quest for non-invasive biomarkers derived from the gut for early PD diagnosis. Herein, an artificial intelligence-guided gut-microenvironment-triggered imaging sensor (Eu-MOF@Au-Aptmer) to achieve non-invasive, accurate screening for various stages of PD is presented. The sensor works by analyzing α-Syn in the gut using deep learning algorithms. By monitoring changes in α-Syn, the sensor can predict the onset of PD with high accuracy. This work has the potential to revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of PD by allowing for early intervention and personalized treatment plans. Moreover, it exemplifies the promising prospects of integrating artificial intelligence (AI) and advanced sensors in the monitoring and prediction of a broad spectrum of diseases and health conditions.

Modulating in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of nanocellulose-stabilized pickering emulsions by altering particle surface charge

An in vitro model of human gastrointestinal digestion was introduced to investigate the effects of surface charge of cellulose nanoparticles on emulsion structure during gastric phase, lipase activity, bile salt diffusion, and free fatty acid (FFA) release. Four carboxymethylated cellulose nanofibrils (CNF; C0, C0.36, C0.72, and C1.24) were used, showing different surface charge (p < 0.05). First, four carboxymethylated CNFs had no inhibition effects on lipase activity and bile salt diffusion. Moreover, we found that the lipid emulsion containing CNF formed gel structure to induce oil droplets aggregation during simulated gastric phase. Additionally, the particle surface charge greatly influenced the gel structure of emulsion where a denser gel structure was observed in the C0 (lowest surface charged CNF) stabilized emulsion. Finally, the released FFA results showed that the formed gel structure lowered the lipid emulsion digestion attributed to the restricted adherent area of oil droplets for lipase and bile salt.

Toward a greener multifunctional pharmaceutical excipient: in vivo safety evaluation of nanofibrillated cellulose from tobacco stalk

Tobacco stalk is a cellulose-rich material and a sustainable alternative to be applied as a plant-based nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) source. NFC use has garnered attention in the development of oral pharmaceutical forms, despite concerns about its safety due to the adverse effects of nicotine on health. Therefore, we aimed at establishing the safety of NFC derived from tobacco stalk for its potential use as a novel pharmaceutical excipient, exploring its potential functions for tablet production. We conducted acute and subchronic oral toxicity tests in adult female Wistar rats. Initially, individual animals received sequential doses (175-5,000 mg·kg-1) for 24 hours followed by a careful observation of any toxic effects. Subsequently, 20 rats were divided into four groups for a subchronic assay, evaluating toxicity signs, body weight changes, hematological, biochemical, and histopathological parameters. No deaths or other clinical toxicity signs were observed in either the acute or the subchronic assays. We noticed a significant reduction in body weight gain (p < 0.05) after 14 days. We found statistical differences for hematological and biochemical parameters, unrelated to dosage. There were no observed toxic effects, and tobacco stalk ingestion did not adversely affect organ morphology in the histopathological evaluation. The oral administration of NFC at 5,000 mg·kg-1 per day for 28 days was well-tolerated by treated rats, with no reported deaths. In conclusion, NFC derived from tobacco stalk has shown to be a sustainable and safe alternative for use as an excipient at experimental doses, demonstrating compatibility with its proposed applications.

Surface Modification of Okara Cellulose Crystals with Phenolic Acids to Prepare Multifunction Emulsifier with Antioxidant Capacity and Lipolysis Retardation Effect

Emulsion-based foods are widely consumed, and their characteristics involving colloidal and oxidative stabilities should be considered. The fabrication of the interfaces by selecting the emulsifier may improve stability and trigger lipolysis, thereby reducing energy uptake from the emulsified food. The present work aimed to develop Okara cellulose crystals (OCs) as a multifunction emulsifier to preserve the physical and chemical stability of a Pickering emulsion via surface modification with phenolic acids. The modification of OC was performed by grafting with the selected phenolics to produce OC-gallic acid (OC-G) and OC-tannic acid (OC-T) complexes. There was a higher phenolic loading efficiency when the OC reacted with gallic acid (ca. 70%) than with tannic acid (ca. 50%). This trend was concomitant with better antioxidant activity of the OC-G than OC-T. Surface modification based on grafting with phenolic acids improved capability of the OC to enhance both the colloidal and oxidative stability of the emulsion. In addition, the cellulosic materials had a retardation effect on the in vitro lipolysis compared to a protein-stabilized emulsion. Surface modification by grafting with phenolic acids successfully provided OC as an innovative emulsifier to promote physico-chemical stability and lower lipolysis of the emulsion.

A systematic review of the impacts of exposure to micro- and nano-plastics on human tissue accumulation and health

Micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) pollution has become a pressing global environmental issue, with growing concerns regarding its impact on human health. However, evidence on the effects of MNPs on human health remains limited. This paper reviews the three routes of human exposure to MNPs, which include ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. It further discusses the potential routes of translocation of MNPs in human lungs, intestines, and skin, analyses the potential impact of MNPs on the homeostasis of human organ systems, and provides an outlook on future research priorities for MNPs in human health. There is growing evidence that MNPs are present in human tissues or fluids. Lab studies, including in vivo animal models and in vitro human-derived cell cultures, revealed that MNPs exposure could negatively affect human health. MNPs exposure could cause oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, disruption of internal barriers like the intestinal, the air-blood and the placental barrier, tissue damage, as well as immune homeostasis imbalance, endocrine disruption, and reproductive and developmental toxicity. Limitedly available epidemiological studies suggest that disorders like lung nodules, asthma, and blood thrombus might be caused or exacerbated by MNPs exposure. However, direct evidence for the effects of MNPs on human health is still scarce, and future research in this area is needed to provide quantitative support for assessing the risk of MNPs to human health.

Formation and In Vitro Simulated Digestion Study of Gelatinized Korean Pine Seed Oil Encapsulated with Calcified Wax

Natural waxes have demonstrated exceptional potential as oil gels for saturated and trans fatty acids, but their application has been limited by issues such as temperature sensitivity, lack of stability and durability, and compatibility. In this study, three types of wax (Beeswax (BW), Rice bran wax (RBW), and Carnauba wax (CW)) were combined with calcium hydroxide to produce calcified wax. The calcified Korean pine seed oil gel obtained by heating and stirring with Korean pine seed oil is responsive to temperature and has environmental adaptability. The effects of critical gel concentration, temperature regulation, texture properties, microstructure, oil-holding capacity, and FT-IR on the quality parameters of oil gel were investigated. Additionally, an in vitro digestion model was developed to comprehend the decomposition rate of fat during gel structure digestion and transportation. The results demonstrated a close correlation between the critical gelation concentration and calcium ion content. Furthermore, after calcification, the hardness followed the order BW > CW > RBW. Moreover, there was an approximate 10 °C increase in wax melting point. Conversely, BW:Ca exhibited the lowest oil leakage. The microstructures revealed that the oil gels formed post-wax calcification exhibited similar fractal dimension (Db) values (<7 μm), and the intermolecular forces were characterized by van der Waals forces, which were consistent with those observed in the non-calcified group. In conjunction with the vitro digestion simulation, our findings demonstrated that RBW and CW oil gels gradually released 20%, 35%, and 35% of free fatty acids (FFA) within the initial 30 min of intestinal digestion. Importantly, the FFA release rate was significantly attenuated, thereby providing a foundation for developing wax-based gel processed foods that facilitate gentle energy release benefits for healthy weight management.

The lipid digestion behavior of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by different particle-sized insoluble dietary fiber from citrus peel

In this study, oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by insoluble dietary fibre from citrus peel (CIDF) exhibited an obviously delayed lipid digestion property through gastrointestinal tract (GIT) model. Our results suggested that the rate and extent of lipid digestion greatly relied on particle sizes and concentrations of CIDF, and the inhibition effect of lipolysis was markedly enhanced with decreasing particle sizes and increasing CIDF levels. Furthermore, compared with Tween80-stabilized emulsion, the maximum inhibition extent of lipolysis was 38.77% for CIDF400-stabilized one at 0.4 wt% concentration. Effects of CIDFs on lipid digestion was mainly due to the formation of protective layers around oil droplets, further blocking the entry of lipase to the internal lipids, and/or attributed to the increasing viscosity of emulsions caused by CIDFs, finally limiting the transportation of some substances in the simulated small intestine digestion. Our research would provide useful references for the application of CIDF-stabilized emulsions in low-calorie food.

Nanoscale ZnO Improves the Amino Acids and Lipids in Tomato Fruits and the Subsequent Assimilation in a Simulated Human Gastrointestinal Tract Model

With the widespread use of nanoenabled agrochemicals, it is essential to evaluate the food safety of nanomaterials (NMs)-treated vegetable crops in full life cycle studies as well as their potential impacts on human health. Tomato seedlings were foliarly sprayed with 50 mg/L ZnO NMs, including ZnO quantum dots (QDs) and ZnO nanoparticles once per week over 11 weeks. The foliar sprayed ZnO QDs increased fruit dry weight and yield per plant by 39.1% and 24.9, respectively. It also significantly increased the lycopene, amino acids, Zn, B, and Fe in tomato fruits by 40.5%, 15.1%, 44.5%, 76.2%, and 12.8%, respectively. The tomato fruit metabolome of tomatoes showed that ZnO NMs upregulated the biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids and sphingolipid metabolism and elevated the levels of linoleic and arachidonic acids. The ZnO NMs-treated tomato fruits were then digested in a human gastrointestinal tract model. The results of essential mineral release suggested that the ZnO QDs treatment increased the bioaccessibility of K, Zn, and Cu by 14.8-35.1% relative to the control. Additionally, both types of ZnO NMs had no negative impact on the α-amylase, pepsin, and trypsin activities. The digested fruit metabolome in the intestinal fluid demonstrated that ZnO NMs did not interfere with the normal process of human digestion. Importantly, ZnO NMs treatments increased the glycerophospholipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, and peptides in the intestinal fluids of tomato fruits. This study suggests that nanoscale Zn can be potentially used to increase the nutritional value of vegetable crops and can be an important tool to sustainably increase food quality and security.

Important Role and Properties of Granular Nanocellulose Particles in an In Vitro Simulated Gastrointestinal System and in Lipid Digestibility and Permeability

This research evaluated the role and feasibility of the granular nanocellulose particles (GNC) from sugarcane bagasse obtained from enzymatic hydrolysis in reducing lipid digestibility and permeability in an in vitro simulated gastrointestinal (GI) system. GNC concentration (0.02%, w/v) had significantly affected the released free fatty acids (FFA), with a reduction of approximately 20%. Pickering emulsion of a GNC and olive oil simulation mixture revealed higher oil droplet size distribution and stability in the initial stage than the vortexed mixture formation. The difference in particle size distribution and zeta potential of the ingested GNC suspension and GNC-olive oil emulsion were displayed during the in vitro gastrointestinal simulation. GNC particles interacted and distributed surrounding the oil droplet, leading to interfacial emulsion. The GNC concentration (0.01-0.10%, w/v) showed low toxicity on HIEC-6 cells, ranging from 80.0 to 99% of cell viability. The release of FFA containing the ingested GNC suspension and GNC-olive oil emulsion had about a 30% reduction compared to that without the GNC digestion solution. The FFA and triglyceride permeability through the HIEC-6 intestinal epithelium monolayer were deceased in the digesta containing the ingested GNC and emulsion. This work indicated that GNC represented a significantly critical role and properties in the GI tract and reduced lipid digestion and absorption. This GNC could be utilized as an alternative food additive or supplement in fatty food for weight control due to their inhibition of lipid digestibility and assimilation.

Sustainable Pickering Emulsions with Nanocellulose: Innovations and Challenges

The proper mix of nanocellulose to a dispersion of polar and nonpolar liquids creates emulsions stabilized by finely divided solids (instead of tensoactive chemicals) named Pickering emulsions. These mixtures can be engineered to develop new food products with innovative functions, potentially more eco-friendly characteristics, and reduced risks to consumers. Although cellulose-based Pickering emulsion preparation is an exciting approach to creating new food products, there are many legal, technical, environmental, and economic gaps to be filled through research. The diversity of different types of nanocellulose makes it difficult to perform long-term studies on workers' occupational health, cytotoxicity for consumers, and environmental impacts. This review aims to identify some of these gaps and outline potential topics for future research and cooperation. Pickering emulsion research is still concentrated in a few countries, especially developed and emerging countries, with low levels of participation from Asian and African nations. There is a need for the development of scaling-up technologies to allow for the production of kilograms or liters per hour of products. More research is needed on the sustainability and eco-design of products. Finally, countries must approve a regulatory framework that allows for food products with Pickering emulsions to be put on the market.

Polysaccharide-based biosorbents for cholesterol and bile salts in gastric-intestinal passage: Advances and future trends

Cholesterol is one of the hazard elements for many cardiovascular diseases, but many cholesterol-lowering drugs are expensive and unhealthy. Therefore, it is necessary to develop edible and safe biosorbents to reduce excess cholesterol and bile salts in the gastric-intestinal passage. Polysaccharide-based biosorbents offer a feasible strategy for decreasing them. This review summarized polysaccharide-based biosorbents that have been developed for adsorbing cholesterol and bile salts from the gastric-intestinal passage and analyzed common modification methods for these adsorbents. Finally, the adsorption models were also elucidated. Polysaccharides, including β-cyclodextrin, pectin, chitin/chitosan, dietary fiber extract, and cellulose, have been proposed for adsorbing cholesterol and bile salts in the gastric-intestinal passage as biosorbents. This is mainly due to the retention of pores, the capture of the viscosity network, and the help of hydrophobic interactions. In spite of this, the adsorption capacity of polysaccharides is still limited. Therefore, the modifications for them became the most popular areas in the recent studies of in vitro cholesterol adsorption. Chemical approaches namely grafting, (1) acetylation, (2) hydroxypropylation, (3) carboxymethylation, and (4) amination are considered to modify the polysaccharides for higher adsorption ability. Moreover, ultrasonic/microwave/pressure treatment and micron technology (microfluidization, micronization, and ball milling) are effective physical modification methods, while the biological approach mainly refers to enzymatic hydrolysis and microbial fermentation. The adsorption models are generally explained by two adsorption isotherms and two adsorption kinetics. In sum, it is reckoned that further food applications will follow soon.

Autotitrator based on an Arduino Open Source Pump

Acid-base titration is a quantitative analysis that enables knowing the quantity of acidic or basic groups present in a solution sample. It consists in the addition of base or acid to the solution sample while monitoring the pH to reach a neutral pH. The titration can be automated and here we present a low cost Arduino based Open Source Pump (OSPump) modified to act as an automated titrator with an obsolete but reliable Metrohm 713 pH meter. Our device is 50 times less expensive than second hand units from the pH meter manufacturer and inherently open to customization. We present two validation cases of study, including the lipolysis of a vegetable olive oil in water emulsion, characterized by the OSPump Titrator.

Potential of Nanocellulose as a Dietary Fiber Isolated from Brewer's Spent Grain

Steady growth in beer production is increasing the number of by-products named brewers' spent grain. Such by-products are a source of several components, where cellulose is usually present in high amounts. The aim of this study was to develop a protocol to obtain a mix of cellulose microfibers with an average diameter of 8-12 µm and cellulose nanoplatelets with an average thickness of 100 nm, which has several applications in the food industry. The process comprised one alkaline treatment followed by acid hydrolysis, giving a new mix of micro and nanocellulose. This mix was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and laser scanning microscopy corroborating the presence and measurements of the cellulose nanostructure, showing an aspect ratio of up to 500. Finally, we demonstrated that the administration of this new type of nanocellulose allowed us to control the weight of mice (feed intake), showing a significant percentage of weight reduction (4.96%) after 15 days compared with their initial weight, indicating the possibility of using this material as a dietary fiber.

Factors affecting the fate of nanoencapsulates post administration

Nanoencapsulation has found numerous applications in the food and nutraceutical industries. Micro and nanoencapsulated forms of bioactives have proven benefits in terms of stability, release, and performance in the body. However, the encapsulated ingredient is often subjected to a wide range of processing conditions and this is followed by storage, consumption, and transit along the gastrointestinal tract. A strong understanding of the fate of nanoencapsulates in the biological system is mandatory as it provides valuable insights for ingredient selection, formulation, and application. In addition to their efficacy, there is also the need to assess the safety of ingested nanoencapsulates. Given the rising research and commercial focus of this subject, this review provides a strong focus on their interaction factors and mechanisms, highlighting their prospective biological fate. This review also covers various approaches to studying the fate of nanoencapsulates in the body. Also, with emphasis on the overall scope, the need for a new advanced integrated common methodology to evaluate the fate of nanoencapsulates post-administration is discussed.

A critical review of microplastics toxicity and potential adverse outcome pathway in human gastrointestinal tract following oral exposure

Microplastics (MPs) are typically produced via environmental degradation of larger plastics, where they enter the human food chain. MPs are complex materials containing chemical and physical characteristics that can potentially affect their hazard and exposure. These physical properties can be altered by environmental exposure potentially altering any risk assessment conducted on the primary material. We conducted a literature review using an Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP)-based approach from Molecular Initiating Event (MIE) to cell effect event to identify multiple knowledge gaps that affect MPs hazard assessment. There is some convergence of key biological events but could relate to most lying along well-established biological effector pathways such as apoptosis which can respond to many MIEs. In contrast, MIEs of chemicals will be via protein interaction. As MPs may occur in the lumen of the alimentary canal for example to the mucus, therefore, not requiring translocation of MPs across the epithelial membrane. At the other end of the AOP, currently it is not possible to identify a single adverse outcome at the organ level. This work did establish a clear need to understand both external and internal exposure (resulting from translocation) and develop hazard data at both levels to inform on risk assessments.

Two-Step Upcycling Process of Lignocellulose into Edible Bacterial Nanocellulose with Black Raspberry Extract as an Active Ingredient

(1) Background: Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) has gained in popularity over the years due to its outstanding properties such as renewability, biocompatibility, and bioavailability, and its use as an eco-friendly material of the future for replacing petrochemical products. (2) Methods: This research refers to the utilization of lignocellulose coming from wood waste via enzymatic hydrolysis to produce biopolymer BNC with an accumulation rate of 0.09 mg/mL/day. Besides its significant contribution to the sustainability, circularity, and valorization of biomass products, the obtained BNC was functionalized through the adsorption of black raspberry extract (BR) by simple soaking. (3) Results: BR contained 77.25 ± 0.23 mg GAE/g of total phenolics and 27.42 ± 0.32 mg CGE/g of total anthocyanins. The antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of BR was evaluated by DPPH (60.51 ± 0.18 µg/mL) and FRAP (1.66 ± 0.03 mmol Fe2+/g) and using a standard disc diffusion assay, respectively. The successful synthesis and interactions between BNC and BR were confirmed by FTIR analysis, while the morphology of the new nutrient-enriched material was investigated by SEM analysis. Moreover, the in vitro release kinetics of a main active compound (cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside) was tested in different release media. (4) Conclusions: The upcycling process of lignocellulose into enriched BNC has been demonstrated. All findings emphasize the potential of BNC-BR as a sustainable food industry material.

Calcium Tungstate Microgel Enhances the Delivery and Colonization of Probiotics during Colitis via Intestinal Ecological Niche Occupancy

The effective delivery and colonization of probiotics are recommended for therapeutic interventions during colitis, the efficacy of which is hampered by abnormally colonized Enterobacteriaceae at pathological sites. To improve the delivery and colonization of probiotics, a calcium tungstate microgel (CTM)-based oral probiotic delivery system is proposed herein. CTM can selectively disrupt the ecological niche occupied by abnormally expanded Enterobacteriaceae during colitis to facilitate probiotic colonization. In addition, the calcium-binding protein, calprotectin, which is highly expressed in colitis, efficiently extracts calcium from CTM and releases tungsten to inhibit Enterobacteriaceae by displacing molybdenum in the molybdenum enzyme, without affecting the delivered probiotics. Moreover, CTM demonstrated resistance to the harsh environment of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and to intestinal adhesion. The synergistic reduction of Enterobacteriaceae by 45 times and the increase in probiotic colonization by 25 times, therefore, result in a remarkable treatment for colitis, including restoration of colonic length, effective downregulation of the inflammatory response, restoration of the damaged mucosal barrier, and restoration of gut microbiome homeostasis.

Cellulose Nanofiber Platform for Pesticide Sequestration in the Gastrointestinal Tract

Exploitation of nature-derived materials is an important approach to promote environmental sustainability. Among these materials, cellulose is of particular interest due to its abundance and relative ease of access. As a food ingredient, cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) have found interesting applications as emulsifiers and modulators of lipid digestion and absorption. In this report, we show that CNFs can also be modified to modulate the bioavailability of toxins, such as pesticides, in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) by forming inclusion complexes and promoting interaction with surface hydroxyl groups. CNFs were successfully functionalized with (2-hydroxypropyl)-β-cyclodextrin (HPBCD) using citric acid as a crosslinker via esterification. Functionally, the potential for pristine and functionalized CNFs (FCNFs) to interact with a model pesticide, boscalid, was tested. Based on direct interaction studies, adsorption of boscalid saturated at around 3.09% on CNFs and at 12.62% on FCNFs. Using an in vitro GIT simulation platform, the adsorption of boscalid on CNFs/FCNFs was also studied. The presence of a high-fat food model was found to have a positive effect in binding boscalid in a simulated intestinal fluid environment. In addition, FCNFs were found to have a greater effect in retarding triglyceride digestion than CNFs (61% vs 30.6%). Overall, FCNFs were demonstrated to evoke synergistic effects of reducing fat absorption and pesticide bioavailability through inclusion complex formation and the additional binding of the pesticide onto surface hydroxyl groups on HPBCD. By adopting food-compatible materials and processes for production, FCNFs have the potential to be developed into a functional food ingredient for modulating food digestion and the uptake of toxins.

Graphene oxide exposure alters gut microbial community composition and metabolism in an in vitro human model

Graphene oxide (GO) nanomaterials have unique physicochemical properties that make them highly promising for biomedical, environmental, and agricultural applications. There is growing interest in the use of GO and extensive in vitro and in vivo studies have been conducted to assess its nanotoxicity. Although it is known that GO can alter the composition of the gut microbiota in mice and zebrafish, studies on the potential impacts of GO on the human gut microbiome are largely lacking. This study addresses an important knowledge gap by investigating the impact of GO exposure- at low (25 mg/L) and high (250 mg/L) doses under both fed (nutrient rich) and fasted (nutrient deplete) conditions- on the gut microbial communitys' structure and function, using an in vitro model. This model includes simulated oral, gastric, small intestinal phase digestion of GO followed by incubation in a colon bioreactor. 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing revealed that GO exposure resulted in a restructuring of community composition. 25 mg/L GO induced a marked decrease in the Bacteroidota phylum and increased the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidota (F/B). Untargeted metabolomics on the supernatants indicated that 25 mg/L GO impaired microbial utilization and metabolism of substrates (amino acids, carbohydrate metabolites) and reduced production of beneficial microbial metabolites such as 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid and GABA. Exposure to 250 mg/L GO resulted in community composition and metabolome profiles that were very similar to the controls that lacked both GO and digestive enzymes. Differential abundance analyses revealed that 3 genera from the phylum Bacteroidota (Bacteroides, Dysgonomonas, and Parabacteroides) were more abundant after 250 mg/L GO exposure, irrespective of feed state. Integrative correlation network analysis indicated that the phylum Bacteroidota showed strong positive correlations to multiple microbial metabolites including GABA and 3-indoleacetic acid, are much larger number of correlations compared to other phyla. These results show that GO exposure has a significant impact on gut microbial community composition and metabolism at both low and high GO concentrations.

Application of cellulose- and chitosan-based edible coatings for quality and safety of deep-fried foods

Excessive oil uptake and formation of carcinogens, such as acrylamide (AA), heterocyclic amines (HCAs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), during deep-frying are a potential threat for food quality and safety. Cellulose- and chitosan-based edible coatings have been widely applied to deep-fried foods for reduction of oil uptake because of their barrier property to limit oil ingress, and their apparent inhibition of AA formation. Cellulose- and chitosan-based edible coatings have low negative impacts on sensory attributes of fried foods and are low cost, nontoxic, and nonallergenic. They also show great potential for reducing HCAs and PAHs in fried foods. The incorporation of nanoparticles improves mechanical and barrier properties of cellulose and chitosan coatings, which may also contribute to reducing carcinogens derived from deep-frying. Considering the potential for positive health outcomes, cellulose- and chitosan-based edible coatings could be a valuable method for the food industry to improve the quality and safety of deep-fried foods.

Six weeks effect of different nanocellulose on blood lipid level and small intestinal morphology in mice

AIMS

Cellulose nanofibrils (CNF, or NFC), cellulose nanocrystals (CNC, or NCC), and Tempo (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical) oxidized CNF (Tempo-CNF) were compared for the short-term effect on mice fed with a high-fat and high-sugar (Western diet, WD) to investigate their effect when combined with a sub-optimal diet.

SCOPE

Thirty C57B/C female mice (10 weeks old; 5-6 mice/group) were given water, cellulose, or three types of nanocellulose once daily in a dose of 30 mg/kg body weight by oral gavage. After six weeks, weight changes, fecal output, glucose homeostasis, and gut permeability showed no significant among groups. Serum analysis including triglycerides, cholesterol and total bile acids and small intestinal morphology including villus length, villus width, crypt depth, goblet cell count and goblet cell density were no difference for all groups. Only CNC group had higher excretion of bile acids in the feces.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that current treated dose using three types of nanocellulose had no detrimental effects on blood lipid level and small intestinal morphology.

Inclusion of Soybean Hulls (Glycine max) and Pupunha Peach Palm (Bactris gasipaes) Nanofibers in the Diet of Growing Rabbits: Effects on Zootechnical Performance and Intestinal Health

This study evaluated the inclusion of nanofibers from soybean hulls and pupunha peach palm heart sheaths in the diet of growing rabbits. Twenty-four New Zealand White rabbits (male and female) were allocated in three experimental groups: control, fed a basal diet; Nanosoy, fed a diet containing 7% soybean-hull nanofibers; and Nanopupunha, fed a diet containing 7% pupunha palm heart-sheath nanofibers. The Nanosoy-group rabbits showed poorer final weight, daily feed intake, and daily weight gain than those in other groups. In the duodenum, villus height, total mucosal thickness, and villus width were higher in rabbits that received nanofiber-supplemented diets than in the controls. Higher villus density and wall thickness were observed in Nanopupunha-fed rabbits than in the controls. In the jejunum, although the crypt depth was higher in Nanosoy-fed rabbits, the villus height:crypt depth ratio was higher in the Nanopupunha-fed group. Nanosoy-fed animals exhibited increased count Enterobacteriaceae populations. Rabbits in both nanofiber-fed groups exhibited higher lactic-acid bacterial counts than those in the control-diet group. Therefore, although the inclusion of 7% Nanopupunha in the diet of rabbits did not alter the performance, it improved intestinal health and increased the lactic-acid bacterial count in the cecum of growing rabbits.

Emerging Materials, Wearables, and Diagnostic Advancements in Therapeutic Treatment of Brain Diseases

Among the most critical health issues, brain illnesses, such as neurodegenerative conditions and tumors, lower quality of life and have a significant economic impact. Implantable technology and nano-drug carriers have enormous promise for cerebral brain activity sensing and regulated therapeutic application in the treatment and detection of brain illnesses. Flexible materials are chosen for implantable devices because they help reduce biomechanical mismatch between the implanted device and brain tissue. Additionally, implanted biodegradable devices might lessen any autoimmune negative effects. The onerous subsequent operation for removing the implanted device is further lessened with biodegradability. This review expands on current developments in diagnostic technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, mass spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, angiography, and electroencephalogram while providing an overview of prevalent brain diseases. As far as we are aware, there hasn't been a single review article that addresses all the prevalent brain illnesses. The reviewer also looks into the prospects for the future and offers suggestions for the direction of future developments in the treatment of brain diseases.

Toxicological Assessment of Cellulose Nanomaterials: Oral Exposure

Cellulose nanomaterials (CNMs) have emerged recently as an important group of sustainable bio-based nanomaterials (NMs) with potential applications in multiple sectors, including the food, food packaging, and biomedical fields. The widening of these applications leads to increased human oral exposure to these NMs and, potentially, to adverse health outcomes. Presently, the potential hazards regarding oral exposure to CNMs are insufficiently characterised. There is a need to understand and manage the potential adverse effects that might result from the ingestion of CNMs before products using CNMs reach commercialisation. This work reviews the potential applications of CNMs in the food and biomedical sectors along with the existing toxicological in vitro and in vivo studies, while also identifying current knowledge gaps. Relevant considerations when performing toxicological studies following oral exposure to CNMs are highlighted. An increasing number of studies have been published in the last years, overall showing that ingested CNMs are not toxic to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), suggestive of the biocompatibility of the majority of the tested CNMs. However, in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity studies, as well as long-term carcinogenic or reproductive toxicity studies, are not yet available. These studies are needed to support a wider use of CNMs in applications that can lead to human oral ingestion, thereby promoting a safe and sustainable-by-design approach.

Nanocellulose Prepared from Buckwheat Bran: Physicochemical Characterization, Cytotoxicity Evaluation, and Inhibition Effect on Fat Digestion and Absorption

Cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) is a sustainable biomaterial that has been used in many aspects of the food industry, but its effect on fat digestion and absorption is still underexplored. In this study, three CNCs were prepared from buckwheat bran. Their physicochemical properties were characterized, based on which the acetic acid-hydrolyzed CNC (ACCNC) with high absorption capacity was selected for the cytotoxicity evaluation and as a possible inhibitor for fat digestion and absorption in vitro and in vivo. ACCNC was proved to be nontoxic in the MTT assay and animal feeding tests. Especially, with the addition of ACCNC, the hydrolysis of fat was significantly reduced during the simulated digestion in vitro. In vivo testing also confirmed that ACCNC intake significantly reduced the elevated triglyceride, body weight, and fat accumulation levels. This study highlights the potential role of ACCNC prepared from buckwheat bran as an inhibitor for fat digestion and absorption.

Incineration-Generated Polyethylene Micro-Nanoplastics Increase Triglyceride Lipolysis and Absorption in an In Vitro Small Intestinal Epithelium Model

Despite mounting evidence of micro-nanoplastics (MNPs) in food and drinking water, little is known of the potential health risks of ingested MNPs, and nothing is known of their potential impact on nutrient digestion and absorption. We assessed the effects of environmentally relevant secondary MNPs generated by incineration of polyethylene (PE-I), on digestion and absorption of fat in a high fat food model using a 3-phase in vitro simulated digestion coupled with a tri-culture small intestinal epithelium model. The presence of 400 μg/mL PE-I increased fat digestion by 33% and increased fat absorption by 147 and 145% 1 and 2 h after exposure. Analysis of the PE-I lipid corona during digestion revealed predominantly triacylglycerols with enrichment of fatty acids in the small intestinal phase. Protein corona analysis showed enrichment of triacylglycerol lipase and depletion of β-casein in the small intestinal phase. These findings suggest digestion of triacylglycerol by lipase on the surface of lipid-coated MNPs as a potential mechanism. Further studies are needed to investigate the mechanisms underlying the greater observed increase in fat absorption, to verify these results in an animal model, and to determine the MNP properties governing their effects on lipid digestion and absorption.

A review of recent progress in improving the bioavailability of nutraceutical-loaded emulsions after oral intake

Increasing awareness of the health benefits of specific constituents in fruits, vegetables, cereals, and other whole foods has sparked a broader interest in the potential health benefits of nutraceuticals. Many nutraceuticals are hydrophobic substances, which means they must be encapsulated in colloidal delivery systems. Oil-in-water emulsions are one of the most widely used delivery systems for improving the bioavailability and bioactivity of these nutraceuticals. The composition and structure of emulsions can be designed to improve the water dispersibility, physicochemical stability, and bioavailability of the encapsulated nutraceuticals. The nature of the emulsion used influences the interfacial area and properties of the nutraceutical-loaded oil droplets in the gastrointestinal tract, which influences their digestion, as well as the bioaccessibility, metabolism, and absorption of the nutraceuticals. In this article, we review recent in vitro and in vivo studies on the utilization of emulsions to improve the bioavailability of nutraceuticals. The findings from this review should facilitate the design of more efficacious nutraceutical-loaded emulsions with increased bioactivity.

Lipid emulsion interfacial design modulates human in vivo digestion and satiation hormone response

Lipid emulsions (LEs) with tailored digestibility have the potential to modulate satiation or act as delivery systems for lipophilic nutrients and drugs. The digestion of LEs is governed by their interfacial emulsifier layer which determines their gastric structuring and accessibility for lipases. A plethora of LEs that potentially modulate digestion have been proposed in recent years, however, in vivo validations of altered LE digestion remain scarce. Here, we report on the in vivo digestion and satiation of three novel LEs stabilized by whey protein isolate (WPI), thermo-gelling methylcellulose (MC), or cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) in comparison to an extensively studied surfactant-stabilized LE. LE digestion and satiation were determined in terms of gastric emptying, postprandial plasma hormone and metabolite levels characteristic for lipid digestion, perceived hunger/fullness sensations, and postprandial food intake. No major variations in gastric fat emptying were observed despite distinct gastric structuring of the LEs. The plasma satiation hormone and metabolite response was fastest and highest for WPI-stabilized LEs, indicating a limited capability of proteins to prevent lipolysis due to fast hydrolysis under gastric conditions and displacement by lipases. MC-stabilized LEs show a similar gastric structuring as surfactant-stabilized LEs but slightly reduced hormone and metabolite responses, suggesting that thermo-gelling MC prevents lipase adsorption more effectively. Ultimately, CNC-stabilized LEs showed a drastic reduction (>70%) in plasma hormone and metabolite responses. This confirms the efficiency of particle (Pickering) stabilized LEs to prevent lipolysis proposed in literature based on in vitro experiments. Subjects reported more hunger and less fullness after consumption of LEs stabilized with MC and CNCs which were able to limit satiation responses. We do not find evidence for the widely postulated ileal brake, i.e. that delivery of undigested nutrients to the ileum triggers increased satiation. On the contrary, we find decreased satiation for LEs that are able to delay lipolysis. No differences in food intake were observed 5 h after LE consumption. In conclusion, LE interfacial design modulates in vivo digestion and satiation response in humans. In particular, Pickering LEs show extraordinary capability to prevent lipolysis and qualify as oral delivery systems for lipophilic nutrients and drugs.

Lipid emulsions (LEs) with tailored digestibility have the potential to modulate satiation or act as delivery systems for lipophilic nutrients and drugs.

Tracking Bacterial Nanocellulose in Animal Tissues by Fluorescence Microscopy

The potential of nanomaterials in food technology is nowadays well-established. However, their commercial use requires a careful risk assessment, in particular concerning the fate of nanomaterials in the human body. Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), a nanofibrillar polysaccharide, has been used as a food product for many years in Asia. However, given its nano-character, several toxicological studies must be performed, according to the European Food Safety Agency’s guidance. Those should especially answer the question of whether nanoparticulate cellulose is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. This raises the need to develop a screening technique capable of detecting isolated nanosized particles in biological tissues. Herein, the potential of a cellulose-binding module fused to a green fluorescent protein (GFP–CBM) to detect single bacterial cellulose nanocrystals (BCNC) obtained by acid hydrolysis was assessed. Adsorption studies were performed to characterize the interaction of GFP–CBM with BNC and BCNC. Correlative electron light microscopy was used to demonstrate that isolated BCNC may be detected by fluorescence microscopy. The uptake of BCNC by macrophages was also assessed. Finally, an exploratory 21-day repeated-dose study was performed, wherein Wistar rats were fed daily with BNC. The presence of BNC or BCNC throughout the GIT was observed only in the intestinal lumen, suggesting that cellulose particles were not absorbed. While a more comprehensive toxicological study is necessary, these results strengthen the idea that BNC can be considered a safe food additive.

Palm-based cellulose nanofiber isolated from mechano-chemical processing as sustainable rheological modifier in reduced fat mayonnaise

Abstract

Reducing fat intake from our daily diet serves to be an effective way to combat the rising obesity issue worldwide. Hence, reducing fat content in mayonnaise, a high fat food product, is one of the primary trends in the food industry. To date, research on the use of nanocellulose, a new and emerging form of fat mimetic, in mayonnaise formulation remains limited. This study sets out to formulate reduced fat 5%, 15%, and 30% mayonnaise using varying concentration of nanocellulose synthesized from palm pressed fiber followed by a 20‐day stability study. Nanocellulose was synthesized with particle size of 106.0 ± 18.7 nm and zeta potential of −72.5 ± 2.26 mV. It was used as fat mimetic in mayonnaise. Rheological analysis conducted showed that incorporation of nanocellulose into reduced fat mayonnaise formulation was able to counteract the loss of viscosity in mayonnaise caused by fat content reduction. This finding was further supported by the smaller oil droplets that are closely packed in reduced fat mayonnaise formulation when viewed under light microscope. Nonetheless, significant oil droplet coalescence was found in reduced fat mayonnaise formulations during storage period which could lead to loss of viscosity. Taken together, these findings suggest that CNF was able to act as fat mimetic upon formulation of mayonnaise but the same cannot be said during long term storage of mayonnaise.

Practical Application

We successfully isolated nanocellulose from palm biomass (palm pressed fiber) using green approach and used it as a fat replacer for preparation of 5%, 15%, and 30% reduced fat mayonnaise. A computation study revealed a strong binding affinity of the nanocellulose on the lipase active site essential to inhibit the digestion of fats and oils. Therefore, nanocellulose demonstrated a huge potential to be used as not only as fat replacer but also rheological modifier for the development of reduced fat or vegan foods.

Effects of lipid type and toxicological properties on the digestion of cellulose nanocrystals in simulated gastrointestinal tract

This study aimed to understand the impact of different oil types on the cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) to modulate lipid digestion and the in vitro gastrointestinal toxicity of CNCs in food systems. We explored the ability of CNCs to modulate lipid digestion in a simulated gastrointestinal system and monitored the gastrointestinal fate of CNC-based emulsions with different oil types. Finally, a small intestine epithelial model was used to evaluate the influence of cytotoxicity. The results suggested that the addition of 0.6 wt% CNCs in the high-fat food model reduced the hydrolysis of free fatty acids (FFAs) from triglycerides by 37.8% after the small intestine phase. CNCs showed the best effect in reducing lipid digestion in emulsions with high unsaturation triglycerides. In addition, the toxicology results suggest that 0.6 wt% CNCs had only a slight effect on reactive oxygen species and cytotoxicity, and no significant change in cell-layer integrity.

Investigation of eight cellulose nanomaterials' impact on Differentiated Caco-2 monolayer integrity and cytotoxicity

The potential applications of cellulose nanomaterials (CNMs) as food additives or in food packaging, present a possible source of human ingestion. While micron- and macro-scale cellulose products are classified as Generally Regarded As Safe, the safety of ingested nano-scale cellulose is largely unknown. Using fully differentiated Caco-2 cells, the perturbation of intestinal barrier function and cytotoxicity was investigated for four nanocellulose crystals (CNCs) and four nanocellulose fibrils (CNFs) following 24 h of exposure at 50 μg/mL. Scanning electron microscope showed some aggregation of both CNCs and CNFs. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses showed that carbon and oxygen were the main elements. The zeta-potential for CNMs formulated in cell culture medium showed a negative surface charge. Two CNMs increased cell membrane permeability and three CNMs decreased the cell metabolic activity. While three CNMs lead to cytotoxic responses, no changes in apparent permeability coefficient (P_app) for dextran or tight junction integrity were found. Our results show that three CNMs induce cytotoxicity in differentiated Caco-2 cells, demonstrating the need to understand the role of size and shape. The interaction between CNMs and the intestinal epithelium needs to be evaluated to understand potential intestinal barrier dysfunction and resulting health implications following CNM ingestion.

Overview of potential adverse health effects of oral exposure to nanocellulose

Nanocellulose is an emerging material for which several food-related applications are foreseen, for example, novel food, functional food, food additive or in food contact materials. Nanocellulose materials can display a range of possible shapes (fibers, crystals), sizes and surface modifications. For food-related applications in the EU, information on the safety of substances must be assessed. The present review summarizes the current knowledge on (possible) adverse health effects of nanocellulose upon oral exposure, keeping EU regulatory aspects in mind. The overview indicates that toxicity data, especially from in vivo studies, are limited and outcomes are not unambiguous. The hazard assessment is further complicated by: the diversity in morphologies and surface modifications, lack of standard reference materials, limited knowledge about intestinal fate and absorption, analytical difficulties in biological matrices, dispersion issues, the possible presence of impurities and interferences within biological assays. Two subchronic in vivo toxicity studies show no indications of toxicity for two specific nanocellulose materials, even at high doses. However, these studies may have missed certain early or nano-specific toxic effects, such as inflammation potential, for which other, subacute studies provide some indications. Most in vitro studies show no cytotoxicity; however, several indicate that effects on oxidative stress and inflammatory responses depend on differences in size or surface treatments. Further, too few studies assessed genotoxicity of nanocelluloses. Therefore, immunotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity require further attention, as do absorption and effects on nutrient uptake. Recommendations for future research facilitating the safety assessment and safe-by-design of nanocellulose in food-related applications are provided.

Chlorophyll Inhibits the Digestion of Soybean Oil in Simulated Human Gastrointestinal System

Nowadays, much available processed and highly palatable food such as cream products and fried and convenient food, which usually showed a high energy density, had caused an increase in the intake of dietary lipids, further leading to significant growth in the prevalence of obesity. Chlorophyll, widespread in fruits and vegetables, was proven to have beneficial effects on alleviating obesity. This study investigated the effects of chlorophyll on the digestive characteristics of lipids under in vitro simulated adult and infant gastrointestinal systems. Chlorophyll decreased the release rate of free fatty acid (FFA) during in vitro adult and infant intestinal digestion by 69.2% and 60.0%, respectively. Meanwhile, after gastrointestinal digestion, chlorophyll changed the FFA composition of soybean oil emulsion and increased the particle size of oil droplets. Interestingly, with the addition of chlorophyll, the activity of pancreatic lipase was inhibited during digestion, which may be related to pheophytin (a derivative of chlorophyll after gastric digestion). Therefore, the results obtained from isothermal titration calorimetry and molecular docking further elucidated that pheophytin could bind to pancreatic lipase with a strong affinity of (4.38 ± 0.76) × 10⁷ M^-1 (K_a), while the binding site was amino acid residue Trp253. The investigation not only explained why chlorophyll inhibited digestive enzyme activity to reduce lipids digestion but also provided exciting opportunities for developing novel chlorophyll-based healthy products for dietary application in preventing obesity.

Analysis of the In Vitro Toxicity of Nanocelluloses in Human Lung Cells as Compared to Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

Cellulose micro/nanomaterials (CMNM), comprising cellulose microfibrils (CMF), nanofibrils (CNF), and nanocrystals (CNC), are being recognized as promising bio-nanomaterials due to their natural and renewable source, attractive properties, and potential for applications with industrial and economical value. Thus, it is crucial to investigate their potential toxicity before starting their production at a larger scale. The present study aimed at evaluating the cell internalization and in vitro cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of CMNM as compared to two multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), NM-401 and NM-402, in A549 cells. The exposure to all studied NM, with the exception of CNC, resulted in evident cellular uptake, as analyzed by transmission electron microscopy. However, none of the CMNM induced cytotoxic effects, in contrast to the cytotoxicity observed for the MWCNT. Furthermore, no genotoxicity was observed for CNF, CNC, and NM-402 (cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay), while CMF and NM-401 were able to significantly raise micronucleus frequency. Only NM-402 was able to induce ROS formation, although it did not induce micronuclei. Thus, it is unlikely that the observed CMF and NM-401 genotoxicity is mediated by oxidative DNA damage. More studies targeting other genotoxicity endpoints and cellular and molecular events are underway to allow for a more comprehensive safety assessment of these nanocelluloses.

Recent Advances in the Gastrointestinal Fate of Organic and Inorganic Nanoparticles in Foods

Inorganic or organic nanoparticles are often incorporated into foods to enhance their quality, stability, nutrition, or safety. When they pass through the gastrointestinal environment, the properties of these nanoparticles are altered, which impacts their biological effects and potential toxicity. Consequently, there is a need to understand how different kinds of nanoparticles behave within the gastrointestinal tract. In this article, the current understanding of the gastrointestinal fate of nanoparticles in foods is reviewed. Initially, the fundamental physicochemical and structural properties of nanoparticles are discussed, including their compositions, sizes, shapes, and surface chemistries. Then, the impact of food matrix effects and gastrointestinal environments on the fate of ingested nanoparticles is discussed. In particular, the influence of nanoparticle properties on food digestion and nutraceutical bioavailability is highlighted. Finally, future research directions are highlighted that will enable the successful utilization of nanotechnology in foods while also ensuring they are safe.

Bile Acid Sequestrants for Hypercholesterolemia Treatment Using Sustainable Biopolymers: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

Bile acids, the endogenous steroid nucleus containing signaling molecules, are responsible for the regulation of multiple metabolic processes, including lipoprotein and glucose metabolism to maintain homeostasis. Within our body, they are directly produced from their immediate precursors, cholesterol C (low-density lipoprotein C, LDL-C), through the enzymatic catabolic process mediated by 7-α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1). Bile acid sequestrants (BASs) or amphiphilic resins that are nonabsorbable to the human body (being complex high molecular weight polymers/electrolytes) are one of the classes of drugs used to treat hypercholesterolemia (a high plasma cholesterol level) or dyslipidemia (lipid abnormalities in the body); thus, they have been used clinically for more than 50 years with strong safety profiles as demonstrated by the Lipid Research Council-Cardiovascular Primary Prevention Trial (LRC-CPPT). They reduce plasma LDL-C and can slightly increase high-density lipoprotein C (HDL-C) levels, whereas many of the recent clinical studies have demonstrated that they can reduce glucose levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, due to higher daily dosage requirements, lower efficacy in LDL-C reduction, and concomitant drug malabsorption, research to develop an "ideal" BAS from sustainable or natural sources with better LDL-C lowering efficacy and glucose regulations and lower side effects is being pursued. This Review discusses some recent developments and their corresponding efficacies as bile removal or LDL-C reduction of natural biopolymer (polysaccharide)-based compounds.

In vitro gastrointestinal digestibility of corn oil-in-water Pickering emulsions stabilized by three types of nanocellulose

The effect of three nanocellulose (various in crystalline allomorph and morphology) on lipid in vitro gastrointestinal digestibility was investigated. Corn oil-in-water emulsions were prepared by CNCs-I, CNCs-II and CNFs respectively. The variations of droplets diameter D[4,3], zeta potential, and microstructure were measured during gastrointestinal digestion (mouth, stomach and small intestine), and the free fatty acid (FFA) released in the small intestine phase were examined. The FFA-released test results indicated that both crystalline allomorph and morphology of nanocellulose affected the degree of lipid digestion, especially the morphology. FFA released amount was ranked in the order of CNCs-I (56.60%), CNCs-II (48.67%) and CNFs (28.21%). This is mainly due to the difference in the self-assembly behavior of nanocellulose at the interface. Our findings provide an innovative solution that using nanocellulose as food-grade particle stabilizer to modulate the digestion of Pickering emulsified lipids, which would benefit the development of given functional foods.

Advances in nanotechnology and the benefits of using cellulose nanofibers in animal nutrition

The production of cellulose nanofibers promotes the utilization of plant residues that are generated in agro-industries during food processing. The utilization of these plant by-products reduces environmental contamination. Cellulose nanofibers are used in several sectors, including the drug, food, and animal nutrition industries. Many sources of nanofibers used in animal diets can be used as potential fiber substitutes after being processed to improve efficiency. For instance, including nanometric particles of plant fibers (<100 nm) in animal feed may provide excellent physical properties such as high reactivity, a large surface area, and improved nutrient absorption from the diet. Nanotechnology improves the characteristics of fibers that are important for gastrointestinal transit and their utilization as energy sources and substrates for microbial fermentation in the digestive tract of animals. Nanofibers can improve the synthesis of volatile fatty acids and the blood lipid profile, with positive effects on the intestinal health of animals. Moreover, in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated promising effects in reducing blood glucose levels without toxic effects on the body. Supplying nanofibers in the diet improve animal performance, increase productivity, and work toward a more sustainable economic development of agribusinesses. The quality of animal products such as meat, milk, and eggs is also reported to be improved with the inclusion of nanominerals in the feed. Overall, the application of nanotechnology to harness the by-products of agro-industries can increase economic viability and sustainability in animal production systems. Therefore, this review presents a current survey on the main research and advances in the utilization of nanotechnology, focusing on cellulose nanofibers in animal feed to improve animal performance.

Compositional, Structural, and Kinetic Aspects of Lipid Digestion and Bioavailability: In Vitro, In Vivo, and Modeling Approaches

Lipid digestion and bioavailability are usually investigated separately, using different approaches (in vitro, modeling, in vivo). However, a few inclusive studies show that their kinetics are closely linked. Lipid bioavailability kinetics is likely involved in the development and evolution of several diseases, so lipid digestion kinetics could be involved as well and can be modulated by food design or combination. To illustrate this possibility, the compositional and structural aspects of lipid digestion kinetics, as investigated using in vitro and modeling approaches, are presented first. Then, in vivo and mixed approaches enabling the study of both kinetics are reviewed and discussed. Finally, disparate modeling approaches are introduced, and a unifying modeling scheme is proposed, opening new perspectives for understanding the role and interactions of various factors (chemical, physical, and biological) involved in lipid metabolism.

Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, Volume 13 is March 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Green preparation of holocellulose nanocrystals from burdock and their inhibitory effects against α-amylase and α-glucosidase

In this work, holocellulose nanocrystals (hCNCs) were isolated from burdock insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) by enzymatic hydrolysis and ultrasonic treatment and their inhibitory effects against α-amylase and α-glucosidase were investigated. The hydrodynamic diameter of hCNCs decreased from about 600 to 200 nm with increasing sonication time, accompanied by an improvement in cellulose and glucose contents. Steady-state fluorescence studies suggested that static complexes were formed between hCNCs and α-amylase or α-glucosidase via a spontaneous and endothermic approach, which was driven by both hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding. The median inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values of hCNCs against the tested enzymes were positively correlated with their size, and non-competitive and mixed types of inhibition were detected using the Lineweaver-Burk plots. During the simulated digestion, the inclusion of burdock hCNCs obviously retarded the starch hydrolysis in both dose- and size-dependent manners, suggesting their potential in blocking the postprandial serum glucose upsurge.

Toxicological studies and some functional properties of carboxymethylated cellulose nanofibrils as potential food ingredient

Carboxymethylated cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) with different carboxyl contents (0, 0.36, 0.72 and 1.24 mmol/g) were prepared and characterized via morphology, diameter distribution, zeta potential, structural features, rheological properties, suspension stability, and thermal properties. The results of toxicological studies of ingested CNF via in vitro and in vivo models were present. In vitro studies used an epithelial-like cell line (Caco-2) to assess the effects of a 24 h incubation with CNF, in which no significant cytotoxicity was observed. In vivo studies were evaluated in mice gavage once per day for 8 weeks with 1% or 3.5% w/w suspension of CNF in water. Blood and serum were collected for analysis. No significant differences in hematology, and serum markers were observed between controls and mice given CNF suspensions. Weight, food intake and feces were recorded for growing development and nutrient retention in feces was measured for investigation of functional properties of CNFs. Mice given CNF suspensions gained a significant increment in fecal fat but a reduction in food intake and weight compared to controls. These findings suggested that CNFs are non-toxic and have potentials in behaving as food additives or supplements to reduce caloric intake.