1
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Winter CC, Jacobi A, Su J, Chung L, van Velthoven CTJ, Yao Z, Lee C, Zhang Z, Yu S, Gao K, Duque Salazar G, Kegeles E, Zhang Y, Tomihiro MC, Zhang Y, Yang Z, Zhu J, Tang J, Song X, Donahue RJ, Wang Q, McMillen D, Kunst M, Wang N, Smith KA, Romero GE, Frank MM, Krol A, Kawaguchi R, Geschwind DH, Feng G, Goodrich LV, Liu Y, Tasic B, Zeng H, He Z. A transcriptomic taxonomy of mouse brain-wide spinal projecting neurons. Nature 2023; 624:403-414. [PMID: 38092914 PMCID: PMC10719099 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06817-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
The brain controls nearly all bodily functions via spinal projecting neurons (SPNs) that carry command signals from the brain to the spinal cord. However, a comprehensive molecular characterization of brain-wide SPNs is still lacking. Here we transcriptionally profiled a total of 65,002 SPNs, identified 76 region-specific SPN types, and mapped these types into a companion atlas of the whole mouse brain1. This taxonomy reveals a three-component organization of SPNs: (1) molecularly homogeneous excitatory SPNs from the cortex, red nucleus and cerebellum with somatotopic spinal terminations suitable for point-to-point communication; (2) heterogeneous populations in the reticular formation with broad spinal termination patterns, suitable for relaying commands related to the activities of the entire spinal cord; and (3) modulatory neurons expressing slow-acting neurotransmitters and/or neuropeptides in the hypothalamus, midbrain and reticular formation for 'gain setting' of brain-spinal signals. In addition, this atlas revealed a LIM homeobox transcription factor code that parcellates the reticulospinal neurons into five molecularly distinct and spatially segregated populations. Finally, we found transcriptional signatures of a subset of SPNs with large soma size and correlated these with fast-firing electrophysiological properties. Together, this study establishes a comprehensive taxonomy of brain-wide SPNs and provides insight into the functional organization of SPNs in mediating brain control of bodily functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla C Winter
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- PhD Program in Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard-MIT MD-PhD Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Anne Jacobi
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
- F. Hoffman-La Roche, pRED, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Junfeng Su
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Leeyup Chung
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Zizhen Yao
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Changkyu Lee
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Zicong Zhang
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Shuguang Yu
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kun Gao
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Geraldine Duque Salazar
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Evgenii Kegeles
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- PhD Program in Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yu Zhang
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Makenzie C Tomihiro
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yiming Zhang
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Zhiyun Yang
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Junjie Zhu
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jing Tang
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Xuan Song
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ryan J Donahue
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Qing Wang
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Ning Wang
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Gabriel E Romero
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michelle M Frank
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Alexandra Krol
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Riki Kawaguchi
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Daniel H Geschwind
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Guoping Feng
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lisa V Goodrich
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yuanyuan Liu
- Somatosensation and Pain Unit, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Hongkui Zeng
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Zhigang He
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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Abstract
Axons are a unique cellular structure that allows for the communication between neurons. Axon damage compromises neuronal communications and often leads to functional deficits. Thus, developing strategies that promote effective axon regeneration for functional restoration is highly desirable. One fruitful approach is to dissect the regenerative mechanisms used by some types of neurons in both mammalian and nonmammalian systems that exhibit spontaneous regenerative capacity. Additionally, numerous efforts have been devoted to deciphering the barriers that prevent successful axon regeneration in the most regeneration-refractory system-the adult mammalian central nervous system. As a result, several regeneration-promoting strategies have been developed, but significant limitations remain. This review is aimed to summarize historic progression and current understanding of this exciting yet incomplete endeavor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla C Winter
- F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
- Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
- PhD Program in Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Zhigang He
- F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
- Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Anne Jacobi
- F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
- Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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Katiyar KS, Winter CC, Gordián-Vélez WJ, O'Donnell JC, Song YJ, Hernandez NS, Struzyna LA, Cullen DK. Three-dimensional Tissue Engineered Aligned Astrocyte Networks to Recapitulate Developmental Mechanisms and Facilitate Nervous System Regeneration. J Vis Exp 2018. [PMID: 29364269 DOI: 10.3791/55848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurotrauma and neurodegenerative disease often result in lasting neurological deficits due to the limited capacity of the central nervous system (CNS) to replace lost neurons and regenerate axonal pathways. However, during nervous system development, neuronal migration and axonal extension often occur along pathways formed by other cells, referred to as "living scaffolds". Seeking to emulate these mechanisms and to design a strategy that circumvents the inhibitory environment of the CNS, this manuscript presents a protocol to fabricate tissue engineered astrocyte-based "living scaffolds". To create these constructs, we employed a novel biomaterial encasement scheme to induce astrocytes to self-assemble into dense three-dimensional bundles of bipolar longitudinally-aligned somata and processes. First, hollow hydrogel micro-columns were assembled, and the inner lumen was coated with collagen extracellular-matrix. Dissociated cerebral cortical astrocytes were then delivered into the lumen of the cylindrical micro-column and, at a critical inner diameter of <350 µm, spontaneously self-aligned and contracted to produce long fiber-like cables consisting of dense bundles of astrocyte processes and collagen fibrils measuring <150 µm in diameter yet extending several cm in length. These engineered living scaffolds exhibited >97% cell viability and were virtually exclusively comprised of astrocytes expressing a combination of the intermediate filament proteins glial-fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), vimentin, and nestin. These aligned astrocyte networks were found to provide a permissive substrate for neuronal attachment and aligned neurite extension. Moreover, these constructs maintain integrity and alignment when extracted from the hydrogel encasement, making them suitable for CNS implantation. These preformed constructs structurally emulate key cytoarchitectural elements of naturally occurring glial-based "living scaffolds" in vivo. As such, these engineered living scaffolds may serve as test-beds to study neurodevelopmental mechanisms in vitro or facilitate neuroregeneration by directing neuronal migration and/or axonal pathfinding following CNS degeneration in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kritika S Katiyar
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center; School of Biomedical Engineering, Drexel University
| | - Carla C Winter
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center; Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Wisberty J Gordián-Vélez
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center; Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Pennsylvania
| | - John C O'Donnell
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center
| | - Yeri J Song
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania; Neuroscience Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Nicole S Hernandez
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania; Neuroscience Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Laura A Struzyna
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center; Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Pennsylvania
| | - D Kacy Cullen
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center; Neuroscience Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania;
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Winter CC, Katiyar KS, Hernandez NS, Song YJ, Struzyna LA, Harris JP, Cullen DK. Transplantable living scaffolds comprised of micro-tissue engineered aligned astrocyte networks to facilitate central nervous system regeneration. Acta Biomater 2016; 38:44-58. [PMID: 27090594 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2016.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Neurotrauma, stroke, and neurodegenerative disease may result in widespread loss of neural cells as well as the complex interconnectivity necessary for proper central nervous system function, generally resulting in permanent functional deficits. Potential regenerative strategies involve the recruitment of endogenous neural stem cells and/or directed axonal regeneration through the use of tissue engineered "living scaffolds" built to mimic features of three-dimensional (3-D) in vivo migratory or guidance pathways. Accordingly, we devised a novel biomaterial encasement scheme using tubular hydrogel-collagen micro-columns that facilitated the self-assembly of seeded astrocytes into 3-D living scaffolds consisting of long, cable-like aligned astrocytic networks. Here, robust astrocyte alignment was achieved within a micro-column inner diameter (ID) of 180μm or 300-350μm but not 1.0mm, suggesting that radius of curvature dictated the extent of alignment. Moreover, within small ID micro-columns, >70% of the astrocytes assumed a bi-polar morphology, versus ∼10% in larger micro-columns or planar surfaces. Cell-cell interactions also influenced the aligned architecture, as extensive astrocyte-collagen contraction was achieved at high (9-12×10(5)cells/mL) but not lower (2-6×10(5)cells/mL) seeding densities. This high density micro-column seeding led to the formation of ultra-dense 3-D "bundles" of aligned bi-polar astrocytes within collagen measuring up to 150μm in diameter yet extending to a remarkable length of over 2.5cm. Importantly, co-seeded neurons extended neurites directly along the aligned astrocytic bundles, demonstrating permissive cues for neurite extension. These transplantable cable-like astrocytic networks structurally mimic the glial tube that guides neuronal progenitor migration in vivo along the rostral migratory stream, and therefore may be useful to guide progenitor cells to repopulate sites of widespread neurodegeneration. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE This manuscript details our development of novel micro-tissue engineering techniques to generate robust networks of longitudinally aligned astrocytes within transplantable micro-column hydrogels. We report a novel biomaterial encasement scheme that facilitated the self-assembly of seeded astrocytes into long, aligned regenerative pathways. These miniature "living scaffold" constructs physically emulate the glial tube - a pathway in the brain consisting of aligned astrocytes that guide the migration of neuronal progenitor cells - and therefore may facilitate directed neuronal migration for central nervous system repair. The small size and self-contained design of these aligned astrocyte constructs will permit minimally invasive transplantation in models of central nervous system injury in future studies.
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Katiyar KS, Winter CC, Struzyna LA, Harris JP, Cullen DK. Mechanical elongation of astrocyte processes to create living scaffolds for nervous system regeneration. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2016; 11:2737-2751. [PMID: 27273796 DOI: 10.1002/term.2168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Revised: 12/31/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Following brain injury or neurodegenerative disease, successful regeneration requires orchestrated migration of neurons and reformation of long-distance communication fibres, or axons. Such extensive regeneration does not occur in the mature brain; however, during embryonic development, pathways formed by glial cells extend several millimeters (mm) to create 'living scaffolds' for targeted neural cell migration and axonal pathfinding. Techniques to recapitulate long process outgrowth in glial cells have proven elusive, preventing the exploitation of this developmental mechanism for regeneration. In the current study, astrocytes were induced to form a network of interconnected processes that were subjected to controlled mechanical tension in vitro using custom-built mechanobioreactors. We discovered a specific micron (μm)-scale mechanical growth regime that induced elongation of the astrocytic processes to a remarkable length of 2.5 mm at an optimal rate of 12.5 μm/h. More rapid mechanical regimes (> 20 μm/h) caused greater incidence of process degeneration or outright breakage, whereas slow regimes (< 4 μm/h) led to adaptive motility, thus failing to achieve process elongation. Cellular phenotype for this astrocytic 'stretch-growth' was confirmed based on presentation of the intermediate filament glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). Mechanical elongation resulted in the formation of dense bundles of aligned astrocytic processes. Importantly, seeded neurons readily adhered to, and extended neurites directly along, the elongated astrocytic processes, demonstrating permissiveness to support neuronal growth. This is the first demonstration of the controlled application of mechanical forces to create long astrocytic processes, which may form the backbone of tissue-engineered 'living scaffolds' that structurally emulate radial glia to facilitate neuroregeneration. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kritika S Katiyar
- Center for Brain Injury and Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,School of Biomedical Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Carla C Winter
- Center for Brain Injury and Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Laura A Struzyna
- Center for Brain Injury and Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - James P Harris
- Center for Brain Injury and Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - D Kacy Cullen
- Center for Brain Injury and Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Moody MD, Siegel AC, Pittman B, Winter CC. Fluorescent-Antibody Identification of Group A Streptococci from Throat Swabs. Am J Public Health Nations Health 2008; 53:1083-92. [PMID: 18017996 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.53.7.1083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Abstract
T-cell antigen receptors composed of gamma and delta polypeptide chains (gammadelta TCRs) can directly recognize antigens in the form of intact proteins or non-peptide compounds, unlike alphabeta TCRs, which recognize antigens bound to major histocompatibility complex molecules (MHC). About 5% of peripheral blood T cells bear gammadelta TCRs, most of which recognize non-peptide phosphorylated antigens. Here we describe the 3.1 A resolution structure of a human gammadelta TCR from a T-cell clone that is phosphoantigen-reactive. The orientation of the variable (V) and constant (C) regions of the gammadelta TCR is unique when compared with alphabeta TCRs or antibodies, and results from an unusually small angle between the Vgamma and Cgamma domains. The complementarity-determining regions (CDRs) of the V domains exhibit a chemically reasonable binding site for phosphorylated antigens, providing a possible explanation for the canonical usage of the Vgamma9 and Vdelta2 gene segments by phosphoantigen-reactive receptors. Although the gammadelta TCR V domains are similar in overall structure to those of alphabeta TCRs, gammadelta TCR C domains are markedly different. Structural differences in Cgamma and Cdelta, and in the location of the disulphide bond between them, may enable gammadelta TCRs to form different recognition/signalling complexes than alphabeta TCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Allison
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Winter
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Heath Rockvolle, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Q R Fan
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Universty, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Winter CC, Gumperz JE, Parham P, Long EO, Wagtmann N. Direct binding and functional transfer of NK cell inhibitory receptors reveal novel patterns of HLA-C allotype recognition. J Immunol 1998; 161:571-7. [PMID: 9670929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Cytotoxicity of human NK cells is under negative control of killer cell Ig-like receptors (KIR) specific for HLA class I. To determine the specificity of five KIR containing two Ig domains (KIR2D), direct binding of soluble recombinant KIR2D to a panel of HLA class I transfectants was assayed. One soluble KIR2D, derived from an inhibitory receptor with a long cytoplasmic tail (KIR2DL1), bound to HLA-C allotypes containing asparagine 77 and lysine 80 in the heavy chain, as expected, since these allotypes inhibit lysis by NK cells expressing KIR2DL1. Surprisingly, another KIR2D (KIR2DL2), which inhibits NK lysis of cells expressing HLA-C molecules with serine 77 and asparagine 80, bound to HLA-C allotypes carrying either amino acid motif. Expression of the KIR2DL receptors in NK cells using recombinant vaccinia viruses confirmed these patterns of recognition, and identified KIR2DL3 as another KIR reacting with both groups of HLA-C allotypes. Mutagenesis of amino acid 44 in KIR2DL1 and KIR2DL2 suggested this residue controls the affinity of KIR for the 77/80 motif of HLA-C molecules. Two other soluble KIR2D, derived from noninhibitory receptors with short cytoplasmic tails (KIR2DS), did not bind to any of the HLA class I allotypes tested. One of these receptors (KIR2DS2) is closely related in sequence to KIR2DL2. Substitution of tyrosine 45 with the phenylalanine conserved in other KIR was sufficient to permit specific binding of KIR2DS2 to HLA-C. These results show that KIR2DL receptors are specific for HLA-C, but that recognition of HLA-C allotypes appears more permissive than indicated by previous functional experiments.
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MESH Headings
- Alleles
- Amino Acid Substitution/genetics
- HLA-C Antigens/genetics
- HLA-C Antigens/immunology
- HLA-C Antigens/metabolism
- Humans
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Killer Cells, Natural/metabolism
- Mutagenesis, Site-Directed
- Phenylalanine/genetics
- Phenylalanine/metabolism
- Protein Binding/genetics
- Protein Binding/immunology
- Receptors, Immunologic/genetics
- Receptors, Immunologic/metabolism
- Receptors, Immunologic/physiology
- Receptors, KIR
- Receptors, KIR2DL1
- Receptors, KIR2DL2
- Receptors, KIR2DL3
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/immunology
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Solubility
- Transfection/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Winter
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD 20852-1727, USA
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Fan QR, Mosyak L, Winter CC, Wagtmann N, Long EO, Wiley DC. Structure of the inhibitory receptor for human natural killer cells resembles haematopoietic receptors. Nature 1997; 389:96-100. [PMID: 9288975 DOI: 10.1038/38028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Abnormal cells deficient in class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC) expression are lysed by a class of lymphocytes called natural killer (NK) cells. This lysis provides a defence against pathogens and tumour cells that downregulate MHC expression to avoid an MHC-restricted, T-cell immune response. Normal cells escape lysis because their MHC molecules are recognized by NK-cell inhibitory receptors, which inhibit lysis. Several such inhibitory receptor families have been described in humans and mice. In the human killer-cell inhibitory receptor family, individual p58 members are specific for a subset of class I human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-C molecules. The human p58 natural killer-cell inhibitory receptor clone 42 recognizes HLA-Cw4, -Cw2 and -Cw6, but not HLA-Cw3, -Cw2, -Cw7 or -Cw8, which are recognized by p58 killer-cell inhibitor receptor clone 43. We have determined the X-ray structure of the p58 NK-cell inhibitory receptor clone 42 at 1.7-A resolution. The structure has tandem immunoglobulin-like domains positioned at an acute, 60-degree angle. Loops on the outside of the elbow between the domains form a binding site projected away from the NK-cell surface. The topology of the domains and their arrangement relative to each other reveal a relationship to the haematopoietic receptor family, with implications for the signalling mechanism in NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q R Fan
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA.
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Winter CC, Long EO. A single amino acid in the p58 killer cell inhibitory receptor controls the ability of natural killer cells to discriminate between the two groups of HLA-C allotypes. The Journal of Immunology 1997. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.158.9.4026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
To examine the structural basis for the specific recognition of the MHC class I allotypes HLA-Cw*0401 and HLA-Cw*0304 by the killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) cl42 and cl43, respectively, mutant KIR-Ig fusion proteins were tested by direct binding to cells transfected with single HLA-C alleles. The putative loop region at position 44-46 of KIR contained amino acids that were necessary for the discrimination between HLA-Cw*0401 and HLA-Cw*0304. Surprisingly, exchanging the methionine at position 44 in cl42 with the lysine at position 44 in cl43 was sufficient to switch the specificity of cl42 from HLA-Cw*0401 to HLA-Cw*0304, and vice versa. Thus, a single amino acid in the first Ig domain of these KIR determines their ability to discriminate between the two groups of HLA-C allotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Winter
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| | - E O Long
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
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Winter CC, Long EO. A single amino acid in the p58 killer cell inhibitory receptor controls the ability of natural killer cells to discriminate between the two groups of HLA-C allotypes. J Immunol 1997; 158:4026-8. [PMID: 9126959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
To examine the structural basis for the specific recognition of the MHC class I allotypes HLA-Cw*0401 and HLA-Cw*0304 by the killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) cl42 and cl43, respectively, mutant KIR-Ig fusion proteins were tested by direct binding to cells transfected with single HLA-C alleles. The putative loop region at position 44-46 of KIR contained amino acids that were necessary for the discrimination between HLA-Cw*0401 and HLA-Cw*0304. Surprisingly, exchanging the methionine at position 44 in cl42 with the lysine at position 44 in cl43 was sufficient to switch the specificity of cl42 from HLA-Cw*0401 to HLA-Cw*0304, and vice versa. Thus, a single amino acid in the first Ig domain of these KIR determines their ability to discriminate between the two groups of HLA-C allotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Winter
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
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Long EO, Burshtyn DN, Clark WP, Peruzzi M, Rajagopalan S, Rojo S, Wagtmann N, Winter CC. Killer cell inhibitory receptors: diversity, specificity, and function. Immunol Rev 1997; 155:135-44. [PMID: 9059889 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.1997.tb00946.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
NK cells selectively kill target cells that fail to express self-MHC class I molecules. This selective killing results from a balance between inhibitory NK receptors specific for MHC class I molecules and activating receptors that are still largely unknown. Isolation of molecular clones for the human killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) revealed that KIR consist of a family of molecules with Ig ectodomains and cytoplasmic tails of varying length. Soluble complexes of KIR and HLA-C molecules established that KIR recognizes and binds to its ligand as an autonomous receptor. A functional expression system in human NK clones demonstrated that a single KIR can provide both recognition of MHC class I and delivery of a dominant negative signal to the NK cell. Functional evidence has been obtained for a role of the tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 in KIR-mediated inhibition. The presence of a conserved motif used to recruit and activate SHP-1 in the cytoplasmic tail of KIR and of the mouse Ly-49 inhibitory receptor (otherwise structurally unrelated to KIR) represents an interesting case of evolutionary convergence. Furthermore, the motif led to the identification of other receptors with inhibitory potential, including a type I Ig-like receptor shared by mouse mast cells and NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- E O Long
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD 20852, USA.
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Fan QR, Garboczi DN, Winter CC, Wagtmann N, Long EO, Wiley DC. Direct binding of a soluble natural killer cell inhibitory receptor to a soluble human leukocyte antigen-Cw4 class I major histocompatibility complex molecule. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996; 93:7178-83. [PMID: 8692965 PMCID: PMC38956 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.93.14.7178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells expressing specific p58 NK receptors are inhibited from lysing target cells that express human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-C class I major histocompatibility complex molecules. To investigate the interaction between p58 NK receptors and HLA-Cw4, the extracellular domain of the p58 NK receptor specific for HLA-Cw4 was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and refolded from purified inclusion bodies. The refolded NK receptor is a monomer in solution. It interacts specifically with HLA-Cw4, blocking the binding of a p58-Ig fusion protein to HLA-Cw4-expressing cells, but does not block the binding of a p58-Ig fusion protein specific for HLA-Cw3 to HLA-Cw3-expressing cells. The bacterially expressed extracellular domain of HLA-Cw4 heavy chain and beta2-microglobulin were refolded in the presence of a HLA-Cw4-specific peptide. Direct binding between the soluble p58 NK receptor and the soluble HLA-Cw4-peptide complex was observed by native gel electrophoresis. Titration binding assays show that soluble monomeric receptor forms a 1:1 complex with HLA-Cw4, independent of the presence of Zn2+. The formation of complexes between soluble, recombinant molecules indicates that HLA-Cw4 is sufficient for specific ligation by the NK receptor and that neither glycoprotein requires carbohydrate for the interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q R Fan
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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Wagtmann N, Rajagopalan S, Winter CC, Peruzzi M, Long EO. Killer cell inhibitory receptors specific for HLA-C and HLA-B identified by direct binding and by functional transfer. Immunity 1995; 3:801-9. [PMID: 8777725 DOI: 10.1016/1074-7613(95)90069-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- N Wagtmann
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
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Rajagopalan S, Winter CC, Wagtmann N, Long EO. The Ig-related killer cell inhibitory receptor binds zinc and requires zinc for recognition of HLA-C on target cells. J Immunol 1995; 155:4143-6. [PMID: 7594568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Members of the Ig superfamily are predominantly receptors that mediate interactions between cells or provide signals to cells when binding specific ligands. Here we describe an Ig-related receptor that requires zinc for its function. Killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) belonging to the Ig superfamily mediate inhibition of NK cells upon recognition of HLA-C molecules on target cells. An abundance of histidine residues in the first extracellular domain of KIR, including the signature zinc binding motif HEXXH, suggested that this receptor may bind zinc. Two distinct KIR molecules that mediate recognition of HLA-Cw4 and -Cw8, respectively, bound specifically to zinc affinity columns. Furthermore, addition of the zinc chelator 1,10-phenanthroline during chromium release assays reversed the inhibition of killing by NK clones specific for HLA-Cw4 or HLA-Cw8, demonstrating that zinc is necessary for the inhibitory function of KIR. Such functionally relevant zinc binding has not been described for other members of the Ig superfamily and may represent a novel regulatory mechanism for Ag receptor-ligand interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Rajagopalan
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
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Rajagopalan S, Winter CC, Wagtmann N, Long EO. The Ig-related killer cell inhibitory receptor binds zinc and requires zinc for recognition of HLA-C on target cells. The Journal of Immunology 1995. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.155.9.4143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Members of the Ig superfamily are predominantly receptors that mediate interactions between cells or provide signals to cells when binding specific ligands. Here we describe an Ig-related receptor that requires zinc for its function. Killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) belonging to the Ig superfamily mediate inhibition of NK cells upon recognition of HLA-C molecules on target cells. An abundance of histidine residues in the first extracellular domain of KIR, including the signature zinc binding motif HEXXH, suggested that this receptor may bind zinc. Two distinct KIR molecules that mediate recognition of HLA-Cw4 and -Cw8, respectively, bound specifically to zinc affinity columns. Furthermore, addition of the zinc chelator 1,10-phenanthroline during chromium release assays reversed the inhibition of killing by NK clones specific for HLA-Cw4 or HLA-Cw8, demonstrating that zinc is necessary for the inhibitory function of KIR. Such functionally relevant zinc binding has not been described for other members of the Ig superfamily and may represent a novel regulatory mechanism for Ag receptor-ligand interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Rajagopalan
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| | - C C Winter
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| | - N Wagtmann
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| | - E O Long
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
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Carreno BM, Winter CC, Taurog JD, Hansen TH, Biddison WE. Residues in pockets B and F of HLA-B27 are critical in the presentation of an influenza A virus nucleoprotein peptide and influence the stability of peptide - MHC complexes. Int Immunol 1993; 5:353-60. [PMID: 8494822 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/5.4.353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Six pockets, designated A through F, which extend from the peptide binding site of class I HLA molecules, have been postulated to play an important role in determining peptide binding specificity. HLA-B27 mutant molecules with single amino acid substitutions at residues 9his-->phe, 24thr-->ser, 45glu-->thr, and 67cys-->ala in pocket B; 114his-->asn in pocket D; and 116asp-->phe in pocket F have been generated and characterized for their capacity to present an influenza A nucleoprotein peptide (NP 383-391) for cytotoxic T lymphocyte recognition. We report here that substitutions in residues 45, 67, and 116 affect presentation of NP 383-391 when peptide is processed and loaded during viral infection. Using 125I-labeled NP peptide, we demonstrate that substitutions in residues 67 and 116 alter the stability of NP-HLA-B27 complexes. A substitution at position 9 of the NP peptide complements the mutation introduced at residue 116, suggesting that the NP peptide binds with its carboxy terminal amino acid in pocket F. These findings indicate that polymorphic residues within pockets B and F of HLA-B27 play a crucial role in peptide binding and stability of peptide-MHC class I complexes. Furthermore, our results suggest that substitutions at allele-specific residues within pockets B and F alter the stability of NP-HLA-B27 complexes resulting in the diminution or abrogation of NP presentation during viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Carreno
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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20
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Winter CC, Carreno BM, Turner RV, Koenig S, Biddison WE. The 45 pocket of HLA-A2.1 plays a role in presentation of influenza virus matrix peptide and alloantigens. The Journal of Immunology 1991. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.146.10.3508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Amino acid substitutions were introduced into the 45 pocket of HLA-A2.1 to determine the potential role of this structurally defined feature of class I molecules in viral peptide and alloantigen presentation. The 45 pocket lies below the alpha 1-domain alpha-helix and is composed of five amino acids, three of which differ between HLA-A2.1 and HLA-B37. These two class I molecules have previously been shown to have largely non-overlapping peptide-binding specificities. Site-directed mutagenesis was used to replace the hydrophobic residues at positions 24, 45, and 67 in the 45 pocket of HLA-A2.1 with the hydrophilic amino acids found in these positions in HLA-B37. Thus, three single amino acid mutants were produced: 24A----S, 45 M----T, and 67V----S. These mutants were transfected into HMy2.C1R cells and assessed for their ability to present influenza virus matrix M1 57-68 peptide and HTLV-I Tax-1 2-25 peptide to HLA-A2.1-restricted, peptide-specific CTL and to present alloantigens to HLA-A2-allospecific CTL lines. Each of these substitutions in the 45 pocket produced a molecule that failed to present the M1 peptide to most M1 peptide-specific CTL lines. In contrast, none of these mutations affected presentation of the Tax-1 peptide to Tax-1-specific CTL lines, which indicates that these mutant HLA-A2 molecules can function in viral peptide presentation. Two of the three substitutions in the 45 pocket resulted in lack of recognition by a subset of HLA-A2 allospecific CTL lines. These results demonstrate that the amino acid side chains in the 45 pocket can strongly influence peptide presentation and suggest that the 45 pocket may play a role in determining peptide-binding specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Winter
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - B M Carreno
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - R V Turner
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - S Koenig
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - W E Biddison
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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Winter CC, Carreno BM, Turner RV, Koenig S, Biddison WE. The 45 pocket of HLA-A2.1 plays a role in presentation of influenza virus matrix peptide and alloantigens. J Immunol 1991; 146:3508-12. [PMID: 2026879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Amino acid substitutions were introduced into the 45 pocket of HLA-A2.1 to determine the potential role of this structurally defined feature of class I molecules in viral peptide and alloantigen presentation. The 45 pocket lies below the alpha 1-domain alpha-helix and is composed of five amino acids, three of which differ between HLA-A2.1 and HLA-B37. These two class I molecules have previously been shown to have largely non-overlapping peptide-binding specificities. Site-directed mutagenesis was used to replace the hydrophobic residues at positions 24, 45, and 67 in the 45 pocket of HLA-A2.1 with the hydrophilic amino acids found in these positions in HLA-B37. Thus, three single amino acid mutants were produced: 24A----S, 45 M----T, and 67V----S. These mutants were transfected into HMy2.C1R cells and assessed for their ability to present influenza virus matrix M1 57-68 peptide and HTLV-I Tax-1 2-25 peptide to HLA-A2.1-restricted, peptide-specific CTL and to present alloantigens to HLA-A2-allospecific CTL lines. Each of these substitutions in the 45 pocket produced a molecule that failed to present the M1 peptide to most M1 peptide-specific CTL lines. In contrast, none of these mutations affected presentation of the Tax-1 peptide to Tax-1-specific CTL lines, which indicates that these mutant HLA-A2 molecules can function in viral peptide presentation. Two of the three substitutions in the 45 pocket resulted in lack of recognition by a subset of HLA-A2 allospecific CTL lines. These results demonstrate that the amino acid side chains in the 45 pocket can strongly influence peptide presentation and suggest that the 45 pocket may play a role in determining peptide-binding specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Winter
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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22
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Winter CC. Re: Review of an 8-year experience with modifications of endoscopic suspension of the bladder neck for female stress urinary incontinence. J Urol 1990; 144:1481-2. [PMID: 2231951 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)39776-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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van Wyke Coelingh KL, Winter CC, Tierney EL, Hall SL, London WT, Kim HW, Chanock RM, Murphy BR. Antibody responses of humans and nonhuman primates to individual antigenic sites of the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase and fusion glycoproteins after primary infection or reinfection with parainfluenza type 3 virus. J Virol 1990; 64:3833-43. [PMID: 1695256 PMCID: PMC249679 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.64.8.3833-3843.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
An unusual feature of human parainfluenza virus type 3 (PIV3) is ita ability to cause reinfection with high efficiency. The antibody responses of 45 humans and 9 rhesus monkeys to primary infection or subsequent reinfection with PIV3 were examined to identify deficiencies in host immunologic responses that might contribute to the ability of the virus to cause reinfection with high frequency. Antibody responses in serum were tested by using neutralization and hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays and a monoclonal antibody blocking immunoassay able to detect antibodies to epitopes within six antigenic sites on the PIV3 hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) glycoprotein and eight antigenic sites on the fusion (F) protein. Primary infection of seronegative infants or children with PIV3 stimulated strong and rather uniform HI and neutralizing antibody responses. More than 90% of the individuals developed antibodies to four of the six HN antigenic sites (including three of the four neutralization sites), but the responses to F antigenic sites were of lesser magnitude and varied considerably from person to person. Young infants who possessed maternally derived antibodies in their sera developed lower levels and less frequent HI, neutralizing, and antigenic site-specific responses to the HN and F glycoproteins than did seronegative infants and children. In contrast, children reinfected with PIV3 developed even higher HI and neutralizing antibody responses than those observed during primary infection. Reinfection broadened the HN and F antigenic site-specific responses, but the latter remained relatively restricted. Adults possessed lower levels of HI, neutralizing, and antigenic site-specific antibodies in their sera than did children who had been reinfected, suggesting that these antibodies decay with time. Rhesus monkeys developed more vigorous primary and secondary antibody responses than did humans, but even in these highly responsive animals, response to the F glycoprotein was relatively restricted following primary infection. Bovine PIV3 induced a broader response to human PIV3 in monkeys than was anticipated on the basis of their known relatedness as defined by using monoclonal antibodies to human PIV3. These observations suggest that the restricted antibody responses to multiple antigenic sites on the F glycoprotein in young seronegative infants and children and the decreased responses to both the F and HN glycoproteins in young infants and children with maternally derived antibodies may play a role in the susceptibility of human infants and young children to reinfection with PIV3.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L van Wyke Coelingh
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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Coelingh KV, Winter CC. Naturally occurring human parainfluenza type 3 viruses exhibit divergence in amino acid sequence of their fusion protein neutralization epitopes and cleavage sites. J Virol 1990; 64:1329-34. [PMID: 1689394 PMCID: PMC249251 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.64.3.1329-1334.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Many human parainfluenza type 3 virus (PIV3) strains isolated from children with respiratory illness are resistant to neutralization by monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) which recognize epitopes in antigenic site A or B of the fusion (F) protein of the prototype 1957 PIV3 strain. The F protein genes of seven PIV3 clinical isolates were sequenced to determine whether their neutralization-resistant phenotypes were associated with specific differences in amino acids which are recognized by neutralizing MAbs. Several clinical strains which were resistant to neutralization by site A or B MAbs had amino acid differences at residues 398 or 73, respectively. These specific changes undoubtedly account for the neutralization-resistant phenotype of these isolates, since identical substitutions at residues 398 or 73 in MAb-selected escape mutants confer resistance to neutralization by site A or B MAbs. The existence of identical changes in naturally occurring and MAb-selected neutralization-resistant PIV3 strains raises the possibility that antigenically different strains may arise by immune selection during replication in partially immune children. Three of the seven clinical strains examined had differences in their F protein cleavage site sequence. Whereas the prototype PIV3 strain has the cleavage site sequence Arg-Thr-Lys-Arg, one clinical isolate had the sequence Arg-Thr-Arg-Arg and two isolates had the sequence Arg-Thr-Glu-Arg. The different cleavage site sequences of these viruses did not affect their level of replication in either continuous simian or bovine kidney cell monolayers (in the presence or absence of exogenous trypsin or plasmin) or in the upper or lower respiratory tract of rhesus monkeys. We conclude that two nonconsecutive basic residues within the F protein cleavage site are sufficient for efficient replication of human PIV3 in primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- K V Coelingh
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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Abstract
A rare case of solitary metastasis to subcutaneous tissue from choriocarcinoma of the testis which was predominantly seminoma is reported. The propensity for vascular route of metastasis of this tumor type producing the patient's clinical picture is presented. The human beta chorionic gonadotropin tumor marker elevation to 4,200 units preoperatively fell to normal two weeks postoperatively, suggesting a solitary metastatic site with total tumor extirpation. Nevertheless, it seemed prudent to give chemotherapy because the nature of the metastatic route suggested other microscopic sites of metastasis. The prognosis of this highly malignant neoplasm, while poorest of the array of testis tumors, has improved dramatically with the advent of effective chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Winter
- Division of Urology, Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus
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Abstract
Vitamin D deficiency has pronounced growth retardation effects on the skeletal system. Because the immune system has been implicated in the regulation of bone metabolism, we examined the effect of vitamin D deficiency on the functional development of immune function in a rachitic rat model. Rats deprived of vitamin D3 both in utero and in postnatal life (-/-) had significantly reduced thymocyte or splenocyte [3H]-thymidine incorporation to mitogens and decreased macrophage chemotaxis when compared with vitamin D3-sufficient rats (+/+). Rats that were deficient in vitamin D3 only during in utero development (-/+) or during postnatal life (+/-) tended to have [3H]thymidine incorporation levels that were intermediate to those of the -/- and +/+ group. Similarly, the chemotactic response of macrophages from the +/- and -/+ groups was intermediate to that of the -/- and +/+ group, except at high concentrations of C5a in which there was an overlap with the +/+ group. Interestingly, secretion of soluble mediators, including interleukin 2 by lymphocytes and interleukin 1 and PGE2 by macrophages, was unaffected by vitamin D deficiency. These results suggest that vitamin D3 is essential for the normal development of certain biological responses of lymphocytes and macrophages. Moreover, this rachitic rat model system will enable further evaluation of the role of vitamin D in the functional development of the cells of the immune system and their relationship to skeletal growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Wientroub
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Tel Aviv Medical Center, Israel
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Abstract
A 26-year experience with all aspects of priapism is reviewed in 105 children and adults. The etiology of the priapism was idiopathic or drug-induced, or owing to sickle cell disease, trauma, neoplasia, leukemia, papaverine-phentolamine injections and total parenteral alimentation. The pathophysiology of prolonged erection is discussed. Treatment is reviewed in respect to initial studies before the type of shunting procedure required is selected. Various shunt techniques are presented with outcome. Complications and their possible causes are discussed, and the importance of medicolegal risk is emphasized. Impotence is a common sequela of priapism.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Winter
- Division of Urology, Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus
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van Wyke Coelingh KL, Winter CC, Tierney EL, London WT, Murphy BR. Attenuation of bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 in nonhuman primates and its ability to confer immunity to human parainfluenza virus type 3 challenge. J Infect Dis 1988; 157:655-62. [PMID: 2831282 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/157.4.655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 (PIV-3) was evaluated as a candidate live-virus vaccine to protect against infection with human PIV-3. The level of replication of bovine and human PIV-3 and the efficacy of immunization with bovine PIV-3 in protecting against subsequent challenge with human PIV-3 was evaluated in nonhuman primates. The duration and magnitude of replication of human and bovine PIV-3 in the upper and lower respiratory tracts of New World monkeys was similar, and animals infected with bovine PIV-3 developed resistance to challenge with human PIV-3. The replication of two bovine strains of PIV-3 was restricted 100- to 1000-fold in Old World primates but was sufficient to induce high levels of neutralizing antibody to human PIV-3. The combined properties of restricted replication and induction of a protective immune response to human PIV-3 in nonhuman primates make bovine PIV-3 a promising candidate for a live-virus vaccine to protect humans against disease caused by PIV-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L van Wyke Coelingh
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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van Wyke Coelingh KL, Winter CC, Murphy BR. Nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequence of hemagglutinin-neuraminidase genes of human type 3 parainfluenza viruses isolated from 1957 to 1983. Virology 1988; 162:137-43. [PMID: 2827373 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(88)90402-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
We have sequenced the coding and noncoding regions of the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) genes of six clinical strains of human type 3 parainfluenza virus (PIV3) isolated between 1973 and 1983, and compared them to the prototype 1957 strain. Sequence variability does not result from the accumulation of mutations over time, but represents genetic heterogeneity in HN genes within the PIV3 population. Most of the nucleotide diversity occurs in the 5' noncoding sequences, exclusive of regions supplying transcriptional and translational control elements. Although the overall amino acid homology among HN proteins is very high, most variability is concentrated in domains at the carboxyl and amino terminus. This uneven distribution of amino acid diversity may reflect both functional and structural constraints on different HN domains and the epidemiologic features of PIV3 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L van Wyke Coelingh
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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van Wyke Coelingh KL, Winter CC, Jorgensen ED, Murphy BR. Antigenic and structural properties of the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase glycoprotein of human parainfluenza virus type 3: sequence analysis of variants selected with monoclonal antibodies which inhibit infectivity, hemagglutination, and neuraminidase activities. J Virol 1987; 61:1473-7. [PMID: 2437318 PMCID: PMC254125 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.61.5.1473-1477.1987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) gene sequence was determined for 16 antigenic variants of human parainfluenza virus type 3 (PIV3). The variants were selected by using monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to the HN protein which inhibit neuraminidase, hemagglutination, or both activities. Each variant had a single-point mutation in the HN gene, coding for a single amino acid substitution in the HN protein. Operational and topographic maps of the HN protein correlated well with the relative positions of the substitutions. There was little correlation between the cross-reactivity of a MAb with the bovine PIV3 HN and the amount of amino acid homology between the human and bovine PIV3 HN proteins in the regions of the epitopes, suggesting that many of the epitopes are conformational in nature. Computer-assisted analysis of the HN protein predicted a secondary structure composed primarily of hydrophobic beta sheets interconnected by random hydrophilic coil structures. The HN epitopes were located in predicted coil regions. Epitopes recognized by MAbs which inhibit neuraminidase activity of the virus were located in a region which appears to be structurally conserved among several paramyxovirus HN proteins and which may represent the sialic cid-binding site of the HN molecule.
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Coelingh KJ, Winter CC, Murphy BR, Rice JM, Kimball PC, Olmsted RA, Collins PL. Conserved epitopes on the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase proteins of human and bovine parainfluenza type 3 viruses: nucleotide sequence analysis of variants selected with monoclonal antibodies. J Virol 1986; 60:90-6. [PMID: 2427750 PMCID: PMC253905 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.60.1.90-96.1986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously identified 11 epitopes located in two topologically nonoverlapping antigenic sites (A and B) and a third bridging site (C) on the human type 3 parainfluenza virus (PIV3) hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) glycoprotein by using monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) which inhibit hemagglutination and virus infectivity (K. L. Coelingh, C. C. Winter, and B. R. Murphy, Virology 143:569-582, 1985). We have identified three additional antigenic sites (D, E, and F) on the HN molecule by competitive-binding assays of anti-HN MAbs which have no known biological activity. Epitopes in sites A, D, and F are conserved on the bovine PIV3 HN glycoprotein and also among a wide range of human isolates. The dideoxy method was used to identify nucleotide substitutions in the HN genes of antigenic variants selected with neutralizing MAbs representing epitopes in site A which are shared by human and bovine PIV3. The deduced amino acid substitutions in the variants were located in separate hydrophilic stretches of HN residues which are conserved in the primary structures of the HN proteins of both human and bovine PIV3 strains.
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Wahl LM, Katona IM, Wilder RL, Winter CC, Haraoui B, Scher I, Wahl SM. Isolation of human mononuclear cell subsets by counterflow centrifugal elutriation (CCE). I. Characterization of B-lymphocyte-, T-lymphocyte-, and monocyte-enriched fractions by flow cytometric analysis. Cell Immunol 1984; 85:373-83. [PMID: 6232002 DOI: 10.1016/0008-8749(84)90251-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Rapid separation of large numbers of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells into fractions enriched for B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, or monocytes was accomplished by counterflow centrifugal elutriation (CCE). The first fraction contained 98% of the platelets. Ten additional fractions containing subpopulations of mononuclear cells were collected by sequential increases in the flow rate while maintaining a constant centrifuge speed. Analysis of the fractions using monoclonal antibodies revealed that fraction 2, which was free of esterase-positive monocytes, was highly enriched for B cells. T lymphocytes (OKT3+) were the predominant cell type found in fraction 4. No enrichment for T-lymphocyte-helper (OKT4+) or -suppressor (OKT8+) subpopulations was observed in the lymphocyte containing fractions. Three fractions (7-9), highly enriched for esterase-positive cells, were predominantly OKM1+ monocytes with no evidence of selective separation of monocyte subpopulations. Thus, cell fractions enriched for B cells, T cells, and monocytes could be obtained, by utilizing CCE, in large enough quantities to enable analysis of their functional properties. Of particular interest was the ability to separate small, resting B lymphocytes from monocytes.
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Abstract
Previous studies have demonstrated that exposure of guinea pig macrophages to a primary signal, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), stimulates the synthesis of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) which, in turn, elevates cAMP levels resulting in the production of the enzyme, collagenase. The potential of regulating the biochemical events in this activation sequence was examined with the anti-inflammatory agents dexamethasone and colchicine, which suppress the destructive sequelae in chronic inflammatory lesions associated with the degradation of connective tissue. The addition of dexamethasone with LPS to macrophage cultures resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of PGE2 and collagenase production, which was reversed by the exogenous addition of phospholipase A2. Collagenase production was also restored in dexamethasone-treated cultures by the addition of products normally produced as a result of phospholipase action, such as arachidonic acid, PGE2 or dibutyryl-cAMP. Since the effect of dexamethasone was thus linked to phospholipase A2 inhibition, mepacrine, a phospholipase inhibitor, was also tested. Mepacrine, like dexamethasone, caused a dose-dependent inhibition of PGE2 and collagenase. In addition to corticosteroid inhibition, colchicine was also found to block collagenase production. However, this anti-inflammatory agent had no effect on PGE2 synthesis. Colchicine was effective only when added at the onset of culture and not 24 h later, implicating a role for microtubules in the transmission of the activation signal rather than enzyme secretion. The failure of lumicolchicine to inhibit collagenase activity provided additional evidence that microtubules are involved in the activation of macrophages. These findings demonstrate that dexamethasone and colchicine act at specific steps in the activation sequence of guinea pig macrophages to regulate collagenase production.
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Wientroub S, Wahl LM, Feuerstein N, Winter CC, Reddi AH. Changes in tissue concentration of prostaglandins during endochondral bone differentiation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1983; 117:746-50. [PMID: 6582850 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(83)91660-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Prostaglandins are known to be involved in bone metabolism as evidenced by the ability of PGE2 to induce bone resorption. It was, therefore, of interest to determine if there was an association of specific prostaglandin metabolites with the various stages of developing bone by utilizing the matrix-induced endochondral bone formation system. During mesenchymal cell proliferation a peak of endogenous thromboxane B2 was detected. In the subsequent stages of chondrogenesis and chondrolysis PGF2 alpha was in high concentration, whereas during bone formation PGE2, 6-Keto-PGF1 alpha and thromboxane B2 were elevated. These changes in the peak levels of the various prostaglandin metabolites may reflect differences in the cell populations and function associated with various stages of endochondral bone formation.
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Abstract
A technique for urinary stress incontinence is described that suspends the bladder neck and urethra by placing two vertical sutures along each posterior-lateral side of the entire urethra and tying them completely around the public bones. Six cases are reported and results given.
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Abstract
A case of a rare papillary adenocarcinoma of the rete testis (epididymis) with a solitary metastasis to a periaortic lymph node is reported. The favorable outcome over a three and one-third-year period after radical orchiectomy and retroperitoneal lymphadenectomy has been observed. We believe this is the first report of such a tumor being treated with lymphadenectomy.
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Abstract
Schwannomas may occur anywhere in the body, but their occurrence in the penis is rare and unusual. These tumors are important to urologists because findings mimic other urologic disease. Treatment is surgical removal; they are rarely multifocal and seldom metastasize. A patient with schwannomas of the penis is described.
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Winter CC, Puente E. Doppler ultrasound evaluation of scrotal masses. Ohio State Med J 1979; 75:572-3. [PMID: 481841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Abstract
Two case reports of different ways lymphoma involves the bladder are presented, with a brief updating of diagnosis and management. Symptoms and cystoscopic and roentgenographic findings are discussed. While primary lymphoma of the bladder has been reported in a few instances, the disorder is generally considered a widespread lymphatic disease.
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Nelson JH, Rehm RA, Riemenschneider HW, Wise HA, Pflug B, Kemple K, Whitehouse WK, Winter CC. Oral calcium tolerance and urinary cyclic AMP in urolithiasis. Urology 1978; 12:519-24. [PMID: 214923 DOI: 10.1016/0090-4295(78)90464-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Oral calcium tolerance and urinary cyclic AMP testing was used in the evaluation of 61 unselected patients with stones. The oral calcium tolerance test was easy to perform and was useful in defining several distinct metabolic abnormalities contributing to calculous formation. Oral calcium tolerance testing is more precise than twenty-four-hour urinary calcium determination and should provide a means of determining proper medical treatment of urolithiasis. Urinary cyclic AMP was disappointing as a measure of parathormone activity.
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Winter CC. Priapism. Urol Surv 1978; 28:163-6. [PMID: 751308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Since priapism often leads to impotence immediate therapy should be given with few exceptions (patients with sickle cell disease, neoplasm and infections). A careful history and a search for the etiology are important. The physician should protect himself against legal retribution by obtaining the patient's signature on an informed and witnessed consent to treat.
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Abstract
The choice of an effective method to treat priapism is challenging because precise causes in the majority of patients have not been well defined. A review of 48 patients treated during a 22-year period shows evolution of a regimen of management that has yielded a high percentage of success. Idiopathic priapism and sickle cell disease accounted for 81 per cent of the subjects. An evaluation should include a medication history, a search for specific diseases, as well as a thorough physical examination to detect possible etiologic factors. The explanation for the frequent association of fever deserves further investigation. Initial therapy consisting of aspiration and irrigation, and intermittent pneumatic cuff compression should be undertaken for a trial period of 12 to 36 hours, repeating the aspiration 2 or 3 times if necessary. The failure of priapism to resolve after such treatment is an indication for a shunt operation. Patients with known etiology should be treated specifically for the primary disease and usually more conservatively for priapism. Resolution occurred in all patients and approximately 50 per cent regained sexual potency.
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Abstract
A patient with idiopathic priapism of four days' duration had detumescence achieved in his hospital room using local anesthesia by creation of fistula between the glans penis and each corpora cavernosa bodies by means of a Travenol biopsy needle.
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Abstract
Six of 11 patients have had 2 to 7 1/2 years of followup evaluation after cutaneous omento-ureterostomy. Results were excellent in 3 cases and good in 1, while ureteral stomal stenosis developed in the 2 patients irradiated for bladder cancer. Complete prevention of cutaneous ureterostomy stoma stenosis remains unachieved but the use of a plastic meatal dilator seems useful.
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Abstract
Stress urinary incontinence can be corrected by a short, simple, minor suturing technique, a modification of the Pereyra operation. Success depends upon careful selection of patients, the proper tightness of the suture over a proper-size catheter and the use of intermittent endoscopy during the operation. Successful outcome up to 7 months has been achieved in 7 of the 8 patients but reoperation was necessary for the successful outcome in 1 of the 2 failures.
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Abstract
The results in 21 patients with Peyronie's disease who were managed with a course of dermo-jet percutaneous injections of dexamethasone into the plaques are described herein. These patients had 6 to 10 injections at intervals of 1 month for 6 months. In a high percentage of the cases there occurred a disappearance or decrease in the size of the plaques, pain on erection and discomfort during sexual relations. Also, there was a high rate of improvement in the chordee. Because of the natural history of resolution of the plaques and the small number of patients, statistical significance is not believed applicable, although 71 per cent of the patients had experienced prior failure with other modes of therapy. Eight patients experienced urinary or prostato-epididymal infections at some time in their medical history, correlating well with the inflammatory theory as the cause of the disorder.
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