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Smith KM, Loh EH, Rostal MK, Zambrana-Torrelio CM, Mendiola L, Daszak P. Pathogens, pests, and economics: drivers of honey bee colony declines and losses. Ecohealth 2013; 10:434-45. [PMID: 24496582 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-013-0870-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Revised: 07/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) is responsible for ecosystem services (pollination) worth US$215 billion annually worldwide and the number of managed colonies has increased 45% since 1961. However, in Europe and the U.S., two distinct phenomena; long-term declines in colony numbers and increasing annual colony losses, have led to significant interest in their causes and environmental implications. The most important drivers of a long-term decline in colony numbers appear to be socioeconomic and political pressure on honey production. In contrast, annual colony losses seem to be driven mainly by the spread of introduced pathogens and pests, and management problems due to a long-term intensification of production and the transition from large numbers of small apiaries to fewer, larger operations. We conclude that, while other causal hypotheses have received substantial interest, the role of pests, pathogens, and management issues requires increased attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine M Smith
- EcoHealth Alliance, 460 West 34th Street, 17th Floor, New York, NY, 10001, USA
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Anthony SJ, Epstein JH, Murray KA, Navarrete-Macias I, Zambrana-Torrelio CM, Solovyov A, Ojeda-Flores R, Arrigo NC, Islam A, Ali Khan S, Hosseini P, Bogich TL, Olival KJ, Sanchez-Leon MD, Karesh WB, Goldstein T, Luby SP, Morse SS, Mazet JAK, Daszak P, Lipkin WI. A strategy to estimate unknown viral diversity in mammals. mBio 2013; 4:e00598-13. [PMID: 24003179 PMCID: PMC3760253 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00598-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The majority of emerging zoonoses originate in wildlife, and many are caused by viruses. However, there are no rigorous estimates of total viral diversity (here termed "virodiversity") for any wildlife species, despite the utility of this to future surveillance and control of emerging zoonoses. In this case study, we repeatedly sampled a mammalian wildlife host known to harbor emerging zoonotic pathogens (the Indian Flying Fox, Pteropus giganteus) and used PCR with degenerate viral family-level primers to discover and analyze the occurrence patterns of 55 viruses from nine viral families. We then adapted statistical techniques used to estimate biodiversity in vertebrates and plants and estimated the total viral richness of these nine families in P. giganteus to be 58 viruses. Our analyses demonstrate proof-of-concept of a strategy for estimating viral richness and provide the first statistically supported estimate of the number of undiscovered viruses in a mammalian host. We used a simple extrapolation to estimate that there are a minimum of 320,000 mammalian viruses awaiting discovery within these nine families, assuming all species harbor a similar number of viruses, with minimal turnover between host species. We estimate the cost of discovering these viruses to be ~$6.3 billion (or ~$1.4 billion for 85% of the total diversity), which if annualized over a 10-year study time frame would represent a small fraction of the cost of many pandemic zoonoses. IMPORTANCE Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in viral discovery efforts. However, most lack rigorous systematic design, which limits our ability to understand viral diversity and its ecological drivers and reduces their value to public health intervention. Here, we present a new framework for the discovery of novel viruses in wildlife and use it to make the first-ever estimate of the number of viruses that exist in a mammalian host. As pathogens continue to emerge from wildlife, this estimate allows us to put preliminary bounds around the potential size of the total zoonotic pool and facilitates a better understanding of where best to allocate resources for the subsequent discovery of global viral diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Isamara Navarrete-Macias
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Alexander Solovyov
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Rafael Ojeda-Flores
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria and Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, Distrito Federal, Mexico
| | - Nicole C. Arrigo
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Shahneaz Ali Khan
- Chittagong Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chittagong, Bangladesh
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Tracey Goldstein
- One Health Institute & Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Stephen P. Luby
- International Center for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | - Jonna A. K. Mazet
- One Health Institute & Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | | | - W. Ian Lipkin
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
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Anthony SJ, Ojeda-Flores R, Rico-Chávez O, Navarrete-Macias I, Zambrana-Torrelio CM, Rostal MK, Epstein JH, Tipps T, Liang E, Sanchez-Leon M, Sotomayor-Bonilla J, Aguirre AA, Ávila-Flores R, Medellín RA, Goldstein T, Suzán G, Daszak P, Lipkin WI. Coronaviruses in bats from Mexico. J Gen Virol 2013; 94:1028-1038. [PMID: 23364191 PMCID: PMC3709589 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.049759-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Bats are reservoirs for a wide range of human pathogens including Nipah, Hendra, rabies, Ebola, Marburg and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (CoV). The recent implication of a novel beta (β)-CoV as the cause of fatal respiratory disease in the Middle East emphasizes the importance of surveillance for CoVs that have potential to move from bats into the human population. In a screen of 606 bats from 42 different species in Campeche, Chiapas and Mexico City we identified 13 distinct CoVs. Nine were alpha (α)-CoVs; four were β-CoVs. Twelve were novel. Analyses of these viruses in the context of their hosts and ecological habitat indicated that host species is a strong selective driver in CoV evolution, even in allopatric populations separated by significant geographical distance; and that a single species/genus of bat can contain multiple CoVs. A β-CoV with 96.5 % amino acid identity to the β-CoV associated with human disease in the Middle East was found in a Nyctinomops laticaudatus bat, suggesting that efforts to identify the viral reservoir should include surveillance of the bat families Molossidae/Vespertilionidae, or the closely related Nycteridae/Emballonuridae. While it is important to investigate unknown viral diversity in bats, it is also important to remember that the majority of viruses they carry will not pose any clinical risk, and bats should not be stigmatized ubiquitously as significant threats to public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Anthony
- EcoHealth Alliance, 460 West 34th Street, NY, USA
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, 722 West 168th Street, NY, USA
| | - R Ojeda-Flores
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510, México D.F. Mexico
| | - O Rico-Chávez
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510, México D.F. Mexico
| | - I Navarrete-Macias
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, 722 West 168th Street, NY, USA
| | | | - M K Rostal
- EcoHealth Alliance, 460 West 34th Street, NY, USA
| | - J H Epstein
- EcoHealth Alliance, 460 West 34th Street, NY, USA
| | - T Tipps
- EcoHealth Alliance, 460 West 34th Street, NY, USA
| | - E Liang
- EcoHealth Alliance, 460 West 34th Street, NY, USA
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, 722 West 168th Street, NY, USA
| | - M Sanchez-Leon
- EcoHealth Alliance, 460 West 34th Street, NY, USA
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, 722 West 168th Street, NY, USA
| | - J Sotomayor-Bonilla
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510, México D.F. Mexico
| | - A A Aguirre
- George Mason University, 1500 Remount Road, Front Royal, Virginia, USA
| | - R Ávila-Flores
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510, México D.F. Mexico
| | - R A Medellín
- Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ap. Postal 70-275, 04510, México, D.F. Mexico
| | - T Goldstein
- One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, One Shields Ave, University of California Davis, California USA
| | - G Suzán
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510, México D.F. Mexico
| | - P Daszak
- EcoHealth Alliance, 460 West 34th Street, NY, USA
| | - W I Lipkin
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, 722 West 168th Street, NY, USA
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Swenson JJ, Young BE, Beck S, Comer P, Córdova JH, Dyson J, Embert D, Encarnación F, Ferreira W, Franke I, Grossman D, Hernandez P, Herzog SK, Josse C, Navarro G, Pacheco V, Stein BA, Timaná M, Tovar A, Tovar C, Vargas J, Zambrana-Torrelio CM. Plant and animal endemism in the eastern Andean slope: challenges to conservation. BMC Ecol 2012; 12:1. [PMID: 22284854 PMCID: PMC3311091 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6785-12-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2011] [Accepted: 01/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Andes-Amazon basin of Peru and Bolivia is one of the most data-poor, biologically rich, and rapidly changing areas of the world. Conservation scientists agree that this area hosts extremely high endemism, perhaps the highest in the world, yet we know little about the geographic distributions of these species and ecosystems within country boundaries. To address this need, we have developed conservation data on endemic biodiversity (~800 species of birds, mammals, amphibians, and plants) and terrestrial ecological systems (~90; groups of vegetation communities resulting from the action of ecological processes, substrates, and/or environmental gradients) with which we conduct a fine scale conservation prioritization across the Amazon watershed of Peru and Bolivia. We modelled the geographic distributions of 435 endemic plants and all 347 endemic vertebrate species, from existing museum and herbaria specimens at a regional conservation practitioner's scale (1:250,000-1:1,000,000), based on the best available tools and geographic data. We mapped ecological systems, endemic species concentrations, and irreplaceable areas with respect to national level protected areas. RESULTS We found that sizes of endemic species distributions ranged widely (< 20 km2 to > 200,000 km2) across the study area. Bird and mammal endemic species richness was greatest within a narrow 2500-3000 m elevation band along the length of the Andes Mountains. Endemic amphibian richness was highest at 1000-1500 m elevation and concentrated in the southern half of the study area. Geographical distribution of plant endemism was highly taxon-dependent. Irreplaceable areas, defined as locations with the highest number of species with narrow ranges, overlapped slightly with areas of high endemism, yet generally exhibited unique patterns across the study area by species group. We found that many endemic species and ecological systems are lacking national-level protection; a third of endemic species have distributions completely outside of national protected areas. Protected areas cover only 20% of areas of high endemism and 20% of irreplaceable areas. Almost 40% of the 91 ecological systems are in serious need of protection (= < 2% of their ranges protected). CONCLUSIONS We identify for the first time, areas of high endemic species concentrations and high irreplaceability that have only been roughly indicated in the past at the continental scale. We conclude that new complementary protected areas are needed to safeguard these endemics and ecosystems. An expansion in protected areas will be challenged by geographically isolated micro-endemics, varied endemic patterns among taxa, increasing deforestation, resource extraction, and changes in climate. Relying on pre-existing collections, publically accessible datasets and tools, this working framework is exportable to other regions plagued by incomplete conservation data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer J Swenson
- NatureServe, 4600 North Fairfax Drive, Floor 7, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Box 90328, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Bruce E Young
- NatureServe, 4600 North Fairfax Drive, Floor 7, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
| | - Stephan Beck
- Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia
| | - Pat Comer
- NatureServe, 4600 North Fairfax Drive, Floor 7, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
| | - Jesús H Córdova
- Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Apartado 140434, Lima-14, Perú
| | - Jessica Dyson
- NatureServe, 4600 North Fairfax Drive, Floor 7, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
- The Nature Conservancy, 99 Bedford St., 5th Floor, Boston MA 02111 USA
| | - Dirk Embert
- Fundación Amigos de la Naturaleza, km 7,5 Doble Vía la Guardia, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, Casilla 2241
| | | | | | - Irma Franke
- Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Apartado 140434, Lima-14, Perú
| | - Dennis Grossman
- NatureServe, 4600 North Fairfax Drive, Floor 7, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
- The Nature Conservancy, 4245 Fairfax Drive, Arlington, VA 22203 USA
| | - Pilar Hernandez
- NatureServe, 4600 North Fairfax Drive, Floor 7, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
- Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 50 Bloomington Road W, Aurora, ON L4G 3G8
| | - Sebastian K Herzog
- Asociación Armonía, BirdLife Internacional, Avenida Lomas de Arena 400, Casilla 3566, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia
| | - Carmen Josse
- NatureServe, 4600 North Fairfax Drive, Floor 7, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
| | | | - Víctor Pacheco
- Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Apartado 140434, Lima-14, Perú
| | - Bruce A Stein
- NatureServe, 4600 North Fairfax Drive, Floor 7, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
- National Wildlife Federation, 901 E Street, NW Suite 400, Washington DC, 20004 USA
| | - Martín Timaná
- NatureServe, 4600 North Fairfax Drive, Floor 7, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
- Departamento de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Av. Universitaria 1801, Lima 32, Peru
| | - Antonio Tovar
- Centro de Datos para la Conservación, Departamento de Manejo Forestal, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Apartado 456, Lima 100, Perú
| | - Carolina Tovar
- Centro de Datos para la Conservación, Departamento de Manejo Forestal, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Apartado 456, Lima 100, Perú
| | - Julieta Vargas
- Museo Nacional de Historial Natural, Colección Boliviana de Fauna, Casilla 8706, La Paz, Bolivia
| | - Carlos M Zambrana-Torrelio
- Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia
- EcoHealth Alliance - 460 W 34th Street, 17th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA
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Agnarsson I, Zambrana-Torrelio CM, Flores-Saldana NP, May-Collado LJ. A time-calibrated species-level phylogeny of bats (Chiroptera, Mammalia). PLoS Curr 2011; 3:RRN1212. [PMID: 21327164 PMCID: PMC3038382 DOI: 10.1371/currents.rrn1212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Despite their obvious utility, detailed species-level phylogenies are lacking for many groups, including several major mammalian lineages such as bats. Here we provide a cytochrome b genealogy of over 50% of bat species (648 terminal taxa). Based on prior analyzes of related mammal groups, cytb emerges as a particularly reliable phylogenetic marker, and given that our results are broadly congruent with prior knowledge, the phylogeny should be a useful tool for comparative analyzes. Nevertheless, we stress that a single-gene analysis of such a large and old group cannot be interpreted as more than a crude estimate of the bat species tree. Analysis of the full dataset supports the traditional division of bats into macro- and microchiroptera, but not the recently proposed division into Yinpterochiroptera and Yangochiroptera. However, our results only weakly reject the former and strongly support the latter group, and furthermore, a time calibrated analysis of a pruned dataset where most included taxa have the entire 1140bp cytb sequence finds monophyletic Yinpterochiroptera. Most bat families and many higher level groups are supported, however, relationships among families are in general weakly supported, as are many of the deeper nodes of the tree. The exceptions are in most cases apparently due to the misplacement of species with little available data, while in a few cases the results suggest putative problems with current classification, such as the non-monophyly of Mormoopidae. We provide this phylogenetic hypothesis, and an analysis of divergence times, as tools for evolutionary and ecological studies that will be useful until more inclusive studies using multiple loci become available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingi Agnarsson
- University of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico; EcoHealth Alliance and Asociación para la Biología de la Conservación - Bolivia
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