Four challenges to an effective national nature assessment

Comprehensive biodiversity assessments play an essential role in strengthening global and national conservation strategies. The recently announced first U.S. National Nature Assessment (NNA) provides an unparalleled opportunity to comprehensively review status and trends of biodiversity at all levels. This broad context can help in the coordination of actions to conserve individual species and ecosystems. The scientific assessments that informed the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework adopted at the 2022 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) conference of parties provide models for synthesizing information on trends at multiple levels of biodiversity, including decline in abundance and distribution of species, loss of populations and genetic diversity, and degradation and loss of ecosystems and their services. The assessments then relate these trends to data on drivers of biodiversity loss and pathways to their mitigation. The U.S. NNA can augment such global analyses and avoid the pitfalls encountered by previous U.S. efforts by ensuring policy-relevant design, data accessibility, and inclusivity in process and product and by incorporating spatial data relevant to national and subnational audiences. Although the United States is not formally a CBD party, an effective NNA should take full advantage of the global context by including indicators adopted at the 2022 meeting and incorporating an independent review mechanism that supports periodic stocktaking and ratcheting up of ambition in response to identified shortfalls in stemming biodiversity loss. The challenges to design of an effective U.S. assessment are relevant globally as nations develop assessments and reporting to support the new global biodiversity framework's targets. By considering and incorporating the diverse ways in which society values and benefits from nature, such assessments can help bridge the gap between research and conservation practice and communicate the extent of the biodiversity crisis to the public, fostering broad-based support for transformative change in humanity's relationship to the natural world.

Plant and animal endemism in the eastern Andean slope: challenges to conservation

BACKGROUND

The Andes-Amazon basin of Peru and Bolivia is one of the most data-poor, biologically rich, and rapidly changing areas of the world. Conservation scientists agree that this area hosts extremely high endemism, perhaps the highest in the world, yet we know little about the geographic distributions of these species and ecosystems within country boundaries. To address this need, we have developed conservation data on endemic biodiversity (~800 species of birds, mammals, amphibians, and plants) and terrestrial ecological systems (~90; groups of vegetation communities resulting from the action of ecological processes, substrates, and/or environmental gradients) with which we conduct a fine scale conservation prioritization across the Amazon watershed of Peru and Bolivia. We modelled the geographic distributions of 435 endemic plants and all 347 endemic vertebrate species, from existing museum and herbaria specimens at a regional conservation practitioner's scale (1:250,000-1:1,000,000), based on the best available tools and geographic data. We mapped ecological systems, endemic species concentrations, and irreplaceable areas with respect to national level protected areas.

RESULTS

We found that sizes of endemic species distributions ranged widely (< 20 km2 to > 200,000 km2) across the study area. Bird and mammal endemic species richness was greatest within a narrow 2500-3000 m elevation band along the length of the Andes Mountains. Endemic amphibian richness was highest at 1000-1500 m elevation and concentrated in the southern half of the study area. Geographical distribution of plant endemism was highly taxon-dependent. Irreplaceable areas, defined as locations with the highest number of species with narrow ranges, overlapped slightly with areas of high endemism, yet generally exhibited unique patterns across the study area by species group. We found that many endemic species and ecological systems are lacking national-level protection; a third of endemic species have distributions completely outside of national protected areas. Protected areas cover only 20% of areas of high endemism and 20% of irreplaceable areas. Almost 40% of the 91 ecological systems are in serious need of protection (= < 2% of their ranges protected).

CONCLUSIONS

We identify for the first time, areas of high endemic species concentrations and high irreplaceability that have only been roughly indicated in the past at the continental scale. We conclude that new complementary protected areas are needed to safeguard these endemics and ecosystems. An expansion in protected areas will be challenged by geographically isolated micro-endemics, varied endemic patterns among taxa, increasing deforestation, resource extraction, and changes in climate. Relying on pre-existing collections, publically accessible datasets and tools, this working framework is exportable to other regions plagued by incomplete conservation data.

The impact of conservation on the status of the world's vertebrates

Using data for 25,780 species categorized on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List, we present an assessment of the status of the world's vertebrates. One-fifth of species are classified as Threatened, and we show that this figure is increasing: On average, 52 species of mammals, birds, and amphibians move one category closer to extinction each year. However, this overall pattern conceals the impact of conservation successes, and we show that the rate of deterioration would have been at least one-fifth again as much in the absence of these. Nonetheless, current conservation efforts remain insufficient to offset the main drivers of biodiversity loss in these groups: agricultural expansion, logging, overexploitation, and invasive alien species.

Differing effects of copper,zinc superoxide dismutase overexpression on neurotoxicity elicited by nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species, and excitotoxins

Overexpression of Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) reduces ischemic injury in some stroke models but exacerbates injury in a neonatal stroke model and in other settings. The current study used a SOD1 transgenic (SOD1-Tg) murine cortical culture system, derived from the same mouse strain previously used for the stroke models, to identify conditions that determine whether SOD1 overexpression in neurons is protective or detrimental. The nitric oxide (NO) donors S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine, spermine-NONOate, and diethylamine-NONOate produced less death in SOD1-Tg neurons than in wild-type neurons (p < 0.01). Also, NO produced markedly less 3-nitrotyosine in SOD1-Tg cells. In contrast, the superoxide generator menadione produced significantly greater death and nearly twice as much 2'7'-dichlorofluorescein fluorescence in SOD1-Tg neurons than in wild-type neurons, suggesting increased peroxide formation in the SOD1-Tg cells. No significant difference was observed in the vulnerability of the two cell types to H2O2, the product of the SOD reaction. Overexpression of SOD1 also had no effect on neuronal vulnerability to glutamate, N-methyl-D-aspartate, or kainate. These observations suggest that SOD1 overexpression can reduce neuronal death under conditions where peroxynitrite formation is a significant factor, but may exacerbate neuronal death under conditions of rapid intracellular superoxide formation or impaired H2O2 disposal.

Glutamate induces rapid upregulation of astrocyte glutamate transport and cell-surface expression of GLAST

Glutamate transporters clear glutamate from the extracellular space by high-affinity binding and uptake. Factors that regulate glutamate transporter expression and activity can thereby influence excitatory neurotransmission. Transporter function in GABAergic and other systems has been shown to be regulated by transporter substrates. Here, glutamate regulation of glutamate transport was studied using primary murine astrocyte cultures that express the GLAST (EAAT1) and GLT-1 (EAAT2) transporter subtypes. Glutamate was found to stimulate glutamate transport capacity (V(max)) in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The maximal increase was 100%, with an ED(50) of 40 microM glutamate and with onset beginning approximately 15 min after onset of glutamate exposure. The uptake stimulation was reproduced by D-aspartate, which is also a transporter substrate, but not by nontransported glutamate receptor agonists. Moreover, glutamate incubation did not stimulate transport when performed in a sodium-free medium, suggesting that the stimulatory effect of glutamate is triggered by increased transporter activity rather than receptor activation. Treatment with the actin-disrupting agents cytochalasin B or cytochalasin D prevented the glutamate-induced increase in glutamate uptake. Biotinylation labeling of membrane surface proteins showed that glutamate incubation produced an increase in GLAST expression at the astrocyte cell surface. These results suggest that cell-surface expression of GLAST can be rapidly regulated by glutamate through a process triggered by GLAST activity and involving the actin cytoskeleton. This feedback loop provides a mechanism by which changes in extracellular glutamate concentrations could rapidly modulate astrocyte glutamate transport capacity.

Astrocyte energetics, function, and death under conditions of incomplete ischemia: a mechanism of glial death in the penumbra

Cerebral artery occlusion produces regions of incomplete ischemia (the ischemic penumbra), which, in the absence of reflow, undergo progressive metabolic deterioration culminating in infarction. The factors causing infarction are not yet established, but progression to cell death is preceded by progressive acidosis, decreasing glucose utilization, and ATP depletion. To identify potential mechanisms of glial death in the ischemic penumbra, astrocytes in culture were subjected to conditions that occur during incomplete ischemia: hypoxia, acidosis, and raised extracellular K+. Neither acidosis (to pH 6.2) nor chemical hypoxia (5 mM azide) alone produced significant astrocyte death or marked ATP depletion. By contrast, hypoxia combined with acidosis caused near-complete ATP depletion by 3.5 h and 70% cell death after 7 h. Glycolytic rate increased during hypoxia alone but decreased during hypoxia with acidosis. Since glycolysis is the sole source of ATP production during hypoxia, acidosis inhibition of glycolysis is a likely cause of the far greater ATP depletion resulting from hypoxia with acidosis. Glutamate uptake was reduced during hypoxia and further reduced during hypoxia with acidosis, consistent with the changes in astrocyte ATP. Glutamate uptake, ATP levels, and glycolytic rate each exhibited reductions that were progressive over 3 h of hypoxia with acidosis, and these changes were accompanied by progressive intracellular acidosis. Since ATP depletion leads to acidosis, and acidosis inhibits glycolysis, these findings suggest a regenerative cycle initiated by the combination of hypoxia with acidosis. This cycle could result in progressive metabolic decline and cell death in the ischemic penumbra.

Neuronal regulation of glutamate transporter subtype expression in astrocytes

GLT-1, GLAST, and EAAC1 are high-affinity, Na(+)-dependent glutamate transporters identified in rat forebrain. The expression of these transporter subtypes was characterized in three preparations: undifferentiated rat cortical astrocyte cultures, astrocytes cocultured with cortical neurons, and astrocyte cultures differentiated with dibutyryl cyclic AMP (dBcAMP). The undifferentiated astrocyte monocultures expressed only the GLAST subtype. Astrocytes cocultured with neurons developed a stellate morphology and expressed both GLAST and GLT-1; neurons expressed only the EAAC1 transporter, and rare microglia in these cultures expressed GLT-1. Treatment of astrocyte cultures with dBcAMP induced expression of GLT-1 and increased expression of GLAST. These effects of dBcAMP on transporter expression were qualitatively similar to those resulting from coculture with neurons, but immunocytochemistry showed the pattern of transporter expression to be more complex in the coculture preparations. Compared with astrocytes expressing only GLAST, the dBcAMP-treated cultures expressing both GLAST and GLT-1 showed an increase in glutamate uptake Vmax, but no change in the glutamate K(m) and no increased sensitivity to inhibition by dihydrokainate. Pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid and threo-beta-hydroxyaspartic acid caused relatively less inhibition of transport in cultures expressing both GLAST and GLT-1, suggesting a weaker effect at GLT-1 than at GLAST. These studies show that astrocyte expression of glutamate transporter subtypes is influenced by neurons, and that dBcAMP can partially mimic this influence. Manipulation of transporter expression in astrocyte cultures may permit identification of factors regulating the expression and function of GLAST and GLT-1 in their native cell type.

Increased lectin binding capacity of trophoblastic cells of late day 5 rat blastocysts

The binding of lectins to the trophoblast of rat blastocysts has been studied using quantitative ultrastructural cytochemistry. Rat blastocysts from early, mid and late d 5 of gestation were stained using biotinylated lectins (Phytolacca americana [Phy am], fucose binding protein [FBP] and soybean agglutinin [SBA]) and a sensitive avidin-ferritin cytochemical method. Electron micrographs of ferritin particles along the membrane were processed to produce images for which grey scale levels could be established and the ferritin particles automatically counted. The ferritin:membrane ratio was then calculated. Increased binding with Phy am (which detects short chain oligosaccharides) was found after midday of d 5, i.e. after hatching. Binding of FBP and SBA did not alter during the period studied. The increased concentration of oligosaccharides on the blastocyst surface membrane after hatching may have important implications for blastocyst attachment to the endometrium.

Morphometric evidence of changes in the vasculature of the uterine tube of mice induced by the 2-cell embryo on the second day of pregnancy

Some evidence suggests that the uterine tube plays an active role in supporting the development of the preimplantation embryo. To determine whether there were morphological and/or ultrastructural changes in the uterine tube as a consequence of pregnancy, the region of the uterine tube containing 2-cell embryos or oocytes was examined in untreated d 2 pregnant and pseudopregnant mice. The general morphology of the uterine tube was assessed by light and electron microscopy. Qualitative assessment of uterine tube morphology suggested that although the epithelium and muscular layers of the oviduct were similar in pregnancy and pseudopregnancy there were differences in the vasculature between the 2 groups. In transverse sections of the uterine tube, cross-sectional vascular surface area was assessed morphometrically. There was a statistically significant decrease (P < 0.001) in the cross-sectional vascular surface of the oviduct in pregnant mice compared with pseudopregnant mice. This reduction was apparently due to (1) a decrease in the median cross-sectional surface area of small intramural blood vessels, and (2) an apparent collapse of many subepithelial capillaries. Pregnant mice also had fewer fenestrated capillaries whereas such vessels were common in pseudopregnancy. Activated, aggregated platelets were only observed in the capillaries and venules of pregnant, untreated mice. Some animals were treated with 10 micrograms WEB 2086/day on d 1 and d 2, a platelet-activating factor receptor antagonist. This treatment reversed the reduced vascular surface cross-sectional area found in early pregnancy, but had no effect on vascular measurements in pseudopregnancy.

The relationship between life events during adolescence and affect and personality functioning

Bowlby's concept of the internal working model is useful in conceptualizing how a child develops a sense of self and security through the availability of significant relationships. The lack of secure attachments may lead to dysphoric moods and poor personality functioning. We have shown that a proportion of teenagers develop dysphoria as well as personality disturbance during adolescence. A study sample of 59 youths was examined at early, middle and late adolescence. Ratings were made of affect, attitudes and personality functions. At the same time, information was obtained about family status and functioning. Results showed that certain family and life events were more strongly correlated with changes in affect in early adolescence. These affects were both internalized and externalized. Middle adolescence appeared to be quiescent, without any correlations with affect or personality problems. In late adolescence, there were correlations between family changes and personality dysfunction as well as dysphoria. This shows that family changes which threaten the availability of significant attachment figures are linked to emotional and behavioural disturbance in early adolescence and personality and emotional disturbance in late adolescence.

Dose-dependent effects of exogenous gonadotrophins on the endometrium of the rat

We compared the serum levels of oestrogen and progesterone and the endometrial morphology of normal pregnant rats at 5,5 days' gestation with those of pregnant rats given either low (10 IU) or high (20 IU) doses of two gonadotrophins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG). Evidence of ovarian hyperstimulation was observed in the high- but not the low-dose group; both treatment regimens caused significant changes in the endometrial surface, epithelial height, the microvillous border, the glycocalyx, the subepithelial stromal cells and the mitotic activity of the surface epithelial and stromal connective tissue cells. The effects of the high-dose treatment were more severe than those of the low-dose treatment. The serum oestradiol and progesterone levels of the treated groups were not significantly different from those of the control group. The changes in the endometrium after both treatment regimens may interfere with normal trophoblastic-endometrial interactions and could influence the maintenance of pregnancy. This investigation demonstrated that even low doses of gonadotrophins, which do not cause obvious ovarian stimulation, affect uterine morphology. The findings have important implications for in vitro fertilisation and embryo transfer programmes.

Consistency and change in personality characteristics and affect from middle to late adolescence

Non clinical adolescents in a longitudinal study were examined at ages 16 and 18 to see whether or not there were changes in personality functioning, attitudes and affect over time, and whether or not these were related to each other. Personality functioning remained fairly consistent at both ages, with marked personality problems occurring in about one out of seven. As a group, the older adolescents demonstrated more anxiety and depression, as well as changes in certain attitudes such as more curiosity and interest in people. For individual adolescents it was found that there was considerable predictability of affect and attitudes at age 18 from the presentation at age 16. Furthermore, a relative increase in the amount of anger in middle adolescence was a predictor of personality problems in late adolescence.

Exogenous gonadotropins--serum oestrogen and progesterone and the effect on endometrial morphology in the rat

The serum levels of oestrogen and progesterone in hyperstimulated, pregnant rats were compared with those of normal pregnant animals. The endometrial morphology was studied before (4.5 days), at the time of (5.5 days) and after (6.5 days) implantation. In the hyperstimulated group serum oestradiol levels were significantly higher than in the controls at 2.5 and 4.5 days, while progesterone levels were similar in the two groups. Consequently the progesterone:oestradiol ratio was significantly lower in the experimental groups prior to implantation. Significant changes in the endometrium caused by the raised oestradiol levels, included an early increase in gland epithelial height, increased surface epithelial height, increased number and length of microvilli, deficiencies in the glycocalyx and decreased mitotic activity in the surface epithelium and stromal cells. In addition, epithelial cell degeneration and failure of decidualisation of stromal cells was observed. These morphological changes adversely affect embryo attachment and implantation. Similar pathological changes in the endometrium may occur in human in vitro fertilisation utilising superovulation and may be an important factor in the low success rate of these programmes.

Glucocorticoid endangerment of hippocampal neurons is NMDA-receptor dependent

The adrenal stress hormones glucocorticoids (GCs) impair the ability of hippocampal neurons to survive neurological insults, including hypoxia-ischemia and seizure. These insults are thought to be toxic via a cascade of excessive synaptic concentrations of excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g. glutamate), activation of the NMDA receptor, and pathologic mobilization of cytosolic calcium post-synaptically. We tested whether GCs exacerbate these insults by exacerbating this 'NMDA cascade'. We sought a toxin which damaged independently of the NMDA cascade, and whose toxicity was enhanced by GCs. After testing a number of neurotoxins, we found that the antimetabolite 3-acetylpyridine (3AP) fit this requirement. We then tested if blockade of the NMDA receptor blocks the ability of GCs to enhance 3AP toxicity. Hippocampi were microinfused with 160 micrograms of 3AP. Elevating circulating GC concentrations to the range seen during major stressors for a week before and after microinfusion caused a significant increase in 3AP-induced damage (when compared to adrenalectomized rats kept GC-free for the same period). Infusing the NMDA receptor blocker APV with 3AP did not alter the toxicity in adrenalectomized rats. However, APV reduced 3AP-induced damage in GC-treated rats to levels seen in adrenalectomized rats. This suggests that GCs endanger hippocampal neurons by enhancing glutamatergic signals and/or enhancing vulnerability to such signals. As a possible explanation for this observation, GCs inhibit glucose uptake into hippocampal neurons, and numerous steps in the NMDA cascade are exacerbated when neuronal energy stores are diminished.

Differential size distribution of atrial dense granules in spontaneously hypertensive, Wistar-Kyoto and Wistar rats

The differential size distribution of atrial dense granules (ADGs) in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and two normotensive controls, Wistar and Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats, was investigated. The ADGs in SHR were smaller than those in Wistar rats. The ADGs of WKY rats were of intermediate size. It is possible that ADGs are more rapidly secreted in SHR compared with WKY and Wistar rats or that the smaller-diameter granules may contain more atriopeptinogen than the larger granules. The intermediate size of the ADGs in WKY suggests that the WKY variant is morphologically intermediate between the SHR and Wistar strains.

Adolescent personality development: three phases, three courses and varying turmoil. Findings from the Toronto Adolescent Longitudinal Study

The Toronto Adolescent Longitudinal Study was launched in 1977 to examine personality development in a non-clinical sample of children from ages ten through 19 over an eight year period. Following a description of their conceptualized model of personality and of the nature of the study, the authors summarize their findings which suggest new perspectives in three areas of adolescent personality development: 1) the subphases of adolescence, 2) the routes of passage through which adolescents proceed, and 3) adolescent turmoil.

Status epilepticus-induced hippocampal damage is modulated by glucose availability

Kainic acid administration induces status epilepticus seizures in the rat which damage CA1 and CA3 hippocampal neurons. Rats made hypoglycemic prior to seizure had enhanced volumes of damage, when compared to normo- or hyperglycemic rats. The mild hypoglycemia was not in the range which, itself, typically produces hippocampal damage. This suggests that limited energy availability compromised the ability of neurons to survive seizures. Our data also suggest that the CA1 damage seen after status epilepticus is not hypoxic-ischemic in origin, since elevating pre-seizure glucose concentrations to a range which typically exacerbates hypoxic-ischemic CA1 damage did not augment status-epilepticus CA1 damage.

Chemical adrenalectomy reduces hippocampal damage induced by kainic acid

Glucocorticoids (GCs), the adrenal steroids secreted during stress, have numerous catabolic effects which include damage to neurons of the hippocampus, a principal neural target site for the steroids. In the rat, the extent of GC exposure over the lifespan is a major determinant of the rate of hippocampal neuron death during aging. GCs also modulate the severity of hippocampal damage in the rat following insults such as seizure or hypoxia-ischemia. As evidence, exogenous GCs exacerbate, while adrenalectomy attenuates hippocampal damage after these insults. Thus, it is possible that diminution of endogenous GC secretion might protect the human hippocampus after similar neurological insults; adrenalectomy under such circumstances is obviously not a viable clinical option. We demonstrate the protective effects of transient chemical adrenalectomy with the GC synthesis inhibitor, metyrapone. Rats were microinfused with the excitotoxin kainic acid in order to induce status epilepticus seizures; this insult caused a significant GC stress-response. Attenuation of that response with metyrapone reduced the CA3 hippocampal damage produced by kainic acid. Metyrapone did not change the intensity of seizures, but rather, apparently, changed the capacity of neurons to withstand the seizure. Thus, metyrapone, which is used safely and efficaciously in other clinical contexts, might prove protective of the brain following seizure in the human.

Morbidity and mortality of certified adolescent psychiatric patients

Recent legislation has placed greater restrictions on the involuntary hospitalization and treatment of psychiatric patients. A follow-up study was done on adolescent psychiatric patients who were certified during their hospital stay. The rate of certification was 8.5%. Their functioning was compared with that of a control group of voluntarily admitted adolescents. The two main reasons for certification were suicidal behaviour and psychotic symptoms. The majority of patients required further hospital treatment during the five year period after discharge. Few patients were found to be functioning in a successful independent fashion at the time of follow-up and certified patients required much more long-term social assistance. Five patients (22% of those certified) committed suicide and the combination of personality disorder and major depression was of particular importance in predicting suicide.

Personality functioning and clinical presentation in early adolescence. II

This study describes the presentation of early adolescents on clinical examination and its relation to personality function competence. As part of a longitudinal study 63 non-clinical subjects at age 13 underwent a semi-structured psychiatric interview. On the basis of their responses their phenomenology, attitudes, defence mechanisms and degree of relatedness to significant others were assessed independently and blindly by two psychiatrists. Our findings show that a significant minority of early adolescents have a definite personality function disturbance and that these adolescents differ from their more competent peers on a number of characteristics identifiable in a clinical interview. Such a relationship was observed in boys as well as girls, with girls presenting no greater amount of turmoil than boys. These results indicate that adolescents cannot be adequately described as a homogeneous group. Differences in individual personality functioning result in differences in the presentation and internal experience of the early adolescent.

Psychopathology in adolescent children of physicians

The clinical records of 27 adolescent children of physicians who were treated in a psychiatric unit for adolescents were studied. Most of the children had been referred by their physician fathers for evaluation of conduct or mood disorders. These referrals were often the focus of family distress. There appeared to be no typical syndrome presented by physicians' children. Those treating such patients should be especially sensitive to the possibility that parental denial will increase the patient's resistance to therapy. Family therapy, an effective treatment for psychologic problems in adolescents, is often avoided by physicians.

The ontogeny of regulatory peptide-containing cells in the human fetal stomach: an immunocytochemical study

The antral and fundic regions of the stomachs from 24 human fetuses were examined by immunocytochemistry for the presence of three regulatory peptides (gastrin, somatostatin, and glucagon) and one amine (serotonin (5-HT)) in the epithelial endocrine cells. Gastrin- and somatostatin-containing cells were present at the earliest stage examined (8 weeks). Gastrin cells were restricted to the antrum, while somatostatin cells were found in both the antrum and the fundus. Glucagon-immunoreactive cells were detected from 10 weeks and were confined to the fundus. Serotonin-containing cells were found in both the antrum and the fundus from 11 weeks. Changes in the number of immunoreactive gastrin and somatostatin cells during gestation were quantified. The increase in the number of cells/mm length of vertically sectioned mucosal epithelium best reflects the change in cell population. The peptides and amine studied were found to be contained in separate cell types. Electron microscopic examination of the peptide-containing cells showed that the fetal cells contain granules of similar morphology to their adult counterparts.

Trends in adolescent psychopathology

Clinicians are reluctant to diagnose severe mental disturbances in adolescents. The psychoanalytic literature on adolescent turmoil has de-emphasized the phenomenology of the clinical picture leading to diagnostic difficulties. Several studies have shown that symptomatic adolescents for the most part continue to demonstrate disturbances in adulthood. This paper reports on the population of adolescents admitted to an inpatient unit and compares it with a population admitted three years earlier. There was an increase in the number of referrals indicating a greater demand for service by the community. The patient population showed a significant trend toward more serious psychiatric disturbance, psychoses and personality disorders, with far fewer adjustment reactions. There was also a great increase in the number of re-admissions which again reflects severity of illness. Antidepressants continue to be infrequently used. Major tranquilizers were used less frequently and with greater specificity in both psychoses and personality disorders. Major implications for identifying and treating recurrent psychiatric illnesses in adolescents are discussed.

Pancreatic glucagon in human foetal stomach

A combination of immunocytochemistry at light and electron microscopic levels, direct radioimmunoassay and measurement after gel chromatography have been used to identify and characterise a glucagon-like peptide detected in human foetal stomach. Immunocytochemistry, with region specific antisera, demonstrated that the glucagon-containing cells were indistinguishable from pancreatic A cells. Radioimmunoassay of tissue extracts confirmed the presence of significant quantities of glucagon, mean 21 pmol/g wet weight (range 14-29) in 16-26 week old foetuses, increasing to 41 pmol/g wet weight (range 31-52) in 33-30 week old foetuses and after gel chromatography the peptide was found to elute at the same position as standard porcine glucagon. It is apparent, therefore, that the human foetal fundus contains significant quantities of true pancreatic-type glucagon.

Adolescents in a general hospital psychiatric unit

The population of 42 adolescents admitted to the Sunnybrook Adolescent Unit in 1977 is described and compared with other populations of general hospital units previously presented in the literature, in order to derive implications for patient selection, treatment techniques and outcome. Analysis of historical, family, and mental status variables provided a cluster of factors leading to successful or unsuccessful treatment in the hospital. Three global types of patients emerged, based on diagnostic groups who have different treatment experiences in hospital, and who require three distinctly different types of treatment programs. Limitations of treatment are also discussed.