Psychological, behavioural and biological factors associated with gastrointestinal symptoms in autistic adults and adults with autistic traits

LAY ABSTRACT

Little is known about factors related to the increased risk for gastrointestinal symptoms in adults with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), while the negative impact of gastrointestinal symptoms is evident. Especially, the relationship between gastrointestinal symptoms and psychological, behavioural, and biological risk factors in adults with ASD (traits) is unclear. Autistic peer support workers and autism-advocates also emphasised the importance of identifying risk factors, because of the high prevalence of gastrointestinal problems in people with ASD. Therefore, our study investigated which psychological, behavioural, and biological factors are associated with gastrointestinal symptoms in adults with ASD or with autistic traits. We analysed data from 31,185 adults in the Dutch Lifelines Study. Questionnaires were used to evaluate the presence of an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis, autistic traits, gastrointestinal symptoms, psychological and behavioural factors. Biological factors were examined with body measurements. We found that not only adults with ASD but also adults with higher levels of autistic traits were at increased risk for gastrointestinal symptoms. Adults with ASD who experienced psychological problems (psychiatric problems, worse perceived health, chronic stress) had a higher risk for gastrointestinal symptoms than adults with ASD without these psychological problems. Moreover, adults with higher levels of autistic traits were less physically active, which was also associated with gastrointestinal symptoms. In conclusion, our study highlights the relevance of identifying psychological problems and evaluating physical activity when trying to help adults with ASD or autistic traits and gastrointestinal symptoms. This suggests that healthcare professionals should be more aware of behavioural and psychological risk factors when evaluating gastrointestinal symptoms in adults with ASD (traits).

The validity of the BDHI translated into Papiamento in pre-trial defendants in Curaçao

The Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI) is an important assessment scale of hostility in forensic psychiatry. We analyzed the validity and reliability of a Papiamento translation of the BDHI in 134 pre-trial defendants in Curaçao using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM). The reliability of the Direct and Indirect Hostility BHDI-P subscales were good and the reliability of the Social Desirability poor. There was a negative correlation between Direct Hostility and Agreeableness and a positive correlation between Indirect Hostility and Anxiety. We conclude that the BDHI-P has an acceptable measurement quality when used in defendants.

[CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 genotyping: effectivity in psychiatric practice]

BACKGROUND

International guidelines recommend in patients with an in- or decreased CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 metabolism to adjust the dose of medication metabolized by these enzymes. This is in purpose to increase effectiveness and to lower the risk of side-effects of this medication. However, it is still unclear if dose adjustment based on genotype results in better clinical outcomes.

AIM

To provide an update regarding CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 genotyping in psychiatry in relation to ethnic diversity.To provide an update regarding CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 genotyping in psychiatry in relation to ethnic diversity.

METHOD

We conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis to the prevalence of non-normal metabolizers as the equivalent of the sum-prevalence of poor, intermediate and ultrarapid metabolizer CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 predicted phenotypes. For the prevalence and effectiveness study, a total of 166 Antilleans living in the Netherlands and 269 psychiatric patients (on the island Curaçao) were genotyped for CYP2D6 and CYP2C19. Of the psychiatric patients, 45 non-normal CYP2D6 metabolizers using medication metabolized by CYP2D6, were included for dose adjustment and were matched with 41 normal metabolizers. All 45 patients were using antipsychotic medication for a minimum of two years. Four months after dose adjustment they were reassessed.

RESULTS

The mean total probability estimates of having a non-normal predicted phenotype worldwide were 36% and 62% for CYP2D6 and CYP2C19, respectively. There was a large interethnic variability (min-max 2.7-61.2% (CYP2D6) and minmax 31.7-80.1% (CYP2C19)). No significant difference was found in the phenotypes of psychiatric patients, Dutch Caribbean subjects from the general population, and European populations. There were no beneficial effects of dose adjustments to phenotype in the non-normal CYP2D6 metabolizers.

CONCLUSION

More than 75% of the world population has a non-normal CYP2D6 and/or CYP2C19 phenotype. Dose adjustment to the CYP2D6 phenotype according to international guidelines in patients on long-term antipsychotic treatment showed no beneficial effect. Further research to CYP genotyping in psychiatry is warranted.

Identification of patients with recent-onset psychosis in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa: a pilot study with traditional health practitioners and diagnostic instruments

PURPOSE

There is considerable variation in epidemiology and clinical course of psychotic disorders across social and geographical contexts. To date, very little data are available from low- and middle-income countries. In sub-Saharan Africa, most people with psychoses remain undetected and untreated, partly due to lack of formal health care services. This study in rural South Africa aimed to investigate if it is possible to identify individuals with recent-onset psychosis in collaboration with traditional health practitioners (THPs).

METHODS

We developed a strategy to engage with THPs. Fifty THPs agreed to collaborate and were asked to refer help-seeking clients with recent-onset psychosis to the study. At referral, the THPs rated probability of psychosis ("maybe disturbed" or "disturbed"). A two-step diagnostic procedure was conducted, including the self-report Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences (CAPE) as screening instrument, and a semi-structured interview using the Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN). Accuracy of THP referrals, and test characteristics of the THP rating and the CAPE were calculated.

RESULTS

149 help-seeking clients were referred by THPs, of which 44 (29.5%) received a SCAN DSM-IV diagnosis of psychotic disorder. The positive predictive value of a THP "disturbed" rating was 53.8%. Test characteristics of the CAPE were poor.

CONCLUSION

THPs were open to identifying and referring individuals with possible psychosis. They recognized "being disturbed" as a condition for which collaboration with formal psychiatric services might be beneficial. By contrast, the CAPE performed poorly as a screening instrument. Collaboration with THPs is a promising approach to improve detection of individuals with recent-onset psychosis in rural South Africa.

[Aggression regulation in eating disorders: evidence for a brief body and movement oriented intervention]

Individuals with eating disorders tend to internalise their anger and aggression excessively. However, an evidence-based intervention, targeted on this persistent issue, was missing until now. Therefore, a body and movement oriented intervention was developed, which supports patients to reframe and redirect anger and aggression against the destructive influence of the eating disorder.<br/> AIM: To study the effectiveness of the aggression regulation intervention.<br/> METHOD: The intervention was tested in a first randomised controlled trial (RCT) in an outpatient setting and in a two-center RCT in a multidisciplinary day hospital setting. Coping with anger was measured by the Self-Expression and Control Scale (SECS). Eating disorder pathology was measured by the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q).<br/> RESULTS: Both RCTs delivered first evidence for the brief body and movement oriented intervention to reduce excessive anger internalisation in individuals with eating disorders. Moreover, in the outpatient trial the eating disorder pathology was significantly more reduced in the intervention group compared to the control group.<br/> CONCLUSION: There is first evidence for the effectiveness of a body and movement oriented approach of reducing excessive anger internalisation in individuals with eating disorders.

Th17/T regulator cell balance and NK cell numbers in relation to psychosis liability and social stress reactivity

BACKGROUND

Psychotic disorders are characterized by a deranged immune system, including altered number and function of Natural Killer (NK) and T cells. Psychotic disorders arise from an interaction between genetic vulnerability and exposure to environmental risk factors. Exposure to social adversity during early life is particularly relevant to psychosis risk and is thought to increase reactivity to subsequent minor daily social stressors. Virtual reality allows controlled experimental exposure to virtual social stressors.

AIM

To investigate the interplay between social adversity during early life, cell numbers of NK cells and T helper subsets and social stress reactivity in relation to psychosis liability.

METHODS

Circulating numbers of Th1, Th2, Th17, T regulator and NK cells were determined using flow cytometry in 80 participants with low psychosis liability (46 healthy controls and 34 siblings) and 53 participants with high psychosis liability (14 ultra-high risk (UHR) patients and 39 recent-onset psychosis patients), with and without the experience of childhood trauma. We examined if cell numbers predicted subjective stress when participants were exposed to social stressors (crowdedness, hostility and being part of an ethnic minority) in a virtual reality environment.

RESULTS

There were no significant group differences in Th1, Th2, Th17, T regulator and NK cell numbers between groups with a high or low liability for psychosis. However, in the high psychosis liability group, childhood trauma was associated with increased Th17 cell numbers (p = 0.028). Moreover, in the high psychosis liability group increased T regulator and decreased NK cell numbers predicted stress experience during exposure to virtual social stressors (p = 0.015 and p = 0.009 for T regulator and NK cells, respectively).

CONCLUSION

A deranged Th17/T regulator balance and a reduced NK cell number are associated intermediate biological factors in the relation childhood trauma, psychosis liability and social stress reactivity.

Childhood maltreatment and eating disorder pathology: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Meta-analyses have established a high prevalence of childhood maltreatment (CM) in patients with eating disorders (EDs) relative to the general population. Whether the prevalence of CM in EDs is also high relative to that in other mental disorders has not yet been established through meta-analyses nor to what extent CM affects defining features of EDs, such as number of binge/purge episodes or age at onset. Our aim is to provide meta-analyses on the associations between exposure to CM (i.e. emotional, physical and sexual abuse) on the occurrence of all types of EDs and its defining features.

METHOD

Systematic review and meta-analyses. Databases were searched until 4 June 2016.

RESULTS

CM prevalence was high in each type of ED (total N = 13 059, prevalence rates 21-59%) relative to healthy (N = 15 092, prevalence rates 1-35%) and psychiatric (N = 7736, prevalence rates 5-46%) control groups. ED patients reporting CM were more likely to be diagnosed with a co-morbid psychiatric disorder [odds ratios (ORs) range 1.41-2.46, p < 0.05] and to be suicidal (OR 2.07, p < 0.001) relative to ED subjects who were not exposed to CM. ED subjects exposed to CM also reported an earlier age at ED onset [effect size (Hedges' g) = -0.32, p < 0.05], to suffer a more severe form of the illness (g = 0.29, p < 0.05), and to binge-purge (g = 0.31, p < 0.001) more often compared to ED patients who did not report any CM.

CONCLUSION

CM, regardless of type, is associated with the presence of all types of ED and with severity parameters that characterize these illnesses in a dose dependent manner.

Childhood maltreatment and eating disorder pathology: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Meta-analyses have established a high prevalence of childhood maltreatment (CM) in patients with eating disorders (EDs) relative to the general population. Whether the prevalence of CM in EDs is also high relative to that in other mental disorders has not yet been established through meta-analyses nor to what extent CM affects defining features of EDs, such as number of binge/purge episodes or age at onset. Our aim is to provide meta-analyses on the associations between exposure to CM (i.e. emotional, physical and sexual abuse) on the occurrence of all types of EDs and its defining features.

METHOD

Systematic review and meta-analyses. Databases were searched until 4 June 2016.

RESULTS

CM prevalence was high in each type of ED (total N = 13 059, prevalence rates 21-59%) relative to healthy (N = 15 092, prevalence rates 1-35%) and psychiatric (N = 7736, prevalence rates 5-46%) control groups. ED patients reporting CM were more likely to be diagnosed with a co-morbid psychiatric disorder [odds ratios (ORs) range 1.41-2.46, p < 0.05] and to be suicidal (OR 2.07, p < 0.001) relative to ED subjects who were not exposed to CM. ED subjects exposed to CM also reported an earlier age at ED onset [effect size (Hedges' g) = -0.32, p < 0.05], to suffer a more severe form of the illness (g = 0.29, p < 0.05), and to binge-purge (g = 0.31, p < 0.001) more often compared to ED patients who did not report any CM.

CONCLUSION

CM, regardless of type, is associated with the presence of all types of ED and with severity parameters that characterize these illnesses in a dose dependent manner.

Three decades of eating disorders in Dutch primary care: decreasing incidence of bulimia nervosa but not of anorexia nervosa

BACKGROUND

Whether the incidence of eating disorders in Western, industrialized countries has changed over time has been the subject of much debate. The purpose of this primary-care study was to examine changes in the incidence of eating disorders in The Netherlands during the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s.

METHOD

A nationwide network of general practitioners (GPs), serving a representative sample (~1%) of the total Dutch population, recorded newly diagnosed patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) in their practice during 1985-1989, 1995-1999, and 2005-2009. GPs are key players in the Dutch healthcare system, as their written referral is mandatory in order to get access to specialized (mental) healthcare, covered by health insurance. Health insurance is virtually universal in The Netherlands (99% of the population). A substantial number of GPs participated in all three study periods, during which the same case identification criteria were used and the same psychiatrist was responsible for making the final diagnoses. Incidence rates were calculated and for comparison between periods, incidence rate ratios.

RESULTS

The overall incidence rate of BN decreased significantly in the past three decades (from 8.6 per 100,000 person-years in 1985-1989 to 6.1 in 1995-1999, and 3.2 in 2005-2009). The overall incidence of AN remained fairly stable during three decades, i.e. 7.4 per 100,000 person-years in 1985-1989, 7.8 in 1995-1999, and 6.0 in 2005-2009.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence rate of BN decreased significantly over the past three decades, while the overall incidence rate of AN remained stable.

[Validation of tools for assessing the intelligence and the functional impairment of Papiamento speaking suspects]

BACKGROUND

Although Antillean suspects in the Netherlands are often diagnosed as being intellectually impaired, there are no validated tests available Papiamento (the native language) for assessing intelligence or functional impairment.

AIM

To validate the use of the GIT 2 (Groninger Intelligentie Test 2) and the Barkley Functioning Impairment Scale (BFIS) for Antillean defendants detained by the Judicial Service of the Caribbean Netherlands in Bonaire.

METHOD

With the approval of the publishers, the GIT 2 and the BFIS were translated in Papiamento by two independent experts. The two translations were then re-translated into Dutch by two other independent experts. Defendants with both parents born in Bonaire who had been detained for at least 18 days by the Judicial Detention Centre of the Caribbean Netherlands (JICN) in Bonaire during the period 1 January 2013 until 1 July 2014 were examined with both tests.

RESULTS

The Papiamento GIT 2 and BFIS tests were taken by 23 Bonairian defendants who had been detained in the JICN in Bonaire. The internal consistency and inter-item correlation of the tests were found to be satisfactory. The IQ of 95% of the participants was reproduced as a score between 79.2 and 96.8 points. In the BFIS the question about self-care was a particularly sensitive item. The use of drugs was associated with increased functional impairment.

CONCLUSION

This study seems to be a promising first step towards the validation of the GIT 2 and the BFIS. Apparently, it has now become acceptable to use written Papiamento in assessment tools.

Social disorganization of neighborhoods and incidence of psychotic disorders: a 7-year first-contact incidence study

BACKGROUND

Environmental factors such as urban birth and ethnic minority position have been related to risk for psychotic disorders. There is some evidence that not only individual, but also neighborhood characteristics influence this risk. The aim of this study was to investigate social disorganization of neighborhoods and incidence of psychotic disorders.

METHOD

The research was a 7-year first-contact incidence study of psychotic disorders in The Hague. Neighborhood characteristics included continuous, dichotomous and cumulative measures of socio-economic level, residential mobility, ethnic diversity, proportion of single person households, voter turnout, population density and crime level. Using multilevel Poisson regression analysis, incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of psychotic disorders were calculated for the indicators of neighborhood social disorganization.

RESULTS

A total of 618 incident cases were identified. Neighborhood socio-economic level and residential mobility had the strongest association with incidence of psychotic disorders [individual-level adjusted Wald χ2 1 = 13.03 (p = 0.0003) and 5.51 (p = 0.02), respectively]. All but one (proportion of single person households) of the dichotomous neighborhood indicators were significantly associated with a higher IRR. The cumulative degree of neighborhood social disorganization was strongly and linearly associated with the incidence of psychotic disorders (trend test, Wald χ2 5 = 25.76, p = 0.0001). The IRR in neighborhoods with the highest degree of social disorganization was 1.95 (95% CI 1.38-2.75) compared with the lowest disorganization category.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that the risk for developing a psychotic disorder is higher for people living in socially disorganized environments. Longitudinal studies are needed to investigate causality.

Prevalence, impact and cultural context of psychotic experiences among ethnic minority youth

BACKGROUND

The risk for psychotic disorders is increased for many ethnic minority groups and may develop in early childhood. This study investigated whether the prevalence of psychotic experiences (PE) with high impact is higher among ethnic minority youth compared to majority youth and examined the significance of these PE.

METHOD

A school-based study assessed a large community sample of 1545 ethnic minority and majority children in The Netherlands (mean age 12.98 ± 1.81 years). The Dutch (n = 702, 45.4%), Moroccan-Dutch (n = 400, 25.9%) and Turkish-Dutch (n = 170, 11.0%) ethnic groups could be studied separately. Self-report questionnaires on PE, impact and cultural context were administered.

RESULTS

Prevalence of PE with high impact was 3.1% in Dutch, 9.5% in Moroccan-Dutch and 7.1% in Turkish-Dutch youth. Compared to Dutch youth, odds ratios were 3.0 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7-5.1] for Moroccan-Dutch youth and 2.2 (95% CI 1.1-4.6) for Turkish-Dutch youth. Differences were not explained by cultural or religious differences.

CONCLUSIONS

The increased risk for psychotic disorders in ethnic minorities may already be detectable in childhood, since PE with high impact were more common among ethnic minority youth compared to majority youth. The additional measurement of impact of PE appears to be a valid approach to identify those children at risk to develop psychotic or other more common psychiatric disorders.

Direct comparison of first-contact versus longitudinal register-based case finding in the same population: early evidence that the incidence of schizophrenia may be three times higher than commonly reported

BACKGROUND

The incidence of schizophrenia is commonly estimated by screening for psychosis among subjects presenting to psychiatric services. This approach (using a first-contact sampling frame) cannot account for cases that did not meet criteria for schizophrenia at first contact. We compared the usual approach directly with a register-based approach (using a longitudinal sampling frame) that also includes subjects initially diagnosed with other non-schizophrenic disorders.

METHOD

We compared data from the Longitudinal Psychiatric Register (LPR) of The Hague over 1980-2009 with data previously collected in a first-contact study, and applied both methods to calculate the incidence of schizophrenia for subjects aged 20-54 years in the same catchment area and over the same period (October 2000 to September 2005). We reconstructed treatment pathways and diagnostic histories up to the end of 2009 and performed sensitivity analyses.

RESULTS

The LPR identified 843 first onsets of schizophrenia, corresponding to a treated incidence rate (IR) of 69 per 100,000 person-years [95% confidence interval (CI) 64-74]. The first-contact study identified 254 first onsets, corresponding to a treated IR of 21 per 100,000 person-years (95% CI 18-23). Two-thirds of the difference was accounted for by subjects treated for other disorders before the onset of psychosis, and by patients in older age groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of schizophrenia was three times higher in a longitudinal register study than in a high-quality first-contact study conducted in the same population. Risk estimates based only on first-contact studies may have been affected by selection bias.

[Feeding and eating disorders in the DSM-5]

BACKGROUND

In the DSM-5, feeding disorders and eating disorders have been integrated into one single category.

AIM

To review the rationale for changes in the criteria for feeding and eating disorders in DSM-5.

METHOD

The revised criteria were drafted and formulated by a DSM-5 workgroup. Next, professionals were given the opportunity to react to the proposed revisions by participating in several discussion rounds.

RESULTS

The criteria for anorexia nervosa have been reworded and the amenorrhea criterion has been removed. The threshold for the diagnosis of bulimia nervosa has been lowered so that once-a-week binge eating and complementary behaviours are now sufficient for a patient to be diagnosed as having bulimia nervosa. Subtyping of bulimia nervosa has been removed. There are hardly any changes in the criteria for pica and rumination disorder. Two new official feeding and eating disorders have been introduced into DSM-5: avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder and binge eating disorder.

CONCLUSION

The definition of and the criteria for feeding and eating disorders given in DSM-5 are an improvement on those used in dsm-iv and should help to reduce the eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS).

[Depressive disorders in ethnic minorities in the doctor's office]

Doctors often find the diagnosis and treatment of psychiatric disorders in non-Western ethnic minorities difficult. Not only do language and culture form barriers to understanding, the symptoms of these disorders can be expressed in unfamiliar ways. We describe three cases that illustrate how the clinical presentation of depression in ethnic minorities living in the Netherlands can differ from that of Dutch patients. While the core symptoms of depressive disorder are similar, ethnic minority patients exhibit somatic symptoms more frequently. On average, they also have more severe symptoms, more psychiatric comorbidity such as anxiety and psychosis; the illness is also more often complicated by a multitude of social problems. Improving the diagnosis and treatment of depression in ethnic minorities requires knowledge and the exploration of potential differences in symptom presentation and the patient's explanatory models of mental illness. Patients and physicians also need to discuss their mutual expectations, in order to reach a consensus about treatment goals.

Perceptions of quality of life and disability in homeless persons with schizophrenia and persons with schizophrenia living in non-institutional housing

BACKGROUND

Homelessness is common in persons with schizophrenia. It is unclear how housing conditions and homelessness affect their quality of life and their disability.

AIMS

To explore the self-perceived quality of life and disability of homeless persons with schizophrenia and of those of persons with schizophrenia living in non-institutional housing.

METHODS

Seventy-six not-homeless and 50 homeless persons with schizophrenia were assessed using the World Health Organization's Quality of Life - short version (WHOQOL-Bref) and Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS-II). Univariate comparisons of the two groups were made for sociodemographic variables, clinical characteristics, perceived quality of life and disability. A regression model was used to adjust for potential confounding factors between quality of life, disability and housing.

RESULTS

After controlling for age, gender, marital status and age of first hospital admission, homeless persons had more positive scores for the quality of life domain 'health', for the disability domain 'getting along with people' and for the total disability score than persons in non-institutional housing.

CONCLUSION

Contrary to our expectations, the persons in non-institutional housing reported a lower quality of life and more disability than the homeless people. Future research should clarify whether non-institutional housing in and of itself can improve the well-being of people with schizophrenia.

Auditory verbal hallucinations in patients with borderline personality disorder are similar to those in schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) in patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) are frequently claimed to be brief, less severe and qualitatively different from those in schizophrenia, hence the term 'pseudohallucinations'. AVH in BPD may be more similar to those experienced by healthy individuals, who experience AVH in a lower frequency and with a more positive content than AVH in schizophrenia. In this study the phenomenology of AVH in BPD patients was compared to that in schizophrenia and to AVH experienced by non-patients.

METHOD

In a cross-sectional setting, the phenomenological characteristics of AVH in 38 BPD patients were compared to those in 51 patients with schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder and to AVH of 66 non-patients, using the Psychotic Symptom Rating Scales (PSYRATS).

RESULTS

BPD patients experienced AVH for a mean duration of 18 years, with a mean frequency of at least daily lasting several minutes or more. The ensuing distress was high. No differences in the phenomenological characteristics of AVH were revealed among patients diagnosed with BPD and those with schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder, except for 'disruption of life', which was higher in the latter group. Compared to non-patients experiencing AVH, BPD patients had higher scores on almost all items.

CONCLUSIONS

AVH in BPD patients are phenomenologically similar to those in schizophrenia, and different from those in healthy individuals. As AVH in patients with BPD fulfil the criteria of hallucinations proper, we prefer the term AVH over 'pseudohallucinations', so as to prevent trivialization and to promote adequate diagnosis and treatment.

Development and behaviour in Marshall-Smith syndrome: an exploratory study of cognition, phenotype and autism

BACKGROUND

Marshall-Smith syndrome (MSS) is an infrequently described entity characterised by failure to thrive, developmental delay, abnormal bone maturation and a characteristic face. In studying the physical features of a group of patients, we noticed unusual behavioural traits. This urged us to study cognition, behavioural phenotype and autism in six patients.

METHODS

Information on development, behavioural characteristics, autism symptoms, and adaptive and psychological functioning of six MSS children was collected through in-person examinations, questionnaires, semi-structured interviews of parents and neuropsychological assessments.

RESULTS

Participants showed moderate to severe delays in mental age, motor development and adaptive functioning, with several similarities in communication, social interactions and behaviour. There was severe delay of speech and motor milestones, a friendly or happy demeanour and enjoyment of social interactions with familiar others. They exhibited minimal maladaptive behaviours. Deficits in communication and social interactions, lack of reciprocal social communication skills, limited imaginary play and the occurrence of stereotyped, repetitive behaviours were noted during assessments.

CONCLUSIONS

Systematic collection of developmental and behavioural data in very rare entities such as MSS allows recognition of specific patterns in these qualities. Clinical recognition of physical,developmental and behavioural features is important not only for diagnosis, prognosis and counselling of families, but also increases our understanding of the biological basis of the human physical and behavioural phenotype.

[Ethnic differences between pre-trial suspected offenders]

BACKGROUND

Black and minority ethnic (BME) patients with a severe psychiatric disorder are compulsory admitted to psychiatric hospitals more often than Dutch native patients.

AIM

To describe ethnic differences with regard to (1) the prevalence of psychiatric disorders, (2) the degree to which 'suspects' are considered to be accountable for their actions and (3) recommended treatment for reported pre-trial suspects.

METHOD

14,540 pre-trial reports in the Netherlands between 2000 and 2006 with a known ethnicity were assessed. Dutch native, Western, Turkish, Moroccan, Surinamese, Antillean, and other non-Western defendants were compared with chi-square tests and logistic regression models.

RESULTS

Psychotic and behavioural disorders were more prevalent among bme suspects, whereas all other psychiatric disorders occurred less frequently in the BME group. Compared to Dutch native suspects, BME suspects were more often deemed to be fully accountable for their actions. Antillean, Moroccan, Surinamese, and other non-Western suspects were more often recommended for compulsory admission to a psychiatric hospital or received no treatment and much less out-patient treatment. There were no ethnic differences with regard to the frequency with which suspects were recommended for compulsory admission to a penitentiary hospital or with regard to medication.

CONCLUSION

Compared to Dutch native suspects, BME suspects are, on one hand, more often deemed accountable for their actions but, on the other hand, are more often recommended for compulsory admission to a psychiatric hospital.

[Pre-trial psychiatric reports on Antillean suspected offenders in the Netherlands and on the Dutch Antilles]

BACKGROUND

The registered criminality among Antilleans living in the Netherlands is much higher than among Antilleans living on the Dutch Antilles (113 offences and 11 offences respectively, per year per 1000 persons, p<0.001).

AIM

To compare the prevalence of psychiatric disturbances among Antillean suspected offenders in the Netherlands (n=989) and on the Dutch Antilles (n=199) between 2000 and 2006.

METHOD

A careful study was made of pre-trial psychiatric reports on Antillean suspected offenders (referred to as suspects) in the Netherlands and of comparable reports on Antillean suspects on the Dutch Antilles.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in the prevalence of mental disorders among Antillean suspects in the Netherlands (22.3%) and on the Dutch Antilles (20.3%). Abuse of drugs and cannabis was more prevalent on the Dutch Antilles where treatment for addiction is less frequently available than in the Netherlands. Mental retardation was ascertained more often among Antilleans in the Netherlands (22.4%) than among Antilleans on the Dutch Antilles (15.1%). Antillean suspects on the Dutch Antilles were more often found to be fully responsible for their actions than were Antillean suspects in the Netherlands (65.3% versus 19.1%, p<0.001) There was no significant difference in the frequency of ‘strongly diminished responsibility' and ‘a total lack of responsibility'.

CONCLUSION

On the basis of the pre-trail assessments there seems to be little difference in the prevalence of mental disorders in Antillean suspects in the Netherlands and on the Dutch Antilles.

[The cenesthesiopathies]

BACKGROUND

Up till a century ago the classic concepts of cenesthesis and cenesthesiopathy played a major role in the conceptualisation of aberrant somatosensory sensations and disturbances in the sensation of physical existence. Although these concepts are considered obsolete by a number of authors, the conceptual work of the German psychiatrist Gert Huber and the results of modern neuroimaging studies point to the need for a re-evaluation of the concepts cenesthesis and cenesthesiopathy.

METHOD

Background information was obtained from PubMed, Embase and the medical historical literature. By way of illustration, two cases are presented: the first is a female patient with a strongly diminished sense of physical existence (hypocenesthesiopathy) and the second is a male patient with such pronounced somatosensory sensations that he believed he was being transformed into a werewolf (hypercenesthesiopathy, clinical lycanthropy).

RESULTS

On the basis of the literature and the two case studies, it is shown that the concepts of cenesthesis and cenesthesiopathy may be helpful in the conceptualisation of disorders of the sensation of bodily existence brought about by aberrant somatosensory sensations.

CONCLUSION

In the cases of peculiar and unexplained physical symptoms, the cenesthesiopathies should be part of the differential diagnosis. Particularly if patients have longlasting, medication-resistant forms of cenesthesiopathy, it is strongly recommended that such patients undergo neuroimaging and are given an EEG so that treatable somatic conditions can either be demonstrated or ruled out.

The role of dopamine D3, 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor variants as pharmacogenetic determinants in tardive dyskinesia in African-Caribbean patients under chronic antipsychotic treatment: Curacao extrapyramidal syndromes study IX

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is associated with polymorphisms of the dopamine D(3), serotonin 2A and 2C receptors (DRD3, HTR2A and HTR2C, respectively). This study investigated the possible relationship between TD and the polymorphisms Ser9Gly (DRD3), 102T>C (HTR2A), -1438G>A(HTR2A) and Cys23Ser (HTR2C) in African-Caribbean inpatients. One hundred and twenty-six patients under chronic antipsychotic treatment were genotyped. The assessment of TD was carried out with the abnormal involuntary movement scale (AIMS). The relationships between the carriership of the least frequent alleles and the respective orofaciolingual dyskinesia (TDof) (sum of the items 1-4 of the AIMS), limb-truncal dyskinesia (TDlt) (sum of items 5-7 of the AIMS) and TD (sum of items 1-7 of the AIMS) were analyzed with ANCOVA, comparing means with age as a covariate and stratification for carriers and non-carriers of the mutations. In addition, we conducted pre-planned t-tests to compare AIMS values of carriers of the combinations of alleles versus the corresponding non-carriers. In the study population, females with 9Ser carriership exhibited higher AIMS values than non-carriers. Male subjects with 9Ser carriership in combination with 23Ser or -1438A carriership exhibited higher AIMS values. In male patients also, the combination of 23Ser and -1438A carriership increased TD. The study clearly shows that the African-Caribbean population differs from the Caucasian population with regard to the association of TD with the polymorphisms studied and suggests that the association of TD with the studied polymorphisms of the 5-HT(2C) and probably of the 5-HT(2A) receptor are the result of a changed susceptibility of the patients, independent of the action of the antipsychotics on these receptors.

Incidence and outcomes of bulimia nervosa: a nationwide population-based study

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the epidemiology of bulimia nervosa outside clinical settings. We report the incidence, prevalence and outcomes of bulimia nervosa using for the first time a nationwide study design.

METHOD

To assess the incidence and natural course and outcomes of DSM-IV bulimia nervosa among women from the general population, women (n=2881) from the 1975-79 birth cohorts of Finnish twins were screened for lifetime eating disorders using a two-stage procedure consisting of a questionnaire screen and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID). Clinical recovery was defined as 1-year abstinence from bingeing and purging combined with a body mass index (BMI) 19 kg/m2.

RESULTS

The lifetime prevalence of DSM-IV bulimia nervosa was 2.3%; 76% of the women suffered from its purging subtype and 24% from the non-purging subtype. The incidence rate of bulimia nervosa was 300/100000 person-years at the peak age of incidence, 16-20 years, and 150/100000 at 10-24 years. The 5-year clinical recovery rate was 55.0%. Less than a third of the cases had been detected by health-care professionals; detection did not influence outcome. After clinical recovery from bulimia nervosa, the mean levels of residual psychological symptoms gradually decreased over time but many women continued to experience significantly more body image problems and psychosomatic symptoms than never-ill women.

CONCLUSIONS

Few women with bulimia nervosa are recognized in health-care settings. Symptoms of bulimia are relatively long-standing, and recovery is gradual. Many clinically recovered women experience residual psychological symptoms after attaining abstinence from bingeing and purging.

Cannabis use and genetic predisposition for schizophrenia: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

Cannabis use may be a risk factor for schizophrenia. Part of this association may be explained by genotype-environment interaction, and part of it by genotype-environment correlation. The latter issue has not been explored. We investigated whether cannabis use is associated with schizophrenia, and whether gene-environment correlation contributes to this association, by examining the prevalence of cannabis use in groups with different levels of genetic predisposition for schizophrenia.

METHOD

Case-control study of first-episode schizophrenia. Cases included all non-Western immigrants who made first contact with a physician for schizophrenia in The Hague, The Netherlands, between October 2000 and July 2005 (n=100; highest genetic predisposition). Two matched control groups were recruited, one among siblings of the cases (n=63; intermediate genetic predisposition) and one among immigrants who made contact with non-psychiatric secondary health-care services (n=100; lowest genetic predisposition). Conditional logistic regression analyses were used to predict schizophrenia as a function of cannabis use, and cannabis use as a function of genetic predisposition for schizophrenia.

RESULTS

Cases had used cannabis significantly more often than their siblings and general hospital controls (59, 21 and 21% respectively). Cannabis use predicted schizophrenia [adjusted odds ratio (OR) cases compared to general hospital controls 7.8, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.7-22.6; adjusted OR cases compared to siblings 15.9 (95% CI 1.5-167.1)], but genetic predisposition for schizophrenia did not predict cannabis use [adjusted OR intermediate predisposition compared to lowest predisposition 1.2 (95% CI 0.4-3.8)].

CONCLUSIONS

Cannabis use was associated with schizophrenia but there was no evidence for genotype-environment correlation.

Leptin's effect on hyperactivity: potential downstream effector mechanisms

Up to 80% of patients with Anorexia Nervosa (AN) demonstrate hyperactivity. Hyperactivity counteracts weight gain during treatment and is associated with poor outcome of the disease. We hypothesized that hyperactivity in AN patients has a neurobiological basis and used an animal model-based translational approach to gain insight in mechanisms underlying this hyperactivity. Previously we and others showed that leptin treatment attenuates hyperactivity in the rat activity-based anorexia (ABA) model. The mechanisms involved in this process are, however, unknown. Here we describe potential downstream effector mechanisms involved in the attenuation of hyperactivity by leptin treatment in ABA rats.

[Thiamine deficiency caused by malnutrition: a rare cause?]

A 50-year-old man was admitted to our psychiatric clinic with symptoms of depression, comorbid neurological disturbances and cardiomyopathy. The condition was diagnosed as beriberi and Korsakov's syndrome, on the basis of thiamine deficiency. The patient's diet was unbalanced and restricted, but he was not an alcohol abuser. Thiamine suppletion led to a partial remission of symptoms. If a patient presents with depressive symptoms combined with neurological disturbances or heart irregularities, the Wernicke-Korsakov syndrome should be ruled out, even if the patient does not abuse alcohol. If in doubt, always opt for thiamine suppletion.

[Eating disorders; 25 years of research and treatment]

As a result of the publication of DSM-III(-R) bulimia nervosa was recognised as a separate eating disorder, distinct from anorexia nervosa. Eating disorders occur mainly in young females. The incidence of anorexia nervosa in Dutch females aged 15 to 19 doubled between the 1980s and the 1990s. Over the past 25 years there have been many improvements in the treatment of patients with eating disorders, but only a very few of them utilise the health care facilities that are now available.

Use of illicit substances in a psychosis incidence cohort: a comparison among different ethnic groups in the Netherlands

OBJECTIVE

Use of illicit substances has been suggested as an explanation for the increased incidence of psychosis among some immigrant groups. The aim of the present study is to compare the rates of illicit substance use among immigrants with a first psychosis with that among non-migrants.

METHOD

A population-based, first-contact incidence study in the Netherlands. Patients and key informants were interviewed about drug use in the preceding year.

RESULT

One hundred and eighty-one subjects were examined. Proportions of patients who misused any illicit substance were 23% for Dutch, 17% for Moroccans, 27% for Surinamese, 30% for Turkish subjects, and 33% for other immigrants. Logistic regression analysis, controlling for age and sex, showed that ethnicity did not significantly contribute to the prediction of substance misuse.

CONCLUSION

A higher rate of drug misuse is an unlikely explanation for the increased incidence of psychotic disorders among Moroccan and Surinamese immigrants to the Netherlands.

Incidence of psychotic disorders in immigrant groups to The Netherlands

BACKGROUND

Previous reports on the incidence of schizophrenia in immigrant groups to The Netherlands were based on hospital data.

AIMS

To compare the incidence of psychotic disorders in the immigrant groups to that in natives.

METHOD

Two-year first-contact incidence study in The Hague.

RESULTS

The risks of schizophrenia, schizophreniform or schizoaffective disorder (DSM-IV criteria) were increased for subjects born in Morocco (gender and age-adjusted relative risk=4.5; 95% Cl 1.4-8.5), Surinam (relative risk=3.2; 1.8-5.7), The Netherlands Antilles (relative risk=2.9; 0.9-9.5) and other non-Western countries (relative risk=2.4; 1.3-4.7). This risk was also increased for Moroccans (relative risk=8.0; 2.6-24.5) and Surinamese (relative risk=5.5; 2.5-11.9) of the second generation. The risks for Turkish immigrants, first or second generation, and for immigrants from Western countries were not significantly increased.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that the incidence of schizophrenia is increased in several, but not all, immigrant groups to The Netherlands. It is possible that factors associated with a process of rapid westernisation precipitate schizophrenia in people who are genetically at risk.

Borna disease virus and schizophrenia in Surinamese immigrants to the Netherlands

Borna disease virus (BDV) has been suggested to play a role in the etiology of schizophrenia. We tested the hypothesis that markers of BDV infection are more frequent in Surinamese immigrants to the Netherlands, diagnosed with schizophrenia, than in Dutch-born healthy subjects. For reasons that are poorly understood there is an increased incidence of schizophrenia in this immigrant group. Blood was obtained from 29 male schizophrenic patients (DSM-IV criteria) and from 26 healthy males. For detection of anti-BDV antibodies an indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) was performed. A nested, reverse-transcriptase-PCR, using primers specific for the p24 and p40 BDV genes, was used to determine BDV-RNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Contrary to our expectations, the frequencies of BDV markers in the group of healthy subjects, as determined by IFA and both PCRs, exceeded that in the group of patients. The results do not support an association between markers of BDV infection in blood and schizophrenia. It is unlikely that the high incidence of schizophrenia in Surinamese immigrants is caused by BDV, but the small number of subjects examined do not warrant definitive conclusions.

Prenatal exposure to famine and brain morphology in schizophrenia

OBJECTIVE

The authors assessed the effects of nutritional deficiency during the first trimester of pregnancy on brain morphology in patients with schizophrenia.

METHOD

Nine schizophrenic patients and nine healthy comparison subjects exposed during the first trimester of gestation to the Dutch Hunger Winter were evaluated with magnetic resonance brain imaging, as were nine schizophrenic patients and nine healthy subjects who were not prenatally exposed to the famine.

RESULTS

Prenatal famine exposure in patients with schizophrenia was associated with decreased intracranial volume. Prenatal Hunger Winter exposure alone was related to an increase in brain abnormalities, predominantly white matter hyperintensities.

CONCLUSIONS

Nutritional deficiency during the first trimester of gestation resulted in an increase in clinical brain abnormalities and was associated with aberrant early brain development in patients with schizophrenia. Stunted brain development secondary to factors that affect brain growth during the first trimester of gestation may thus be a potential risk factor for developing schizophrenia.

Further evidence of relation between prenatal famine and major affective disorder

OBJECTIVE

In a previous study, the authors demonstrated an association between prenatal famine in middle to late gestation and major affective disorders requiring hospitalization. In this study, they sought to examine the association by using newly identified cases from the Dutch birth cohort used previously to examine the gender specificity of the association and to assess whether this relation is present for both unipolar and bipolar affective disorders.

METHOD

The authors compared the risk of major affective disorder requiring hospitalization in birth cohorts who were and were not exposed, in each trimester of gestation, to famine during the Dutch Hunger Winter of 1944-1945. These cases of major affective disorder requiring hospitalization were newly ascertained from a national psychiatric registry. A larger data set from this registry was used for analysis by gender and diagnostic subtype.

RESULTS

For the newly ascertained cases, the risk of developing major affective disorder requiring hospitalization was increased for subjects with exposure to famine in the second trimester and was increased significantly for subjects with exposure in the third trimester, relative to unexposed subjects. For the cases from the entire period of ascertainment, the risk of developing affective disorder was significantly increased for those exposed to famine during the second and the third trimesters of gestation. The effects were demonstrated for men and women and for unipolar and bipolar affective disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide support for the authors' previous findings on the association between middle to late gestational famine and affective disorder.

Prenatal exposure to wartime famine and development of antisocial personality disorder in early adulthood

CONTEXT

Several observational epidemiological studies report an association of pregnancy and obstetric complications with development of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) in offspring. However, the precise nature and timing of the hypothesized biological insults are not known.

OBJECTIVE

To test whether severe maternal nutritional deficiency early in gestation is associated with risk for ASPD in offspring.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Retrospective cohort study. From October 1944 to May 1945, the German army blockaded food supplies to the Netherlands, subjecting the western Netherlands first to moderate (official food rations, 4200-6300 kJ/d) then to severe (<4200 kJ/d) nutritional deficiency. The north and south were subjected to moderate nutritional deficiency only.

PARTICIPANTS

Dutch men born in large urban areas in 1944-1946 who were given psychiatric examinations for military induction at age 18 years (N = 100543) were classified by the degree and timing of their prenatal exposure to nutritional deficiency based on their birthdate and birthplace.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Diagnosis of ASPD by psychiatric interview at time of medical examination for military induction, using the International Classification of Diseases, Sixth Revision (ICD-6).

RESULTS

Men exposed prenatally to severe maternal nutritional deficiency during the first and/or second trimesters of pregnancy exhibited increased risk for ASPD (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 2.5; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.5-4.2). Third-trimester exposure to severe nutritional deficiency and prenatal exposure to moderate nutritional deficiency were not associated with risk for ASPD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that severe nutritional insults to the developing brain in utero may be capable of increasing the risk for antisocial behaviors in offspring. The possible implications of these findings for both developed countries and developing countries, where severe nutritional deficiency is widespread and often exacerbated by war, natural disaster, and forced migration, warrant study.

Body size perception in anorexia nervosa: a signal detection approach

This study investigated whether individuals with anorexia nervosa (AN) visualize themselves as fatter than they are because they perceive themselves as fatter. Females with AN who overestimated their own body size judged size differences between pictures of their own body, and then again of someone else's body. Signal detection analysis of the results showed no differences in perceptual sensitivity between the AN and normal and thin control groups. No significant correlations were found between body size estimates and perceptual sensitivity. The anorexic group did, however, show a bias to report seeing "thin" differences, which was opposite to that of thin controls. Because bias differences between the groups were significant while sensitivity differences were not, it was concluded that abnormalities of body image most probably arise during reconstruction of the visual body image, rather than during perception of the body.

[Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: I. Diagnosis and treatment]

Disturbed eating behaviour and disturbed body experience are important features for the differential diagnosis of eating disorders from other disorders. Eating disorders occur mainly in young females. The one-year prevalence of anorexia nervosa is 0.4% and that of bulimia nervosa 1.5% among young females. To motivate patients for treatment it is important to discuss physical problems and the high risk of severe complications with them. It is difficult to motivate patients for treatment, because anorexia nervosa patients deny their illness and bulimia nervosa patients are ashamed and hide their disturbed eating behaviour. The treatment of anorexia nervosa consists of two partly overlapping phases: normalizing the eating pattern to improve weight restoration and psychotherapeutic treatment for underlying emotional problems. Family therapy is effective for patients younger than 18 years with a short duration of illness. Cognitive behaviour therapy is the most important form of treatment for bulimia nervosa.

The Dutch famine and schizophrenia spectrum disorders

In the Dutch Hunger Winter at the end of World War II a combination of circumstances created the conditions of a natural experiment. Unlike other famines, the Dutch famine struck at a precisely circumscribed time and place, and in a society able to document the timing and severity of the nutritional deprivation as well as the effects on fertility and health. Because the Dutch maintained comprehensive military and health records, it was possible to compare the incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders in adulthood for birth cohorts exposed versus those unexposed to prenatal famine. We have conducted several studies guided by the hypothesis that prenatal micronutrient deficiencies can cause neurodevelopmental schizophrenia or related personality disorders. In this paper we shall summarize our previous work and combine the outcome data of the different studies. Early prenatal famine was found to be specifically and robustly associated with each of three conditions: (1) congenital anomalies of the central nervous system, (2) schizophrenia, and (3) schizophrenia spectrum personality disorders. We found that the greatest increase in the risk of schizophrenia spectrum disorder- schizophrenia plus spectrum personality disorder- occurred among males born in the famine cities in December 1945 (relative risk = 2.7; 95% confidence interval = 1.5-5.1). Persons born in December 1945 were generally conceived at the absolute peak of the famine (March-April 1945). In the hope that the associations we have found may offer clues to the aetiology of schizophrenia, we are currently tracing and examining the cases of schizophrenia after prenatal exposure to famine.

The Dutch famine and schizophrenia spectrum disorders

In the Dutch Hunger Winter at the end of World War II a combination of circumstances created the conditions of a natural experiment. Unlike other famines, the Dutch famine struck at a precisely circumscribed time and place, and in a society able to document the timing and severity of the nutritional deprivation as well as the effects on fertility and health. Because the Dutch maintained comprehensive military and health records, it was possible to compare the incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders in adulthood for birth cohorts exposed versus those unexposed to prenatal famine. We have conducted several studies guided by the hypothesis that prenatal micronutrient deficiencies can cause neurodevelopmental schizophrenia or related personality disorders. In this paper we shall summarize our previous work and combine the outcome data of the different studies. Early prenatal famine was found to be specifically and robustly associated with each of three conditions: (1) congenital anomalies of the central nervous system, (2) schizophrenia, and (3) schizophrenia spectrum personality disorders. We found that the greatest increase in the risk of schizophrenia spectrum disorder- schizophrenia plus spectrum personality disorder- occurred among males born in the famine cities in December 1945 (relative risk = 2.7; 95% confidence interval = 1.5-5.1). Persons born in December 1945 were generally conceived at the absolute peak of the famine (March-April 1945). In the hope that the associations we have found may offer clues to the aetiology of schizophrenia, we are currently tracing and examining the cases of schizophrenia after prenatal exposure to famine.

[For how long should antipsychotic medication be continued after the first psychotic episode in schizophrenics?]

Four patients, two women aged 24 and 62 years and two men aged 25 and 24, respectively, were admitted because of psychosis. A Dutch consensus paper advises treating patients with a first episode of schizophrenia or schizophreniform disorder with neuroleptics for two years as secondary prophylaxis. However, this advice should be tailored to the individual patient's characteristics. Thus, the first patient was given prophylactic medication for five years because she had many schizophrenic symptoms and a positive family history. In the second patient, the diagnosis was much less certain and, because of her advanced age, the risk of developing tardive dyskinesia was considerable. Prophylaxis was given for three months only. The third patient used drugs and did not really want to be treated. In the fourth patient the affective symptoms could not be interpreted for certain as part of a basic schizophrenic defect. In addition, he would be seriously handicapped professionally if he developed tardive dyskinesia. In his case, two years of secondary prophylaxis was advised.

Intermittent neuroleptic treatment and risk for tardive dyskinesia: Curaçao Extrapyramidal Syndromes Study III

OBJECTIVE

The authors examined the association between three lifetime medication variables (cumulative amount of neuroleptics, number of interruptions in neuroleptic treatment, cumulative amount of anticholinergics) and the occurrence and severity of tardive dyskinesia.

METHOD

The study was conducted in the only psychiatric hospital of a well-defined catchment area (the Netherlands Antilles). For all patients who had a history of taking neuroleptics for at least 3 months and were currently using neuroleptics (N = 133, mean age = 51.5 years), the presence and severity of tardive dyskinesia were measured with the Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale.

RESULTS

Of the three lifetime medication variables, only the number of neuroleptic interruptions was significantly related to tardive dyskinesia. The risk of tardive dyskinesia was three times as great for patients with more than two neuroleptic interruptions as for patients with two or fewer interruptions.

CONCLUSIONS

This finding supports the schizophrenia protocol of long-term neuroleptic treatment rather than targeted or intermittent neuroleptic treatment.

Cocaine as a risk factor for neuroleptic-induced acute dystonia

BACKGROUND

A prospective study was conducted to test the hypothesis that cocaine use is a risk factor for neuroleptic-induced acute dystonia (NIAD).

METHOD

The study sample consisted of a high-risk group for NIAD, males aged 17-45 years who had received high-potency neuroleptics within 24 hours of admission and had not used neuroleptics in the month prior to admission. Patients were excluded if they suffered from a neurodegenerative disorder or were exposed to anticholinergics, benzodiazepines, promethazine, carbamazepine, phenytoin, or levodopa during the study. Twenty-nine patients--9 cocaine users and 20 nonusers--entered the study, which lasted 2 years. Patients were followed for 7 days.

RESULTS

Cocaine-using psychiatric patients developed significantly more NIAD than did nonusers (relative risk = 4.4, 95% CI = 1.4 to 13.9).

CONCLUSION

Cocaine use is a major risk factor for NIAD and should be added to the list of well-known risk factors. The authors strongly suggest that cocaine-using psychiatric patients who are started on a regimen of neuroleptics should also be administered an anticholinergic for at least 7 days to prevent NIAD.

The inter-relationships of tardive dyskinesia, parkinsonism, akathisia and tardive dystonia: the Curaçao Extrapyramidal Syndromes Study II

A study of the four extrapyramidal syndromes (EPS), tardive dyskinesia, parkinsonism, akathisia and tardive dystonia, was performed in the Netherlands Antilles, a well-defined catchment area with only one psychiatric hospital. The population under study (N = 194; mean age 53.1) was mainly Afro-Caribbean, and most patients were chronic. The severity of each EPS was measured with valid and reliable rating scales. The purpose was to study both the strength of the inter-relationships of EPS and the prevalence of combinations of EPS. The inter-relationships between the EPS were analyzed by means of logistic regression. The adjusted odds ratios between the various EPS revealed strong connections between the hyperkinetic syndromes (tardive dyskinesia, tardive dystonia and akathisia). Parkinsonism was found to be inversely related to tardive dyskinesia and to tardive dystonia. Almost 30% of the patients suffered from two or more EPS. The highest prevalence rates of combinations were: tardive dyskinesia combined with parkinsonism 12.9%, tardive dyskinesia combined with tardive dystonia 9.8%, and tardive dyskinesia combined with akathisia 5.2%. Our findings show a strong positive correlation between hyperkinetic forms of EPS. Furthermore, chronic psychiatric inpatients regularly suffer from combinations of EPS. Different treatment strategies are suggested for various combinations of EPS.

Schizoid personality disorder after prenatal exposure to famine

OBJECTIVE

The authors tested whether early prenatal exposure to famine was associated with schizophrenia spectrum personality disorder in addition to being associated with schizophrenia per se as shown in a previous study.

METHOD

The risk of schizoid personality disorder, as defined by ICD-6 to ICD-9, in men at age 18 years was compared in birth cohorts that were conceived at the height of the Dutch Hunger Winter famine and in unexposed birth cohorts of 1944-1946 in the famine region of Holland.

RESULTS

The exposed cohort had a significantly greater risk (relative risk = 2.01) of schizoid personality disorder.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal nutritional deficiency was associated with a greater risk of schizoid personality disorder in men at age 18 years.

The prevalence of tardive dystonia, tardive dyskinesia, parkinsonism and akathisia The Curaçao Extrapyramidal Syndromes Study: I

A prevalence study of extrapyramidal syndromes was conducted among all psychiatric inpatients of the Netherlands Antilles (n = 194; mean age 53.1). The Netherlands Antilles are very suitable for epidemiological research as it is a well-defined catchment area with only one psychiatric hospital and a health care system based on western principles. In this mainly chronic population, the prevalence was measured of tardive dystonia, tardive dyskinesia, parkinsonism and akathisia using respectively the Fahn-Marsden rating scale, the Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale, the Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale and the Barnes Akathisia Rating Scale. The prevalence numbers were for tardive dystonia 13.4%, tardive dyskinesia 39.7%, parkinsonism 36.1%, akathisia 9.3% and pseudoakathisia 12.9%. The most important conclusions were: (1) The prevalence of tardive dystonia was higher than reported in most other studies and (2) extrapyramidal syndromes are very common in this predominantly Negroid population, with three out of four patients suffering of one or more extrapyramidal syndromes.