Positional and temporal regulation of lipogenic gene expression in mouse liver

We have examined the dynamics of positional gene expression in mouse liver using the carbohydrate induction of lipogenic genes as a model. Using a protocol of fasting and refeeding a high-carbohydrate, no-fat diet to obtain maximal induction, we investigated the temporal expression and localization of malic enzyme (ME) and fatty acid synthase (FAS). In situ hybridization showed that both ME and FAS were expressed at low basal levels in all hepatocytes in livers of mice fed a control diet. Furthermore, dietary induction of ME and FAS mRNA occurred in periportal cells within 6 hours. After 12 hours, the portal cells were maximal; and after 24-36 hours, all cells showed high levels of message. This was coincident with expression of ME and FAS mRNAs, which appeared to be maximal between 24 and 36 hours. Both steady-state mRNA levels and pericentral localization then declined, until only periportal hepatocytes showed strong expression of ME and FAS. Nuclear transcription rates measured by run-on assay demonstrated that maximal transcription rates preceded maximum mRNA levels by peaking at 12 hours. Furthermore, run-on assays showed that the periportal induction by carbohydrates is primarily a transcriptional response for FAS, and both transcriptional and posttranscriptional for ME. These results indicate that lipogenic gene expression is a temporal response induced by carbohydrate feeding and is regulated by both positional and transcriptional mechanisms.

Transcriptional factor HBP1 targets P16(INK4A), upregulating its expression and consequently is involved in Ras-induced premature senescence

Oncogene-mediated premature senescence has emerged as a potential tumor-suppressive mechanism in early cancer transitions. Many studies showed that Ras and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) participate in premature senescence. Our previous work indicated that the HMG box-containing protein 1 (HBP1) transcription factor is involved in Ras- and p38 MAPK-induced premature senescence, but the mechanism of which has not yet been identified. Here, we showed that the p16(INK4A) cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor is a novel target of HBP1 participating in Ras-induced premature senescence. The promoter of the p16(INK4A) gene contains an HBP1-binding site at position -426 to -433 bp from the transcriptional start site. HBP1 regulates the expression of the endogenous p16(INK4A) gene through direct sequence-specific binding. With HBP1 expression and the subsequent increase of p16(INK4A) gene expression, Ras induces premature senescence in primary cells. The data suggest a model in which Ras and p38 MAPK signaling engage HBP1 and p16(INK4A) to trigger premature senescence. In addition, we report that HBP1 knockdown is also required for Ras-induced transformation. All the data indicate that the mechanism of HBP1-mediated transcriptional regulation is important for not only premature senescence but also tumorigenesis.

Regulation of PDGF production and ERK activation by estrogen is associated with TSC2 gene expression

Mechanisms that regulate the growth response to estrogen (17beta-estradiol, E2) are poorly understood. Recently, loss of function of the tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (TSC2) gene has been associated with E2-related conditions that are characterized by benign cellular proliferation. We examined the growth response to E2 in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) that possess wild-type TSC2 and compared them with ELT-3 smooth muscle cells that do not express TSC2. In TSC2-expressing VSMCs, growth inhibition in response to E2 was associated with downregulation of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), PDGF receptor (PDGFR), and limited activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). In contrast, the growth-promoting effect of E2 in TSC2-null ELT-3 cells was associated with induction of PDGF, robust phosphorylation of PDGFR, and sustained activation of ERK. Furthermore, in ELT-3 cells, cellular growth and ERK activation by E2 were inhibited by the PDGFR inhibitor tyrphostin AG 17 and by PDGF-neutralizing antibody. These results demonstrate that autocrine production of PDGF and augmentation of the ERK pathway leads to estrogen-induced cellular proliferation in TSC2-null cells, a pathway that was downregulated in cells that express TSC2. Understanding the mechanisms that regulate the diverse responses to the steroid hormone estrogen could lead to novel approaches to the treatment of estrogen-related diseases that are characterized by aberrant cell proliferation.

HMG box transcriptional repressor HBP1 maintains a proliferation barrier in differentiated liver tissue

We previously isolated HBP1 as a target of the retinoblastoma (RB) and p130 family members and as the first of the HMG box transcriptional repressors. Our subsequent work demonstrated that HBP1 coordinates differentiation in cell culture models. In the present study, we show that HBP1 regulates proliferation in a differentiated tissue of an animal. Using transgenic mice in which HBP1 expression was specifically increased in hepatocytes under control of the transthyretin promoter, we determined the impact of HBP1 on synchronous cell cycle reentry following partial hepatectomy. Modest overexpression of HBP1 yielded a detectable cell cycle phenotype. Following a mitogenic stimulus induced by two-thirds partial hepatectomy, mice expressing the HBP1 transgene showed a 10- to 12-h delay in progression through G(1) to the peak of S phase. There was a concomitant delay in mid-G(1) events, such as the induction of cyclin E. While the delay in G(1) and S phases correlated with the slight overexpression of transgenic HBP1, the level of the endogenous HBP1 protein itself declined in S phase. In contrast, the onset of the immediate-early response following partial hepatectomy was unchanged in HBP1 transgenic mice. This observation indicated that the observed delay in S phase did not result from changes in signaling pathways leading into the G(0)-to-G(1) transition. Finally, transgenic mice expressing a mutant HBP1 lacking the N-terminal RB interacting domain showed a stronger S-phase response following partial hepatectomy. These results provide the first evidence that HBP1 can regulate cell cycle progression in differentiated tissues.

Role of membrane lipids in regulation of vulnerability to oxidative stress in PC12 cells: implication for aging

Previously, we reported that PC12 cells showed increased vulnerability to oxidative stress (OS) induced by H2O2 (as assessed by decrements in calcium recovery, i.e., the ability of cells to buffer Ca(2+) after a depolarization event) when the membrane levels of cholesterol (CHL) and sphingomyelin (SPH) were modified to approximate those seen in the neuronal membranes of old animals. The present study was designed to examine whether the enrichment of the membranes with SPH-CHL and increased cellular vulnerability to OS are mediated by neutral SPH-specific phospholipase C (N-Sase) and the intracellular antioxidant GSH. The results showed a significant up-regulation of N-Sase activity by both low (5 microM) and high (300 microM) doses of H2O2. However, under high doses of H2O2 the up-regulation of N-Sase is accompanied by a significant increase in reactive oxygen species and by a decrease in intracellular GSH. The enrichment of membranes with SPH-CHL significantly potentiated the effects of high doses of H2O2, by further reducing the intracellular GSH and further up-regulating the N-Sase activity. Furthermore, repleting intracellular GSH with 20 mM N-acetylcysteine treatment was sufficient to attenuate the effect of a low dose of H2O2 on Ca(2+) recovery in SPH-CHL-treated cells. Thus, these results suggested that age-related alterations in the membrane SPH-CHL levels could be important determinants of the susceptibility of neuronal cells to OS.

Transforming growth factor-beta 1-induced activation of the ERK pathway/activator protein-1 in human lung fibroblasts requires the autocrine induction of basic fibroblast growth factor

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) is involved in multiple processes including cell growth and differentiation. In particular, TGF-beta has been implicated in the pathogenesis of fibrotic lung diseases. In this study, we examined regulation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway by TGF-beta1 in primary human lung fibroblasts. TGF-beta1 treatment resulted in extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway activation in a delayed manner, with maximal activity at 16 h. ERK activation occurred concomitantly with the induction of activator protein-1 (AP-1) binding, a nuclear factor required for activation of multiple genes involved in fibrosis. AP-1 binding was dependent on ERK activation, since the MEK-1 (mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase) inhibitor PD98059 inhibited TGF-beta1-induced binding. Induction of the receptor tyrosine kinase-linked growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) protein expression temporally paralleled the activation of ERK/AP-1. Induction of AP-1 by TGF-beta1-conditioned medium was observed at 2 h, similar to AP-1 induction in response to exogenous bFGF. Dependence of ERK/AP-1 activation on bFGF induction was demonstrated by inhibition of TGF-beta1-induced ERK/AP-1 activation when conditioned medium from TGF-beta1-treated cells was incubated with bFGF-neutralizing antibody. Together, these results demonstrate that TGF-beta1 regulates the autocrine induction of bFGF, resulting in activation of the ERK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and induction of AP-1 binding.

Age-dependent decline in mitogenic stimulation of hepatocytes. Reduced association between Shc and the epidermal growth factor receptor is coupled to decreased activation of Raf and extracellular signal-regulated kinases

The proliferative potential of the liver has been well documented to decline with age. However, the molecular mechanism of this phenomenon is not well understood. Cellular proliferation is the result of growth factor-receptor binding and activation of cellular signaling pathways to regulate specific gene transcription. To determine the mechanism of the age-related difference in proliferation, we evaluated extracellular signal-regulated kinase-mitogen-activated protein kinase activation and events upstream in the signaling pathway in epidermal growth factor (EGF)-stimulated hepatocytes isolated from young and old rats. We confirm the age-associated decrease in extracellular signal-regulated kinase-mitogen-activated protein kinase activation in response to EGF that has been previously reported. We also find that the activity of the upstream kinase, Raf kinase, is decreased in hepatocytes from old compared with young rats. An early age-related difference in the EGF-stimulated pathway is shown to be the decreased ability of the adapter protein, Shc, to associate with the EGF receptor through the Shc phosphotyrosine binding domain. To address the mechanism of decreased Shc/EGF receptor interaction, we examined the phosphorylation of the EGF receptor at tyrosine 1173, a site recognized by the Shc phosphotyrosine binding domain. Tyrosine 1173 of the EGF receptor is underphosphorylated in the hepatocytes from old animals compared with young in a Western blot analysis using a phosphospecific antibody that recognizes phosphotyrosine 1173 of the EGF receptor. These data suggest that a molecular mechanism underlying the age-associated decrease in hepatocyte proliferation involves an age-dependent regulation of site-specific tyrosine residue phosphorylation on the EGF receptor.

Age-associated increase in PGE2 synthesis and COX activity in murine macrophages is reversed by vitamin E

We previously showed that increased macrophage and PGE2 production with age is due to enhanced cyclooxygenase (COX) activity and COX-2 expression. This study determined the effect of vitamin E supplementation on macrophage PGE2 synthesis in young and old mice and its underlying mechanism. Mice were fed 30 or 500 parts per million vitamin E for 30 days. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages from old mice produced significantly more PGE2 than those from young mice. Vitamin E supplementation reversed the increased PGE2 production in old mice but had no effect on macrophage PGE2 production in young mice. In both LPS-stimulated and unstimulated macrophages, COX activity was significantly higher in old than in young mice at all intervals. Vitamin E supplementation completely reversed the increased COX activity in old mice to levels comparable to those of young mice but had no effect on macrophage COX activity of young mice or on COX-1 and COX-2 protein or COX-2 mRNA expression in young or old mice. Thus vitamin E reverses the age-associated increase in macrophage PGE2 production and COX activity. Vitamin E exerts its effect posttranslationally, by inhibiting COX activity.

Reactive oxygen species and antioxidants in signal transduction and gene expression

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced by cellular metabolic reactions, and have been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including atherosclerosis, cancer, and Alzheimer's disease. Interestingly, clinical and epidemiologic studies have, in some cases, indicated that antioxidant nutrients may be effective in disease prevention. However, the efficacy of specific antioxidants in disease prevention is often both controversial and inconclusive. In an effort to elucidate the role of ROS and antioxidants in disease development and prevention, the chemistries of ROS and antioxidants have been examined extensively. Recently, molecular and cellular approaches have demonstrated that ROS and antioxidants can directly affect the cellular signaling apparatus and, consequently, the control of gene expression. This new research provides the link between ROS and antioxidant chemistries and the mechanisms of disease processes and prevention. This review illustrates how ROS function as potential intracellular and extracellular signaling molecules and how antioxidants can affect this process.

Enhanced expression of inducible cyclooxygenase with age in murine macrophages

Macrophages (Mphi) from old mice produce more PGE2 than those from young mice, contributing to the dysregulation of the immune and inflammatory responses with age. This study was conducted to determine the mechanisms of the age-associated increase in Mphi PGE2 production. PGE2 production is influenced by the availability of the substrate arachidonic acid and by activity of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (Cox). We demonstrate that when the substrate is not the limiting factor, Mphi from old mice have significantly higher LPS-stimulated Cox activity than young mice, indicating that the age-associated increase in PGE2 production is due to increased enzyme activity and not to changes in substrate level. Cox activity is determined by the enzyme level and requires hydroperoxide for activation. Of the two Cox isoforms, Cox 1 is constitutively expressed in nearly all cells; whereas Cox 2 is induced by a wide range of ligands. Analysis of accumulated and de novo synthesis of constitutive Cox 1 and inducible Cox 2 proteins showed no age-related difference in Cox 1 protein levels, but Mphi from old mice had higher accumulated and newly synthesized LPS-stimulated Cox 2 protein levels than young mice. Furthermore, Mphi from old mice had higher LPS-stimulated levels of Cox 2 mRNA compared with those from young mice. Clearly, the age-associated increase in LPS-stimulated PGE2 production is due to increased Cox activity resulting from higher Cox 2 protein and mRNA expression. These findings have significant implications for age-associated immune and inflammatory dysregulation as well as the development of preventive and therapeutic strategies against them.

Enhanced expression of inducible cyclooxygenase with age in murine macrophages

Macrophages (Mphi) from old mice produce more PGE2 than those from young mice, contributing to the dysregulation of the immune and inflammatory responses with age. This study was conducted to determine the mechanisms of the age-associated increase in Mphi PGE2 production. PGE2 production is influenced by the availability of the substrate arachidonic acid and by activity of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (Cox). We demonstrate that when the substrate is not the limiting factor, Mphi from old mice have significantly higher LPS-stimulated Cox activity than young mice, indicating that the age-associated increase in PGE2 production is due to increased enzyme activity and not to changes in substrate level. Cox activity is determined by the enzyme level and requires hydroperoxide for activation. Of the two Cox isoforms, Cox 1 is constitutively expressed in nearly all cells; whereas Cox 2 is induced by a wide range of ligands. Analysis of accumulated and de novo synthesis of constitutive Cox 1 and inducible Cox 2 proteins showed no age-related difference in Cox 1 protein levels, but Mphi from old mice had higher accumulated and newly synthesized LPS-stimulated Cox 2 protein levels than young mice. Furthermore, Mphi from old mice had higher LPS-stimulated levels of Cox 2 mRNA compared with those from young mice. Clearly, the age-associated increase in LPS-stimulated PGE2 production is due to increased Cox activity resulting from higher Cox 2 protein and mRNA expression. These findings have significant implications for age-associated immune and inflammatory dysregulation as well as the development of preventive and therapeutic strategies against them.

HBP1: a HMG box transcriptional repressor that is targeted by the retinoblastoma family

A prominent feature of cell differentiation is the initiation and maintenance of an irreversible cell cycle arrest with the complex involvement of the retinoblastoma (RB) family (RB, p130, p107). We have isolated the HBP1 transcriptional repressor as a potential target of the RB family in differentiated cells. By homology, HBP1 is a sequence-specific HMG transcription factor, of which LEF-1 is the best-characterized family member. Several features of HBP1 suggest an intriguing role as a transcriptional and cell cycle regulator in differentiated cells. First, inspection of the HBP1 protein sequence revealed two consensus RB interaction motifs (LXCXE and IXCXE). Second, HBP1 interaction was selective for RB and p130, but not p107. HBP1, RB, and p130 levels are all up-regulated with differentiation; in contrast, p107 levels decline. Third, HBP1 can function as a transcriptional repressor of the promoter for N-MYC, which is a critical cell cycle and developmental gene. Fourth, because the activation of the N-MYC promoter in cycling cells required the E2F transcription factor, we show that E2F-1 and HBP1 represent opposite transcriptional signals that can be integrated within the N-MYC promoter. Fifth, the expression of HBP1 lead to efficient cell cycle arrest. The arrest phenotype was manifested in the presence of optimal proliferation signals, suggesting that HBP1 exerted a dominant regulatory role. Taken together, the results suggest that HBP1 may represent a unique transcriptional repressor with a role in initiation and establishment of cell cycle arrest during differentiation.

Independent regulation of JNK/p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases by metabolic oxidative stress in the liver

The stress-activated protein kinases JNK and p38 mediate increased gene expression and are activated by environmental stresses and proinflammatory cytokines. Using an in vivo model in which oxidative stress is generated in the liver by intracellular metabolism, rapid protein-DNA complex formation on stress-activated AP-1 target genes was observed. Analysis of the induced binding complexes indicates that c-fos, c-jun, and ATF-2 were present, but also two additional jun family members, JunB and JunD. Activation of JNK precedes increased AP-1 DNA binding. Furthermore, JunB was shown to be a substrate for JNK, and phosphorylation requires the N-terminal activation domain. Unexpectedly, p38 activity was found to be constitutively active in the liver and was down-regulated through selective dephosphorylation following oxidative stress. One potential mechanism for p38 dephosphorylation is the rapid stress-induced activation of the phosphatase MKP-1, which has high affinity for phosphorylated p38 as a substrate. These data demonstrate that there are mechanisms for independent regulation of the JNK and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction pathways after metabolic oxidative stress in the liver.

Expression of the E2F-1/DP-1 transcription factor in murine development

Because of its critical role in the control of cell proliferation and differentiation, we postulated that E2F-1 could have a role in murine development. To this end, the organ and developmental expression of the E2F-1 transcription factor was analyzed from mid-gestation to late-stage embryogenesis. We demonstrate that the mRNA levels for E2F-1 and its heterodimeric partner DP-1 reach maximal levels in the late embryonic and early postnatal period but decline in the later postnatal and adult periods. Additionally, using high resolution in situ hybridization, high expression of E2F-1 was observed in specific cells of individual tissues, suggesting that the role of E2F-1 may be more complex than previously indicated from cell culture studies. Furthermore, the unusual pattern of E2F-1 and DP-1 developmental expression may have an essential role in certain cells and tissues in the late embryonic and early postnatal period.

Members of the HNF-3/forkhead family of transcription factors exhibit distinct cellular expression patterns in lung and regulate the surfactant protein B promoter

The hepatocyte nuclear factor-3 (HNF-3)/forkhead (fkh) proteins consist of an extensive family of tissue-specific and developmental gene regulators which share homology within the winged helix DNA binding motif. We report on the isolation of a new family member, HNF-3/forkhead homolog 8 (HFH-8), from lung cDNA libraries and the derivation of the complete amino acid sequences for the HFH-8 protein as well as previously identified HFH-1 and HFH-4 proteins. The HFH proteins contain several sequence motifs found in activation domains of other transcription factors and HNF-3/fkh family members. In situ hybridization with the HNF-3, HFH-4, and HFH-8 probes in adult lung demonstrate that the HNF-3/fkh cellular expression patterns are regionally specified. Whereas HNF-3 alpha and HNF-3 beta are normally coexpressed in the hepatocyte, their expression patterns in the lung are different. The HNF-3 alpha and HFH-4 genes are coexpressed in the bronchiolar epithelium (clara cells), whereas the HNF-3 beta probe exhibits prominent hybridization with the smooth muscle surrounding arterioles and bronchioles. In contrast, HFH-8 probes labeled the type II pneumocyte cells lining the respiratory surfaces of terminal bronchioles and alveolar sac. We have identified an HNF-3 consensus DNA binding sequence in the proximal surfactant protein B (SPB) promoter region (SPB-f2, -78 to -88). SPB gene transcription is restricted to bronchiolar and alveolar epithelium which colocalizes with the expression pattern of the HNF-3 alpha and HFH-8 genes, respectively. We show that the SPB-f2 sequence is recognized by both HNF-3 alpha and HFH-8 proteins and that these cDNA expression vectors activate the SPB promoter in cotransfection assays through the HNF-3 consensus sequence. Our results suggest that SPB promoter activity is regulated by HNF-3 alpha and HFH-8 proteins in a cell type-specific manner.

Dioxin receptor and C/EBP regulate the function of the glutathione S-transferase Ya gene xenobiotic response element

The rat glutathione S-transferase Ya gene xenobiotic response element (XRE) has both constitutive and xenobiotic-inducible activity. We present evidence that the XRE is regulated by both the constitutive C/EBP transcription factor and the xenobiotic-activated dioxin receptor. A ligand-activated XRE-binding protein was shown to be dioxin receptor by specific antibody immunodepletion and binding of highly purified receptor. Identification of C/EBP alpha as the constitutive binding protein was demonstrated by competition with a C/EBP binding site, protein-DNA cross-linking to determine the molecular weight of the constitutive protein(s), specific antibody immunodepletion, and binding of purified bacterially expressed C/EBP alpha. Mutational analysis of the XRE revealed that the constitutive factor (C/EBP alpha) shares a nearly identical overlapping binding site with the dioxin receptor. In functional testing of the putative C/EBP-XRE interaction, cotransfected C/EBP alpha activated an XRE test promoter in the non-xenobiotic-responsive HeLa cell line. Unexpectedly, cotransfected C/EBP alpha had no effect on basal activity but significantly increased the xenobiotic response of the XRE test promoter in the xenobiotic-responsive, C/EBP-positive HepG2 cell line. Furthermore, inhibition of C/EBP-binding protein(s) in HepG2 cells by transfection of C/EBP oligonucleotides suppressed the xenobiotic response. These results suggest that C/EBP alpha and dioxin receptor recognize the same DNA sequence element and that transcriptional regulation can occur by cooperative interactions between these two transcription factors.

Regulation of glutathione S-transferase Ya subunit gene expression: identification of a unique xenobiotic-responsive element controlling inducible expression by planar aromatic compounds

We have identified a region in the 5' flanking sequence of the glutathione S-transferase (RX:glutathione R-transferase, EC 2.5.1.18) Ya subunit gene that contains a unique xenobiotic-responsive element (XRE). The regulatory region spans nucleotides -722 to -682 of the 5' flanking sequence and is responsible for part of the basal level as well as inducible expression of the Ya subunit gene by planar aromatic compounds such as beta-naphthoflavone (beta-NF) and 3-methyl-cholanthrene. The DNA sequence of this region (beta-NF-responsive element) is distinct from the DNA sequence of the XRE found in the cytochrome P-450 IA1 gene. In addition to the region containing the beta-NF-responsive element, two other regulatory regions of the Ya subunit gene have been identified. One region spans nucleotides -867 to -857 and has a DNA sequence with identity to the hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 recognition motif found in several liver-specific genes. The second region spans nucleotides -908 to -899 and contains a DNA sequence with identity to the XRE found in the cytochrome P-450 IA1 gene. The XRE sequence also contributes to part of the responsiveness of the Ya subunit gene to planar aromatic compounds. Our data suggest that regulation of gene expression by planar aromatic compounds can be mediated by a DNA sequence that is distinct from the XRE sequence.

Analysis of the upstream elements of the xenobiotic compound-inducible and positionally regulated glutathione S-transferase Ya gene

In situ hybridization and other data showed that all hepatocytes express glutathione-S-transferase (GST) Ya mRNA but that specifically pericentral cells can be induced 15- to 20-fold with 3-methylcholanthrene (3-MC). In order to identify DNA sequences involved in inducible expression (pericentral hepatocytes) and constitutive expression (all hepatocytes), the upstream regions of the GST Ya gene were further analyzed by transient transfection and DNA-binding studies to identify the nature of proteins involved in regulating this gene. The sequences from -980 to -650 were necessary and sufficient for cell-specific and inducible expression. Within this enhancer region, four nuclear protein-binding sites were identified. One site required for inducible expression was bound by a protein(s) induced by 3-MC. Two other sites were bound by proteins similar or identical to the constitutive hepatocyte nuclear factors HNF1 and HNF4. The fourth site was shown to be bound by a non-liver-specific nuclear protein that is also important in the function of the albumin gene enhancer.

Xenobiotic regulation of glutathione S-transferase Ya gene expression

The gene for the rat GST Ya subunit has been examined in detail as a model for understanding the molecular mechanisms of inducibility by xenobiotics and their tissue-specific regulation. The focus of this article is to describe our current understanding of these mechanisms. The discussion will begin with the classification of the types of inducing agents. These pioneering studies suggested that there were multiple mechanisms for the inducibility of GSTs. In fact, the analysis of GST Ya gene expression has identified two different upstream activating elements and putative protein factors through which different classes of inducers act. Finally, the position-specific and tissue-specific regulation of the GST Ya gene will be discussed.

Novel tyrosine kinase identified by phosphotyrosine antibody screening of cDNA libraries

In an attempt to clone protein tyrosine kinases, antiphosphotyrosine antibodies were used to screen lambda gt11 cDNA expression libraries. By this method, a 2.5-kilobase cDNA encoding a novel tyrosine kinase was isolated from a mouse liver cDNA library. This new gene is most closely related to the receptor tyrosine kinases ret, fms, and kit.

Positional and developmental regulation of glutamine synthetase expression in mouse liver

In situ hybridization showed that all fetal hepatocytes contain glutamine synthetase (GS) mRNA but that in adult mouse liver, only a single cell layer surrounding the central veins contains GS mRNA. A shift from the fetal to the adult pattern begins within a few days of birth and is complete within 12 days of birth. Since the total GS mRNA and the transcription rate of the single GS gene are similar at birth and in adults, we conclude that there is a generalized reduction in GS transcription for most hepatocytes and a sharp rise in GS transcription for the immediate pericentral cells. This may be a case of positional regulation of specific gene transcription in apparently a single cell lineage.

Acquisition of antigens characteristic of adult pericentral hepatocytes by differentiating fetal hepatoblasts in vitro

Antigens specific to pericentral hepatocytes have been studied in adult mouse liver, during fetal development, and in cultured fetal hepatoblasts. Antibody reactive with glutamine synthetase stained all fetal liver cells but almost all cells lost this antigen after birth; only a single layer of pericentral cells retained it in adulthood. In contrast, monoclonal antibodies to major urinary protein (MUP) did not detect the antigen until approximately 3 wk after birth, after which time the cells within 6-10 cell diameters of the central veins were positive. Cultured fetal liver cells from embryos at 13 +/- 1 d of gestation were capable of differentiating in vitro to mimic events that would occur had the cells remained in the animal. About 10-20% of the explanted cells grew into clusters of hepatocyte-like cells, all of which stained with albumin antibodies. MUP monoclonals were reactive with one-half of the differentiated fetal hepatocytes. Glutamine synthetase was present in all hepatocytes after several days in culture and gradually decreased and remained in only occasional cells, all of which also contained the MUP antigen. These findings suggest that a sequence of gene controls characterizes expression of specific genes in developing liver, and that differentiating fetal hepatoblasts are capable of undergoing similar patterns of gene activity in culture.

Transcription of a human transposon-like sequence is usually directed by other promoters

The transcriptional activity of a human transposon-like family of repeats, called the THE-1 family, has been studied in cell culture and in human tissue. Both strands of THE-1 are present in several discrete length poly A plus RNAs. Primer extension studies and the structures of cDNA clones show that these THE-1 transcripts are usually the product of other transcription units. The THE-1 LTR provides the polyadenylation processing site for two transcripts, which result from upstream non THE-1 promoters. Yet another transcript, containing an internal THE-1 element in the probable sense orientation, is greatly enriched in a polysomal size fraction.

Transcriptional inactivity of Alu repeats in HeLa cells

The in vivo transcription of human Alu family members has been investigated by a sensitive primer extension method. The selected primers represent various regions of the Alu family consensus sequence, thus assaying the transcriptional activity of the entire family rather than the activity of an individual member sequence. Using this method, a very small number of RNA molecules per HeLa cell is found to have a distribution of 5' ends centered on the in vitro Alu transcription start site. The distribution of these 5' ends suggests that they are more likely the result of hnRNA degradation rather than transcription start sites. Therefore, despite their great numerical abundance, Alu family members are transcriptionally silent in HeLa cells.

A transposon-like element in human DNA

Mobile genetic elements have been reported in prokaryotes, plants, yeast and Drosophila. The only transposon-like sequences reported for mammalian organisms are closely related to retroviruses, although undoubtedly other transposon families exist within the mammalian genome. Although mobile genetic elements can only be identified as such if their mobility can be demonstrated in existing populations, transposon and transposon-like elements share several common biochemical and structural features. Here we demonstrate that a repetitive human sequence has many of the diagnostic features of transposable elements. This 2.3-kilobase (kb) transposon-like element contains two flanking long terminal repeat (LTR)-like 350-base pair (bp) repetitive sequences, each of which begins with the sequence 5' TG... and ends with ...CA 3'. The transposon-like element is bounded by 5-bp direct repeats. Discrete-length polyadenylated transcripts from HeLa cells are homologous to the transposon-like element. Members of this transposon-like family are found in extrachromosomal circular DNA molecules.

Non-Alu family interspersed repeats in human DNA and their transcriptional activity

Randomly selected human genomic clones have been surveyed for the presence of non-Alu family interspersed repeats. Four such families of repeats have been isolated and characterized with respect to repetition frequency, interspersion, base sequence, sequence divergence, in vitro RNA polymerase III transcription, elongation of transcripts in isolated nuclei, and in vivo transcription. The two most abundant of the four families of repeats correspond to previously reported families of repeats, namely the kpn I family and poly (CA). We conclude that most of the highly repetitive (greater than 50,000 copies) human interspersed repeats have already been identified. Two lower abundance repeats families are also described here. The abundance with which each of these families is represented in nuclear RNA qualitatively corresponds to their genomic reiteration frequencies. Further, the complementary strands of each repeat family are approximately symmetrically transcribed. The abundance of these repeats in cytoplasmic RNA is qualitatively less than in nuclear RNA. The bulk of the in vivo transcriptional activity of these repeats thus appears to be nonspecific read through from other promoters.