Evaluating Bacillus flexus as bioremediators for ammonia removal in shrimp culture water and wastewater and characterizing microbial communities in shrimp pond sludge

The accumulation of nitrogen compounds in shrimp farming water and effluent presents a major challenge. Ammonia is a form of nitrogen that limits shrimp growth due to its potential toxicity and effects on shrimp health and water quality. This study is aimed at identifying promising bioremediators from shrimp pond sludge to mitigate ammonia levels in both culture water and wastewater and at determining major bacterial communities in sludge using metagenomic analysis. A sludge sample was collected from a shrimp pond in Selangor, Malaysia, to isolate potential ammonia-removing bacteria. Out of 64 isolated strains, Bacillus flexus SS2 showed the highest growth in synthetic basal media (SBM) containing ammonium sulfate at a concentration of 70 mg/L as the sole nitrogen source. The strain was then incubated in SBM with varying pH levels and showed optimal growth at pH 6.5-7. After 24 h of incubation, B. flexus SS2 reduced the ammonia concentration from an initial concentration of 5 to 0.01 mg/L, indicating a 99.61% reduction rate, which was highest in SBM at pH 7. Moreover, the strain showed ammonia removal ability at concentrations ranging from 5 to 70 mg/L. Metagenomic analysis revealed that Proteobacteria was the most abundant phylum in the sludge, followed by Cyanobacteria, Actinobacteria, Chloraflexi, Firmicutes, and Campilobacterota. Bacillus flexus SS2 belongs to the Bacillota phylum and has the potential to serve as a bioremediator for removing ammonia from shrimp culture water and wastewater.

Clinical and radiological outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 related organising pneumonia in COVID-19 survivors

INTRODUCTION

COVID-19 patients frequently demonstrate radiological organising pneumonia (OP) pattern. The longterm outcome and treatment options for this group of patients remain uncertain. We aim to describe the clinical and radiological outcomes of patients with COVID-19-related OP and identify possible clinical factors associated with inferior radiological outcome.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Post-COVID-19 clinic attendees, consisting of post-COVID-19 patients discharged from major hospitals in the state of Selangor during the third pandemic wave of COVID-19 in Malaysia, were enrolled in this retrospective study for 6 months. Physician-scored Modified Medical Research Council (mMRC), patient self-reported quality of life (EQ-VAS) score and follow-up CT scan were evaluated.

RESULTS

Our cohort comprised 131 patients, with a median age of 52 (IQR 39-60) years and median BMI of 29.40 (IQR 25.59-34.72). Majority (72.5%) had co-morbidities, and 97.7% had severe disease requiring supplementary oxygen support during the acute COVID-19 episode. 56.5% required intensive care; among which one-third were invasively ventilated. Median equivalent dose of methylprednisolone prescribed was 2.60 (IQR 1.29-5.18) mg/kg during admission, while the median prednisolone dose upon discharge was 0.64 (IQR 0.51-0.78) mg/kg. It was tapered over a median of 8.0 (IQR 5.8-9.0) weeks. Upon follow-up at 11 (IQR 8-15) weeks, one-third of patients remained symptomatic, with cough, fatigue and dyspnoea being the most reported symptoms. mMRC and EQ-VAS scores improved significantly (p<0.001) during follow-up. Repeat CT scans were done in 59.5% of patients, with 94.8% of them demonstrating improvement. In fact, 51.7% had complete radiological resolution. Intensive care admission and mechanical ventilation are among the factors which were associated with poorer radiological outcomes, p<0.05.

CONCLUSION

Approximately one-third of patients with SARSCoV- 2-related OP remained symptomatic at 3 months of follow-up. Majority demonstrated favourable radiological outcomes at 5-month reassessment, except those who required intensive care unit admission and mechanical ventilation.

Astrocyte-Derived Exosomes in an iPSC Model of Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar I Disorder (BP) is a serious, recurrent mood disorder that is characterized by alternating episodes of mania and depression. To begin to identify novel approaches and pathways involved in BP, we have obtained skin samples from BP patients and undiagnosed control (C) individuals, reprogrammed them to form induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), and then differentiated the stem cells into astrocytes. RNAs from BP and C astrocytes were extracted and RNAseq analysis carried out. 501 differentially expressed genes were identified, including genes for cytoskeletal elements, extracellular matrix, signaling pathways, neurodegeneration, and notably transcripts that identify exosomes. When we compared highly expressed genes using hierarchial cluster analysis, "Exosome" was the first and most highly significant cluster identified, p < 5 × 10^-13, Benjamini correction. Exosomes are membrane-bound vesicles that package and remove toxic proteins from cells and also enable cell to cell communication. They carry genetic material, including DNA, mRNA and microRNAs, proteins, and lipids to target cells throughout the body. Exosomes are released by cortical neurons and astrocytes in culture and are present in BP vs C postmortem brain tissue. Little is known about what transcripts and proteins are targeted to neurons, how they regulate biological functions of the acceptor cell, or how that may be altered in mood disorders. Since astrocyte-derived exosomes have been suggested to promote neuronal plasticity, as well as to remove toxic proteins in the brain, alterations in their function or content may be involved in neurodevelopmental, neuropathological, and neuropsychiatric conditions. To examine exosome cargos and interactions with neural precursor cells, astrocytes were differentiated from four bipolar disorder (BP) and four control (C) iPSC lines. Culture supernatants from these astrocytes were collected, and exosomes isolated by ultra-centrifugation. Western blot analysis demonstrated the presence of the exosome markers CD9, CD81, and Hsp70. Nanosight technology was used to characterize exosomes from each astrocyte cell line, suggesting that exosomes were slightly more concentrated in culture supernatants derived from BP compared with C astrocytes but there was no difference in the mean sizes of the exosomes. Analysis of their function in neuronal differentiation is being carried out by labeling exosomes derived from bipolar patient and control astrocytes and adding them to control neural progenitor cells. Given the current interest in clearing toxic proteins from brains of patients with neurodegenerative disorders, exosomes may present similar opportunities in BP.

Definite stent thrombosis among Malaysian population: predictors and insights of mechanisms from intracoronary imaging

INTRODUCTION

Stent thrombosis (ST) is an uncommon, but significant complication following angioplasty. We aimed to examine the predictors, clinical outcomes and mechanism of definite ST cases among patients who underwent percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI).

METHODS

This was a retrospective observational registry of 14,935 patients from the year 2011 till 2015. Clinical characteristics, clinical outcome and intracoronary imaging data were recorded in all the patients. The SPSS Statistic version 24 was used for statistical analysis. The Cox regression hazard model was used to report calculate the hazard ratio (HR) with a 95% confidence interval (95%CI). Independent predictors of ST were identified by univariate logistic regression analysis. Variables that showed a statistically significant effect in univariate analyses were entered in a multivariate Cox proportional hazards model. A p-value<0.05 was regarded as significant.

RESULTS

The incidence of definite ST was 0.25% (37 out of 14935 patients). 75% of ST group patients presented with ST elevation myocardial infarction (75% vs. 19.8%, p<0.01). There was higher mortality among patients with ST when compared to the group without ST (Hazard Ratio, HR=10.69, 95%CI: 1.13, 100). Two independent predictors of ST were 1) previous history of acute myocardial infarction (HR=2.36, 95%CI: 1.19, 4.70) and 2) PCI in the context of acute coronary syndrome when compared to elective PCI (HR=37, 95%CI: 15.7, 91.5). Examination of 19 ST cases with intracoronary imaging identified nine cases (47%) of underexpanded stents and five cases (26%) of malopposition of stents.

CONCLUSIONS

ST is associated with high mortality. PCI in acute coronary syndrome setting and a previous history of acute myocardial infarction were significant predictors for ST. Intracoronary imaging identified stent underexpansion and malopposition as common reasons for ST. In cases where the risk of ST is high, the use of intracoronary imaging guided PCI is recommended.

The endosymbiont Wolbachia rebounds following antibiotic treatment

Antibiotic treatment has emerged as a promising strategy to sterilize and kill filarial nematodes due to their dependence on their endosymbiotic bacteria, Wolbachia. Several studies have shown that novel and FDA-approved antibiotics are efficacious at depleting the filarial nematodes of their endosymbiont, thus reducing female fecundity. However, it remains unclear if antibiotics can permanently deplete Wolbachia and cause sterility for the lifespan of the adult worms. Concerns about resistance arising from mass drug administration necessitate a careful exploration of potential Wolbachia recrudescence. In the present study, we investigated the long-term effects of the FDA-approved antibiotic, rifampicin, in the Brugia pahangi jird model of infection. Initially, rifampicin treatment depleted Wolbachia in adult worms and simultaneously impaired female worm fecundity. However, during an 8-month washout period, Wolbachia titers rebounded and embryogenesis returned to normal. Genome sequence analyses of Wolbachia revealed that despite the population bottleneck and recovery, no genetic changes occurred that could account for the rebound. Clusters of densely packed Wolbachia within the worm's ovarian tissues were observed by confocal microscopy and remained in worms treated with rifampicin, suggesting that they may serve as privileged sites that allow Wolbachia to persist in worms while treated with antibiotic. To our knowledge, these clusters have not been previously described and may be the source of the Wolbachia rebound.

Subdural haematoma mimics

A subdural haematoma (SDH) is a frequently encountered pathology seen on an emergency room computed tomography (CT) head scan. An extra-axial crescentic density along the convexity of the brain or within the interhemispheric fissure is generally thought to represent a SDH; however, SDH mimics are known to occur in nature, and can be broadly classified under the subcategories of normal anatomy, artefacts, tumour, inflammation, infection, ischaemia, trauma, and iatrogenic. Understanding the typical characteristics of a SDH, knowledge of normal anatomy, close inspection of the morphology of the subdural process, changes to the adjacent structures, and rigorous attention to clinical details may reveal subtle clues that distinguish a true SDH from a mimic. This is crucial in appropriately directing clinical management. This review amalgamates most of the rare subdural processes that have been reported to mimic SDH, and discusses the imaging and clinical features that help to differentiate between them. This topic is highly valuable for radiology trainees, general radiologists, and emergency room physicians, and may serve as a refresher for the practising neuroradiologist.

Efficacy of subcutaneous doses and a new oral amorphous solid dispersion formulation of flubendazole on male jirds (Meriones unguiculatus) infected with the filarial nematode Brugia pahangi

River blindness and lymphatic filariasis are two filarial diseases that globally affect millions of people mostly in impoverished countries. Current mass drug administration programs rely on drugs that primarily target the microfilariae, which are released from adult female worms. The female worms can live for several years, releasing millions of microfilariae throughout the course of infection. Thus, to stop transmission of infection and shorten the time to elimination of these diseases, a safe and effective drug that kills the adult stage is needed. The benzimidazole anthelmintic flubendazole (FBZ) is 100% efficacious as a macrofilaricide in experimental filarial rodent models but it must be administered subcutaneously (SC) due to its low oral bioavailability. Studies were undertaken to assess the efficacy of a new oral amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) formulation of FBZ on Brugia pahangi infected jirds (Meriones unguiculatus) and compare it to a single or multiple doses of FBZ given subcutaneously. Results showed that worm burden was not significantly decreased in animals given oral doses of ASD FBZ (0.2-15 mg/kg). Regardless, doses as low as 1.5 mg/kg caused extensive ultrastructural damage to developing embryos and microfilariae (mf). SC injections of FBZ in suspension (10 mg/kg) given for 5 days however, eliminated all worms in all animals, and a single SC injection reduced worm burden by 63% compared to the control group. In summary, oral doses of ASD formulated FBZ did not significantly reduce total worm burden but longer treatments, extended takedown times or a second dosing regimen, may decrease female fecundity and the number of mf shed by female worms.

Bacterial species associated with persistent apical periodontitis exert differential effects on osteogenic differentiation

AIM

To determine if bacteria associated with persistent apical periodontitis induce species-specific pro-inflammatory cytokine responses in macrophages, and the effects of this species-specific microenvironment on osteogenic differentiation.

METHODOLOGY

Macrophages were exposed to Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus oralis, Streptococcus mitis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Treponema denticola or Tannerella forsythia, and levels of TNF-α and IL-1β elicited were determined by immunoassay. Following treatment of MG-63 pre-osteoblasts with conditioned media from bacteria-exposed macrophages, osteogenic differentiation and viability of osteoblasts were analyzed by Alizarin Red Staining and MTS assay, respectively. Statistical analysis was carried out by one-way anova with the Tukey post-hoc test. Differences were considered to be significant if P < 0.05.

RESULTS

Macrophages exposed to Gram-positive bacteria did not produce significant amounts of cytokines. F. nucleatum-challenged macrophages produced up to four-fold more TNF-α and IL-1β compared to T. denticola or T. forsythia. Only conditioned media from macrophages treated with Gram-negative bacteria decreased mineralization and viability of osteoblasts.

CONCLUSIONS

Gram-positive bacteria did not impact osteogenic differentiation and appeared innocuous. Gram-negative bacteria, in particular F. nucleatum elicited an enhanced pro-inflammatory response in macrophages, inhibited osteogenic differentiation and reduced cell viability. The findings suggest that the presence of this organism could potentially increase the severity of persistent apical periodontitis.

Repurposing auranofin as a lead candidate for treatment of lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis

Two major human diseases caused by filariid nematodes are onchocerciasis, or river blindness, and lymphatic filariasis, which can lead to elephantiasis. The drugs ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine (DEC), and albendazole are used in control programs for these diseases, but are mainly effective against the microfilarial stage and have minimal or no effect on adult worms. Adult Onchocerca volvulus and Brugia malayi worms (macrofilariae) can live for up to 15 years, reproducing and allowing the infection to persist in a population. Therefore, to support control or elimination of these two diseases, effective macrofilaricidal drugs are necessary, in addition to current drugs. In an effort to identify macrofilaricidal drugs, we screened an FDA-approved library with adult worms of Brugia spp. and Onchocerca ochengi, third-stage larvae (L3s) of Onchocerca volvulus, and the microfilariae of both O. ochengi and Loa loa. We found that auranofin, a gold-containing drug used for rheumatoid arthritis, was effective in vitro in killing both Brugia spp. and O. ochengi adult worms and in inhibiting the molting of L3s of O. volvulus with IC₅₀ values in the low micromolar to nanomolar range. Auranofin had an approximately 43-fold higher IC₅₀ against the microfilariae of L. loa compared with the IC₅₀ for adult female O. ochengi, which may be beneficial if used in areas where Onchocerca and Brugia are co-endemic with L. loa, to prevent severe adverse reactions to the drug-induced death of L. loa microfilariae. Further testing indicated that auranofin is also effective in reducing Brugia adult worm burden in infected gerbils and that auranofin may be targeting the thioredoxin reductase in this nematode.

Onchocerciasis or river blindness, and lymphatic filariasis, which can lead to disfiguring elephantiasis, are two neglected tropical diseases that affect millions of people, primarily in developing countries. Both diseases are caused by filariid nematodes; onchocerciasis is caused by Onchocerca volvulus and lymphatic filariasis is caused by Brugia malayi, B. timori, and Wuchereria bancrofti. Currently, there are no drugs available that are highly efficacious against adult worms; existing drugs mainly kill the first-stage larvae (microfilariae). While these drugs can reduce the transmission of infections in a population, the adult filariids (macrofilariae) can continue to produce microfilariae and perpetuate the cycle of infection. Finding a drug that could kill the adult worms would be an important tool in eliminating onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis. To identify potential macrofilaricidal drugs, we developed a high throughput screening method to test FDA-approved drugs on adult Brugia spp., which serves as a model for O. volvulus. Using this screening method, we identified a drug called auranofin that kills adult Onchocerca and adult Brugia spp. in vitro, inhibits the molting of O. volvulus L3s, and reduces the worm burden in an in vivo gerbil-B. pahangi model system. Auranofin is known to inhibit a critical enzyme called thioredoxin reductase in some parasite species, and subsequent testing of the effects of auranofin on the thioredoxin reductase of Brugia indicates that this may be auranofin’s mode of action in this nematode as well.

Upregulation of retinal dehydrogenase 2 in alternatively activated macrophages during retinoid-dependent type-2 immunity to helminth infection in mice

Although the vitamin A metabolite retinoic acid (RA) plays a critical role in immune function, RA synthesis during infection is poorly understood. Here, we show that retinal dehydrogenases (Raldh), required for the synthesis of RA, are induced during a retinoid-dependent type-2 immune response elicited by Schistosoma mansoni infection, but not during a retinoid-independent anti-viral immune response. Vitamin A deficient mice have a selective defect in T_H2 responses to S. mansoni, but retained normal LCMV specific T_H1 responses. A combination of in situ imaging, intra-vital imaging, and sort purification revealed that alternatively activated macrophages (AAMφ) express high levels of Raldh2 during S. mansoni infection. IL-4 induces Raldh2 expression in bone marrow-derived macrophages in vitro and peritoneal macrophages in vivo. Finally, in vivo derived AAMφ have an enhanced capacity to induce Foxp3 expression in CD4+ cells through an RA dependent mechanism, especially in combination with TGF-β. The regulation of Raldh enzymes during infection is pathogen specific and reflects differential requirements for RA during effector responses. Specifically, AAMφ are an inducible source of RA synthesis during helminth infections and T_H2 responses that may be important in regulating immune responses.

Vitamin A deficiency, a major global health concern, increases morbidity and death due to infectious diseases. For vitamin A to be utilized by the immune system, it must be metabolized into retinoic acid (RA), its active form. RA is a key determinant of T cell activity. However, its contribution to protective immunity during infection is poorly understood, as is the regulation of its synthesis in this context. We examined RA synthesis by immune cells responding to helminth infection and virus infection. While intestinal T cell responses were vitamin A-dependent during both infections, only T cell responses elicited by helminth infection were vitamin A-dependent in the liver. Consistent with this finding, the enzymes necessary for RA synthesis were expressed by inflammatory cells recruited to the liver during helminth, but not virus, infection. We identified alternatively-activated macrophages as a source of RA synthesis within immune cells responding to helminth infection and find that they can induce regulatory T cells. Our findings provide a better understanding of vitamin A utilization during infection and demonstrate that RA synthesis is an inducible component of protective immunity.

Investigation of the proteolytic functions of an expanded cercarial elastase gene family in Schistosoma mansoni

Background

Cercarial elastase is the major invasive larval protease in Schistosoma mansoni, a parasitic blood fluke, and is essential for host skin invasion. Genome sequence analysis reveals a greatly expanded family of cercarial elastase gene isoforms in Schistosoma mansoni. This expansion appears to be unique to S. mansoni, and it is unknown whether gene duplication has led to divergent protease function.

Methods

Profiling of transcript and protein expression patterns reveals that cercarial elastase isoforms are similarly expressed throughout the S. mansoni life cycle. Computational modeling predicts key differences in the substrate-binding pockets of various cercarial elastase isoforms, suggesting a diversification of substrate preferences compared with the ancestral gene of the family. In addition, active site labeling of SmCE reveals that it is activated prior to exit of the parasite from its intermediate snail host.

Conclusions

The expansion of the cercarial gene family in S. mansoni is likely to be an example of gene dosage. In addition to its critical role in human skin penetration, data presented here suggests a novel role for the protease in egress from the intermediate snail host. This study demonstrates how enzyme activity-based analysis complements genomic and proteomic studies, and is key in elucidating proteolytic function.

Schistosome parasites are a major cause of disease in the developing world. The larval stage of the parasite transitions between an intermediate snail host and a definitive human host in a dramatic fashion, burrowing out of the snail and subsequently penetrating human skin. This process is facilitated by secreted proteases. In Schistosoma mansoni, cercarial elastase is the predominant secreted protease and essential for host skin invasion. Genomic analysis reveals a greatly expanded cercarial elastase gene family in S. mansoni. Despite sequence divergence, SmCE isoforms show similar expression profiles throughout the S. mansoni life cycle and have largely similar substrate specificities, suggesting that the majority of protease isoforms are functionally redundant and therefore their expansion is an example of gene dosage. However, activity-based profiling also indicates that a subset of SmCE isoforms are activated prior to the parasite's exit from its intermediate snail host, suggesting that the protease may also have a role in this process.

WormAssay: a novel computer application for whole-plate motion-based screening of macroscopic parasites

Lymphatic filariasis is caused by filarial nematode parasites, including Brugia malayi. Adult worms live in the lymphatic system and cause a strong immune reaction that leads to the obstruction of lymph vessels and swelling of the extremities. Chronic disease leads to the painful and disfiguring condition known as elephantiasis. Current drug therapy is effective against the microfilariae (larval stage) of the parasite, but no drugs are effective against the adult worms. One of the major stumbling blocks toward developing effective macrofilaricides to kill the adult worms is the lack of a high throughput screening method for candidate drugs. Current methods utilize systems that measure one well at a time and are time consuming and often expensive. We have developed a low-cost and simple visual imaging system to automate and quantify screening entire plates based on parasite movement. This system can be applied to the study of many macroparasites as well as other macroscopic organisms.

The World Health Organization estimates that there are approximately 37 million people who are afflicted by Onchocerca volvulus (the parasitic worm that causes river blindness) and over 120 million people afflicted by the filarial worms Wuchereria and Brugia spp. (causative agents of lymphatic filariasis or elephantiasis). Current mass drug administration includes albendazole and either diethylcarbamazine or ivermectin. These drugs, however, are effective at killing the early larval stage (microfilariae) released from adult female worms but they do not kill the adult worms. Adult worms can live up to 10 or more years, releasing thousands of microfilariae per day. It is essential therefore to treat infected individuals with macrofilaricides in order to prevent the adult parasites from producing microfiliariae for the duration of the infection and to treat the disease. In order to screen candidate drugs for use as macrofilaricides, we have developed an inexpensive system and simple method for quantifying the effectiveness of drugs on parasite movement. The apparatus uses a commodity video camera, a computer and a newly developed free and open source software application to provide automated and quantitative measurements of parasite motility on each plate of worms. This system is not only useful for high throughput screening of macroparasites but can also be applied to the study of other macroscopic organisms as well.

Incidental cardiac abnormalities on non-electrocardiogram-gated multi-detector computed tomography imaging of the thorax and abdomen

Little attention is usually paid to the heart on non-electrocardiogram (ECG)-gated multi-detector computed tomography (MDCT) imaging of the thorax and abdomen. The current MDCT systems have fast scanning capabilities that render non-ECG-gated images with reduced cardiac motion artefacts due to greater temporal and spatial resolution. This has allowed for better evaluation of the cardiac structures. We present a pictorial review of incidental cardiac abnormalities found on MDCT imaging of the thorax and abdomen performed in our institution. We systematically describe abnormalities involving the pericardium, myocardium, cardiac valves, cardiac chambers, coronary artery and congenital heart disease. Some of these images have echocardiograph and magnetic resonance imaging correlation. The purpose of this pictorial essay is to draw attention to cardiac abnormalities found incidentally on non-ECG-gated MDCT imaging of the thorax and abdomen, which may or may not be related to the patient's symptoms.

Genome-wide mapping of Myc binding and gene regulation in serum-stimulated fibroblasts

The transition from quiescence to proliferation is a key regulatory step that can be induced by serum stimulation in cultured fibroblasts. The transcription factor Myc is directly induced by serum mitogens and drives a secondary gene expression program that remains largely unknown. Using mRNA profiling, we identify close to 300 Myc-dependent serum response (MDSR) genes, which are induced by serum in a Myc-dependent manner in mouse fibroblasts. Mapping of genomic Myc-binding sites by ChIP-seq technology revealed that most MDSR genes were directly targeted by Myc, but represented a minor fraction (5.5%) of all Myc-bound promoters (which were 22.4% of all promoters). Other target loci were either induced by serum in a Myc-independent manner, were not significantly regulated or were negatively regulated. MDSR gene products were involved in a variety of processes, including nucleotide biosynthesis, ribosome biogenesis, DNA replication and RNA control. Of the 29 MDSR genes targeted by RNA interference, three showed a requirement for cell-cycle entry upon serum stimulation and 11 for long-term proliferation and/or survival. Hence, proper coordination of key regulatory and biosynthetic pathways following mitogenic stimulation relies upon the concerted regulation of multiple Myc-dependent genes.

Proteomic analysis of skin invasion by blood fluke larvae

BACKGROUND

During invasion of human skin by schistosome blood fluke larvae (cercariae), a multicellular organism breaches the epidermis, basement membrane, and dermal barriers of skin. To better understand the pathobiology of this initial event in schistosome infection, a proteome analysis of human skin was carried out following invasion by cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni.

METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS

Human skin samples were exposed to cercariae for one-half hour to two hours. Controls were exposed to water used to collect cercariae in an identical manner, and punctured to simulate cercarial tunnels. Fluid from both control and experimental samples was analyzed by LC/MS/MS using a linear ion trap in "triple play" mode. The coexistence of proteins released by cercariae and host skin proteins from epidermis and basement membrane confirmed that cercarial tunnels in skin were sampled. Among the abundant proteins secreted by cercariae was the cercarial protease that has been implicated in degradation of host proteins, secreted proteins proposed to mediate immune invasion by larvae, and proteins implicated in protection of parasites against oxidative stress. Components of the schistosome surface tegument, previously identified with immune serum, were also released. Both lysis and apoptosis of epidermal cells took place during cercarial invasion of the epidermis. Components of lysed epidermal cells, including desmosome proteins which link cells in the stratum granulosum and stratum spinosum, were identified. While macrophage-derived proteins were present, no mast cell or lymphocyte cytokines were identified. There were, however, abundant immunoglobulins, complement factors, and serine protease inhibitors in skin. Control skin samples incubated with water for the same period as experimental samples ensured that invasion-related proteins and host protein fragments were not due to nonspecific degeneration of the skin samples.

CONCLUSIONS

This analysis identified secreted proteins from invasive larvae that are released during invasion of human skin. Analysis of specific host proteins in skin invaded by cercariae served to highlight both the histolytic events facilitating cercarial invasion, and the host defenses that attempt to arrest or retard invasion. Proteins abundant in psoriatic skin or UV and heat-stressed skin were not abundant in skin invaded by cercariae, suggesting that results did not reflect general stress in the surgically removed skin specimen. Abundant immunoglobulins, complement factors, and serine protease inhibitors in skin form a biochemical barrier that complements the structural barrier of the epidermis, basement membrane, and dermis. The fragmentation of some of these host proteins suggests that breaching of host defenses by cercariae includes specific degradation of immunoglobulins and complement, and either degradation of, or overwhelming the host protease inhibitor repertoire.

Prevalence of active Helicobacter pylori infection among patients referred for endoscopy in Brunei Darussalam

INTRODUCTION

The prevalence of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection has been reported to vary between and even within countries. We retrospectively assessed the prevalence among patients referred for endoscopy in our local setting.

METHODS

4,700 patients, who had endoscopy and H. pylori testing for the first time over a five-year period, were reviewed.

RESULTS

The mean age was 45.4 +/- 17.1 years (male 51.1 percent), with racial breakdown similar to the national breakdown. The main indications for endoscopy were dyspepsia (59.6 percent), anaemia (12.6 percent), gastrointestinal bleeding (9.4 percent) and gastro-oesophageal reflux (7.6 percent). The overall prevalence of H. pylori was 26.9 percent, highest in the 30-39 years (30.3 percent) age group. This was higher in males compared to females (30.3 percent versus 23.3 percent, p-value is less than 0.001). Among the racial groups, the expatriate (35.3 percent, p-values are less than 0.001) and the indigenous (31.3 percent, p-values are less than 0.001) groups had significantly higher prevalence rates compared to the Malays (25.9 percent) and the Chinese (23.2 percent). Patients with dyspepsia had the highest prevalence (29.8 percent) compared to the other indications. In patients with peptic ulcer disease, the prevalence rate was 46.9 percent. Over the five-year period, there was a decline in prevalence from 32.3 percent to 25.6 percent. This trend was seen in the Malays and the Chinese, but not the indigenous and the expatriate groups.

CONCLUSION

Similar to reported data from the regions, prevalence of H. pylori infection varies, with the Malays and the Chinese having the lowest prevalence rate. The prevalence among those with peptic ulcer disease was lower than reported. There was also a decline in the overall prevalence.

Gene expression patterns during adaptation of a helminth parasite to different environmental niches

BACKGROUND

Schistosome bloodflukes are complex trematodes responsible for 200 million cases of schistosomiasis worldwide. Their life cycle is characterized by a series of remarkable morphological and biochemical transitions between an invertebrate host, an aquatic environment, and a mammalian host. We report a global transcriptional analysis of how this parasite alters gene regulation to adapt to three distinct environments.

RESULTS

Utilizing a genomic microarray made of 12,000 45-50-mer oligonucleotides based on expressed sequence tags, three different developmental stages of the schistosome parasite were analyzed by pair-wise comparisons of transcript hybridization signals. This analysis resulted in the identification of 1,154 developmentally enriched transcripts.

CONCLUSION

This study expands the repertoire of schistosome genes analyzed for stage-specific expression to over 70% of the predicted genome. Among the new associations identified are the roles of robust protein synthesis and programmed cell death in development of cercariae in the sporocyst stages, the relative paucity of cercarial gene expression outside of energy production, and the remarkable diversity of adult gene expression programs that reflect adaptation to the host bloodstream and an average lifespan that may approach 10 years.

The common gamma chain cytokines interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-7 indirectly modulate blood fluke development via effects on CD4+ T cells

The human pathogen Schistosoma mansoni exhibits a highly evolved and intricate relationship with its host, evading immune destruction while co-opting CD4(+) T cell-driven mechanisms to facilitate parasite development and egg excretion. Because the common gamma ( gamma (c)) chain cytokine interleukin (IL)-7 is also implicated in modulating schistosome development, we investigated whether this effect is mediated indirectly through the essential role that IL-7 plays in CD4(+) T cell growth and survival. We demonstrate that attenuated schistosome development in the absence of IL-7 results from dysregulated T cell homeostasis and not from disruption of direct interactions between schistosomes and IL-7. We also identify an indirect role that another gamma (c) chain cytokine plays in schistosome development, demonstrating that IL-2 expression by CD4(+) T cells is essential for normal parasite development. Thus, cytokines critical for CD4(+) T cell survival and function can mediate indirect but potent effects on developing schistosomes and underscore the importance of CD4(+) T cells in facilitating schistosome development.

Soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 in acute respiratory infections

Levels of the soluble form of the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells (sTREM)-1 are elevated in severe sepsis. However, it is not known whether sTREM-1 measurements can distinguish milder bacterial infections from noninfectious inflammation. The present authors studied whether serum sTREM-1 levels differ in community-acquired pneumonia, exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma and controls, and whether sTREM-1 may be used as a surrogate marker for the need for antibiotics. Serum sTREM-1 levels in 150 patients with pneumonia, COPD and asthma exacerbations and 62 healthy controls were measured. Serum sTREM-1 levels were significantly elevated in pneumonia (median 295.2 ng x mL(-1)), COPD (280.3 ng x mL(-1)) and asthma exacerbations (184.0 ng x mL(-1)) compared with controls (83.1 ng x mL(-1)). Levels were higher in pneumonia and Anthonisen type 1 COPD exacerbations than in type 2 and 3 COPD and asthma exacerbations. The area under the receiver operating characteristics curve for sTREM-1 as a surrogate marker for the need for antibiotics was 0.77. Serum levels of the soluble form of the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 were elevated predominantly in pneumonia and Anthonisen type 1 COPD exacerbations versus type 2 and 3 chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations, asthma and controls. Serum levels of the soluble form of the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 has moderate but insufficient accuracy as a surrogate marker for the need for antibiotics in lower respiratory tract infections.

In vivo imaging of tissue eosinophilia and eosinopoietic responses to schistosome worms and eggs

Using a sensitive transgenic reporter mouse system and in vivo biophotonic imaging techniques, we present a dynamic analysis of eosinophil responses to schistosome infection. Use of this methodology provided previously unattainable detail on the spatial and temporal distribution of tissue eosinophilia and eosinopoietic responses to schistosome worms and eggs. Dramatic hepatic and intestinal eosinophilia in response to the deposition of schistosome eggs, with accompanying eosinopoiesis in the bone marrow, was observed between weeks 8 and 10 p.i., with subsequent downregulation evident by week 11. Contrary to expectations, we also demonstrate that schistosome parasites themselves induce significant intestinal eosinophilia and eosinopoiesis in the bone marrow at very early stages during prepatent infection.

Considerations In Intracoronal Bleaching

Intracoronal bleaching is a simple, useful procedure for restoring the colour of discoloured root-filled teeth that are not extensively restored. It is important to minimise the extraradicular diffusion of hydrogen peroxide, as excessive levels of hydrogen peroxide in conjunction with existing inflammatory changes in the periodontium predispose the tooth to external root resorption. To keep the levels of extraradicular diffusion of hydrogen peroxide below the safety limit, it is imperative that an effective intermediate base cement of at least 2 mm be placed at the level of the buccal cemento-enamel junction over the root-filling prior to bleaching. The use of 35% carbamide peroxide as the intracoronal bleaching agent seems to combine the safety of sodium perborate together with the efficacy of 35% hydrogen peroxide. As bleaching agents may reduce the composite-tooth bond of some adhesive systems, the post-bleaching composite restoration should be delayed for at least three weeks.

Involvement of TNF in limiting liver pathology and promoting parasite survival during schistosome infection

CD4(+) T cell responses and macrophage activation are essential components of schistosome egg-induced granuloma formation. Previous studies implicated tumour necrosis factor (TNF) as a potential mediator of macrophage recruitment and activation during schistosome infection. Here we demonstrate that signalling by TNF and its receptors can influence granuloma formation, but is ultimately dispensable for granuloma formation in this system. However, we identify a previously unrecognised role for TNF in limiting hepatocellular damage in response to schistosome eggs. Further, we show that this activity of TNF is independent of TNF receptors (TNFR1 and TNFR2). Taken together, these data suggest that additional, as yet unrecognised receptors exist for TNF and that these receptors are capable of mediating important pathological effects in the liver. Finally, we provide evidence that TNF plays an unexpected role in maintaining adult schistosome viability in the portal system.

Pattern of third molar impaction in a Singapore Chinese population: a retrospective radiographic survey

One thousand orthopantomograms (OPGs) of patients 20-40 years old were examined. Where impacted third molars were present, the angle and depth of impaction were recorded. Results were analysed using the Pearson chi2 test. 68.6% of OPGs showed at least one impacted third molar. The frequency was three-fold higher in the mandible (1024/1079=90%) than in the maxilla (306/1077=28%), with a significantly higher frequency (P<0.05) in females (56%) than males (44%). The mesioangular impaction was the most common, and 80% of all impacted third molars were partially buried in bone. Of the 429 bilateral occurrence of impacted third molars, 423 were in the mandible. It was concluded that the frequency of impacted third molars in the Singapore Chinese population studied was generally two to three times that reported in races of the Caucasian stock. There was also double the frequency of impacted third molars when compared to a previous study in a Chinese population published in 1932 with females being more frequently affected than males.

Infrequent occurrence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in poultry from Malaysian wet markets

Fifty samples of chicken, duck and geese faeces were obtained from 13 wet markets in Kuala Lumpur to study the prevalence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) among local market poultry. Biotyping of colonies grown on azide agar incubated at 45 degrees C yielded E. pseudoavium, E. faecalis, E. faecium and E. gallinarum from chicken faeces and E. malodoratus, E. faecalis, E. faecium, E. gallinarum, E. hirae/dispar, and E. durans from goose and duck faeces. On agar containing 6 mg/ l of vancomycin, one strain of E. flavescens was identified, giving a VRE detection rate of 2.0%. This isolate had a vancomycin M.I.C. of 8 mg/l as determined by the Etest, and the van C-3 gene that was identified by PCR followed by sequence analysis. The prevalence of VRE among poultry sold in local markets appears to be low, and may reflect the infrequent use of antimicrobials in our poultry farms. Nevertheless, the possibility of human acquisition of microbes via the food chain cautions against the use of antimicrobials in animal husbandry that may encourage the emergence and spread of multi-drug resistant organisms like the VRE among animal microbial flora.

Non-infusional 5-fluorouracil, doxorubicin and cisplatin in the treatment of locally advanced or metastatic gastro-oesophageal adenocarcinoma

To reduce the Hickman line-associated morbidity of continuous infusion 5-fluorouracil combined with epirubicin and cisplatin (ECF) and to investigate the need for infusional regimens, we conducted a retrospective study in patients with advanced gastro-oesophageal adenocarcinoma. Thirty-six patients, with histologically proven irresectable gastro-oesophageal adenocarcinoma were given: 60 mg/m2 cisplatin on day 1, 35 mg/m2 doxorubicin on day 1 and 500 mg/m2 5-fluorouracil on days 1 and 8 (NIACF) every 3-weeks. A median of 3 cycles was administered. The principal toxicity was myelosuppression with grade III/IV neutropenia in 47% of cycles. Neutropenic fever occurred in 5% of the cycles: non-haematological toxicity was mild and there were no treatment-related deaths. Administered dose intensity was 96.1% for doxorubicin, 93.6% for cisplatin and 90.5% for 5-fluorouracil. There were 16 partial responses and 1 complete response (overall response rate 47%, 95% confidence interval CI 31-63%); 8 patients had stable disease. Median progression-free and overall survival rates were 5 months (95% CI 4-6) and 8 months (95% CI 6-10), respectively. NIACF is a well-tolerated regimen in advanced gastro-oesophageal adenocarcinoma that precludes the need for central venous access, with activity similar to that observed with ECF.

Modulation of blood fluke development in the liver by hepatic CD4+ lymphocytes

We have identified an alternate developmental pathway in the life cycle of the trematode pathogen Schistosoma mansoni. This pathway is used in immunodeficient hosts in which the parasite fails to receive appropriate signals from the host immune system. Helminth development is altered at an early stage during infection, resulting in the appearance of attenuated forms that prolong survival of host and parasite. Hepatic CD4+ T lymphocyte populations are an integral component of the immune signal recognized by the parasite.

Simple syntheses, structural diversity, and Tishchenko reaction catalysis of neutral homoleptic rare earth(II or III) 3,5-di-tert-butylpyrazolates--the structures of

The homoleptic rare-earth pyrazolate complexes [Sc(tBu2pz)3], [Ln2(tBu2pz)6] (Ln = La, Nd, Sm, Lu), [Eu4(tBu2pz)8] and the mixed oxidation state species [Yb2(tBu2pz)5] (tBu2pz = 3,5-di-tert-butylpyrazolate) have been prepared by a simple reaction between the corresponding rare-earth metal and 3,5-di-tert-butylpyrazole, in the presence of mercury, at elevated temperatures. In addition, [Yb2(tBu2pz)6] was prepared by redox transmetallation/ligand exchange between ytterbium, diphenylmercury(II) and tBu2pzH in toluene, whilst the same reactants in toluene under different conditions or in diethyl ether gave [Yb2(tBu2pz)5]. The complexes of the trivalent lanthanoids display dimeric structures [Ln2(tBu2pz)6] (Ln = La, Nd, Yb, Lu) with chelating eta2-terminal and eta2:eta2-bridging pyrazolate coordination. The considerably smaller Sc3+ ion forms monomeric [Sc(tBu2pz)3] of putative D3h molecular symmetry, with pyrazolate ligands solely eta2-bonded. [Eu4(tBu2pz)8] is a structurally remarkable tetranuclear EuII complex with two types of europium centres in a linear array. The outer two are bonded to one terminal and two bridging pyrazolates, and the inner two are coordinated by four bridging ligands. Unprecedented mu-eta5:eta2 pyrazolate ligation is observed, with each outer Eu2+ sandwiched between two eta5-bonded pyrazolate groups, which are also eta2-linked to an inner Eu2+. The two inner Eu2+ ions are linked together by two equally occupied components of each of two symmetry related, disordered pyrazolate groups with one component eta4:eta2 bridging and one eta3:eta2 bridging. [La2(tBu2pz)6] has also been shown to be a Tishchenko reaction catalyst with several organic substrates.

Schistosome invasion of human skin and degradation of dermal elastin are mediated by a single serine protease

Aquatic larvae (cercariae) of the trematode parasite Schistosoma mansoni rapidly penetrate human skin by degrading host proteins including elastin. Two serine proteases, one chymotrypsin-like and the second trypsin-like, have been proposed to be involved. To evaluate the relative roles of these two proteases in larval invasion, both were purified, identified by sequence, and then biochemically characterized. The trypsin-like activity was resolved into two distinct serine proteases 76% similar in predicted amino acid sequence. Southern blot analysis, genomic polymerase chain reaction, and immunolocalization demonstrated that the trypsin-like proteases are in fact not from the schistosome, but are released with larvae from the snail host Biomphalaria glabrata. Invasion inhibition assays using selective inhibitors confirmed that the chymotrypsin-like protease is the enzyme involved in skin penetration. Its ability to degrade skin elastin was confirmed, and the three sites of cleavage within elastin help define a new family of elastases.

GATA factor transgenes under GATA-1 locus control rescue germline GATA-1 mutant deficiencies

GATA-1 germline mutation in mice results in embryonic lethality due to defective erythroid cell maturation, and thus other hematopoietic GATA factors do not compensate for the loss of GATA-1. To determine whether the obligate presence of GATA-1 in erythroid cells is due to its distinct biochemical properties or spatiotemporal patterning, we attempted to rescue GATA-1 mutant mice with hematopoietic GATA factor complementary DNAs (cDNAs) placed under the transcriptional control of the GATA-1 gene. We found that transgenic expression of a GATA-1 cDNA fully abrogated the GATA-1-deficient phenotype. Surprisingly, GATA-2 and GATA-3 factors expressed from the same regulatory cassette also rescued the embryonic lethal phenotype of the GATA-1 mutation. However, adult mice rescued with the latter transgenes developed anemia, while GATA-1 transgenic mice did not. These results demonstrate that the transcriptional control dictating proper GATA-1 accumulation is the most critical determinant of GATA-1 activity during erythropoiesis. The results also show that there are biochemical distinctions among the hematopoietic GATA proteins and that during adult hematopoiesis the hematopoietic GATA factors are not functionally equivalent.

Gata3 loss leads to embryonic lethality due to noradrenaline deficiency of the sympathetic nervous system

Mouse embryos deficient in Gata3 die by 11 days post coitum (d.p.c.) from pathology of undetermined origin. We recently showed that Gata3-directed lacZ expression of a 625-kb Gata3 YAC transgene in mice mimics endogenous Gata3 expression, except in thymus and the sympathoadrenal system. As this transgene failed to overcome embryonic lethality (unpublished data and ref. 3) in Gata3-/- mice, we hypothesized that a neuroendocrine deficiency in the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) might cause embryonic lethality in these mutants. We find here that null mutation of Gata3 leads to reduced accumulation of Th (encoding tyrosine hydroxylase, Th) and Dbh (dopamine beta-hydroxylase, Dbh) mRNA, whereas several other SNS genes are unaffected. We show that Th and Dbh deficiencies lead to reduced noradrenaline in the SNS, and that noradrenaline deficiency is a proximal cause of death in mutants by feeding catechol intermediates to pregnant dams, thereby partially averting Gata3 mutation-induced lethality. These older, pharmacologically rescued mutants revealed abnormalities that previously could not be detected in untreated mutants. These late embryonic defects include renal hypoplasia and developmental defects in structures derived from cephalic neural crest cells. Thus we have shown that Gata3 has a role in the differentiation of multiple cell lineages during embryogenesis.

Blockage of skin invasion by schistosome cercariae by serine protease inhibitors

Invasion of skin by schistosome cercariae is facilitated by a serine protease secreted from the acetabular cells of cercariae in response to skin lipid. Specific inhibitors of the protease, when applied to human skin in formulations designed to retain the inhibitor on and in the upper stratum corneum layers, block cercarial invasion of human skin. Both peptide-based, irreversible inhibitors and non-peptide, reversible inhibitors block cercarial invasion when applied in a propylene glycol:isopropyl alcohol (3:1) formulation in vitro. Arrest of cercarial invasion could be achieved even after immersion of treated skin in water for 2 hr. Peptide-based irreversible inhibitors in the presence of three different Topicare Delivery Compounds optimized arrest of cercarial invasion. The three Topicare Delivery Compounds applied alone prevented 80-100% of cercarial invasion. With inclusion of the inhibitor, there was 97-100% inhibition in vitro. The optimal formulation with inhibitor was then applied to the tails of BALB/c mice, and the mice were exposed to 120 cercariae by tail immersion. With the carrier lotion alone, there was a 50% reduction in worm burden and a 70% reduction in egg burden. When inhibitor was included, an 80% reduction in worm burden and a 92% reduction in egg burden was observed.

Localization of distant urogenital system-, central nervous system-, and endocardium-specific transcriptional regulatory elements in the GATA-3 locus

We found previously that neither a 6-kbp promoter fragment nor even a 120-kbp yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) containing the whole GATA-3 gene was sufficient to recapitulate its full transcription pattern during embryonic development in transgenic mice. In an attempt to further identify tissue-specific regulatory elements modulating the dynamic embryonic pattern of the GATA-3 gene, we have examined the expression of two much larger (540- and 625-kbp) GATA-3 YACs in transgenic animals. A lacZ reporter gene was first inserted into both large GATA-3 YACs. The transgenic YAC patterns were then compared to those of embryos bearing the identical lacZ insertion in the chromosomal GATA-3 locus (creating GATA-3/lacZ "knock-ins"). We found that most of the YAC expression sites and tissues are directly reflective of the endogenous pattern, and detailed examination of the integrated YAC transgenes allowed the general localization of a number of very distant transcriptional regulatory elements (putative central nervous system-, endocardium-, and urogenital system-specific enhancers). Remarkably, even the 625-kbp GATA-3 YAC, containing approximately 450 kbp and 150 kbp of 5' and 3' flanking sequences, respectively, does not contain the full transcriptional regulatory potential of the endogenous locus and is clearly missing regulatory elements that confer tissue-specific expression to GATA-3 in a subset of neural crest-derived cell lineages.

Bacteroides fragilis enterotoxin cleaves the zonula adherens protein, E-cadherin

Strains of Bacteroides fragilis associated with diarrheal disease (enterotoxigenic B. fragilis) produce a 20-kDa zinc-dependent metalloprotease toxin (B. fragilis enterotoxin; BFT) that reversibly stimulates chloride secretion and alters tight junctional function in polarized intestinal epithelial cells. BFT alters cellular morphology and physiology most potently and rapidly when placed on the basolateral membrane of epithelial cells, suggesting that the cellular substrate for BFT may be present on this membrane. Herein, we demonstrate that BFT specifically cleaves within 1 min the extracellular domain of the zonula adherens protein, E-cadherin. Cleavage of E-cadherin by BFT is ATP-independent and essential to the morphologic and physiologic activity of BFT. However, the morphologic changes occurring in response to BFT are dependent on target-cell ATP. E-cadherin is shown here to be a cellular substrate for a bacterial toxin and represents the identification of a mechanism of action, cell-surface proteolytic activity, for a bacterial toxin.

Rescue of the embryonic lethal hematopoietic defect reveals a critical role for GATA-2 in urogenital development

Mutations resulting in embryonic or early postnatal lethality could mask the activities of any gene in unrelated and temporally distinct developmental pathways. Targeted inactivation of the transcription factor GATA-2 gene leads to mid-gestational death as a consequence of hematopoietic failure. We show here that a 250 kbp GATA-2 yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) is expressed strongly in both the primitive and definitive hematopoietic compartments, while two smaller YACs are not. This largest YAC also rescues hematopoiesis in vitro and in vivo, thereby localizing the hematopoietic regulatory cis element(s) to between 100 and 150 kbp 5' to the GATA-2 structural gene. Introducing the YAC transgene into the GATA-2(-/-) genetic background allows the embryos to complete gestation; however, newborn rescued pups quickly succumb to lethal hydroureternephrosis, and display a complex array of genitourinary abnormalities. These findings reveal that GATA-2 plays equally vital roles in urogenital and hematopoietic development.

Individual LCR hypersensitive sites cooperate to generate an open chromatin domain spanning the human beta-globin locus

BACKGROUND

The human beta-globin locus control region (LCR) is composed of five DNase I hypersensitive (HS) sites located 5' to the multiple genes it regulates. The LCR has been shown to comprise, among other essential properties, an activity that is required for generating a chromatin structure which renders the entire beta-globin gene locus accessible to exogenous nucleases. This nuclease-sensitive state is generally believed to be reflective of the chromatin environment that is permissive for transcriptional activation of the globin genes.

RESULTS

Here we show, in mice bearing intact YAC transgenes that encompass the whole human beta-globin locus, that the deletion of individual core LCR HS sites negatively affects the ability of the LCR to confer this open chromatin conformation throughout the locus, and when analysed in concert with the effect that these same mutations have on transcription, the data show that the chromatin opening activity is a necessary, but not sufficient, prerequisite for globin gene expression. The results also show that after deletion of individual hypersensitive sites, the mutated LCR is no longer able to provide an accessible chromatin environment that is independent from the site of YAC transgene integration.

CONCLUSIONS

These experiments provide further evidence for the hypothesis that the HS sites must act cooperatively to fulfil the multiple functions that are attributable to the LCR.

Mammalian granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor expressed in primary avian hematopoietic progenitors: lineage-specific regulation of proliferation and differentiation

The cytokine Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) regulates proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis during myelopoiesis and erythropoiesis. Structure-function relationships of GM-CSF interactions with its receptor (GM-R), the biochemistry of GM-R signal transduction, and GM-CSF action in vivo are relatively well understood. Much less is known, however, about GM-R function in primary hematopoietic cells. In this paper we show that expression of the human GM-R in a heterologous cell system (primary avian erythroid and myeloid cells) confirms respective results in murine or human cell lines, but also provides new insights how the GM-R regulates progenitor proliferation and differentiation. As expected, the hGM-CSF stimulated myeloid progenitor proliferation and differentiation and enhanced erythroid progenitor proliferation during terminal differentiation. In the latter cells, however, the hGM-R only partially substituted for the activities of the erythropoietin receptor (EpoR). It failed to replace the EpoR in its cooperation with c-Kit to induce long-term proliferation of erythroid progenitors. Furthermore, the hGM-R alpha chain specifically interfered with EpoR signaling, an activity neither seen for the betac subunit of the receptor complex alone, nor for the alpha chain of the closely related Interleukin-3 receptor. These results point to a novel role of the GM-R alpha chain in defining cell type-specific functions of the GM-R.

Regulation and function of transcription factor GATA-1 during red blood cell differentiation

The tissue-specific transcription factor GATA-1 is a key regulator of red blood cell differentiation. One seemingly contradictory aspect of GATA-1 function is that, while it is abundant in erythroid progenitor cells prior to the onset of overt differentiation, it does not significantly activate known GATA-1 target genes in those cells. To investigate the mechanisms underlying GATA-1 function during the transition from early to late erythropoiesis, we have examined its expression and activity in normal avian erythroid progenitor cells before and after induction of differentiation. In these primary progenitor cells, GATA-1 protein was predominantly located in the cytoplasm, while induction of differentiation caused its rapid relocalization to the nucleus, suggesting that nuclear translocation constitutes an important regulatory step in GATA-1 activation. As an alternative way of addressing the same question, we also ectopically expressed a GATA-1/estrogen receptor fusion protein (GATA-1/ER) in red blood cell progenitors, where nuclear translocation of, and transcriptional activation by, this hybrid factor are conditionally controlled by estrogen. We found that hormone-activated GATA-1/ER protein accelerated red blood cell differentiation, and concomitantly suppressed cell proliferation. These phenotypic effects were accompanied by a simultaneous suppression of c-myb and GATA-2 transcription, two genes thought to be involved in the proliferative capacity of hematopoietic progenitor cells. Thus, GATA-1 appears to promote differentiation in committed erythroid progenitor cells both by inducing differentiation-specific genes and by simultaneously suppressing genes involved in cell proliferation.

Cysteine protease inhibitors block schistosome hemoglobin degradation in vitro and decrease worm burden and egg production in vivo

Schistosome parasites utilize hemoglobin as a major protein source for their metabolism. Degradation of hemoglobin has been hypothesized to be mediated by both cysteine and aspartyl proteases secreted into the lumen of the parasite intestine. We now show that two distinct types of irreversible cysteine protease-specific inhibitors both arrest schistosome hemoglobin degradation in vitro. Arrest of hemoglobin degradation is followed by death of developing schistosomula 1 week later. Schistosome infected mice treated by a dose of 2 mg inhibitor per day for 1 week early in infection, and 2 weeks at the time of egg production, showed a significant reduction in worm burden, hepatomegaly, and the number of eggs produced per female worm. Histopathology showed a minimal immune response to those eggs which were produced, consistent with a delay in egg production relative to untreated infections. By tagging the inhibitor with biotin, specific cysteine protease targets were identified in extracts of schistosome worms.

Synergistic regulation of human beta-globin gene switching by locus control region elements HS3 and HS4

Proper tissue- and developmental stage-specific transcriptional control over the five genes of the human beta-globin locus is elicited in part by the locus control region (LCR), but the molecular mechanisms that dictate this determined pattern of gene expression during human development are still controversial. By use of homologous recombination in yeast to generate mutations in the LCR within a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) bearing the entire human beta-globin gene locus, followed by injection of each of the mutated YACs into murine ova, we addressed the function of LCR hypersensitive site (HS) elements 3 and 4 in human beta-globin gene switching. The experiments revealed a number of unexpected properties that are directly attributable to LCR function. First, deletion of either HS3 or HS4 core elements from an otherwise intact YAC results in catastrophic disruption of globin gene expression at all erythroid developmental stages, despite the presence of all other HS elements in the YAC transgenes. If HS3 is used to replace HS4, gene expression is normal at all developmental stages. Conversely, insertion of the HS4 element in place of HS3 results in significant expression changes at every developmental stage, indicating that individual LCR HS elements play distinct roles in stage-specific beta-type globin gene activation. Although the HS4 duplication leads to alteration in the levels of epsilon- and gamma-globin mRNAs during embryonic erythropoiesis, total beta-type globin mRNA synthesis is balanced, thereby leading to the conclusion that all of the human beta-locus genes are competitively regulated. In summary, the human beta-globin HS elements appear to form a single, synergistic functional entity called the LCR, and HS3 and HS4 appear to be individually indispensable to the integrity of this macromolecular complex.