Survey of the present health & nutritional status of Shompen tribe of Great Nicobar Island

BACKGROUND OBJECTIVES

Shompens are one of the two mongoloid tribes of Nicobar district. There is little information about their recent health status since the last survey which was conducted in 1998. Hence, a comprehensive health and nutritional survey was conducted in March 2017 to assess the changes. The survey was carried out by a joint team of various organizations including the ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre and Tribal Welfare and Health Department both located in Port Blair.

METHODS

A detailed health and nutrition survey of the Shompen community was planned by deputing a field research team. The survey included demographic data, anthropometric data, clinical examination, screening for the markers of infectious diseases, respiratory pathogens, tuberculosis and haemoglobinopathies.

RESULTS

About half of the Shompen adults (both males and females) had a body mass index (BMI) of ≥23. However, Shompen children had a good nutritional status with no child suffering from undernutrition. As per BMI for age, none of the children <5 yr were under-nourished, while in the 5-17 yr group, 12 per cent of children were undernourished. Anaemia prevalence was about 48.3 per cent, with 54 per cent prevalence in females and 43.8 per cent in males. Fungal infection of the skin, acute respiratory infection and abdominal pain were the common morbidities observed. None had active pulmonary tuberculosis. Of 38 Shompens screened for IgG (immunoglobulin G) antibodies, 42.1 and 18.4 per cent were positive for measles and rubella, respectively. Seroprevalence of Leptospira was 35.5 per cent. The prevalence of hypertension was 13.2 per cent, whereas another 28.9 per cent were pre-hypertensive.

INTERPRETATION CONCLUSIONS

The population structure of the Shompen is not skewed and under nutrition was not widely prevalent among the children of <5 yr. The other positive observations were the absence of malaria, filariasis and dengue. However, there was natural infection of measles and rubella. Fungal skin infection and intestinal parasitic infestations were widely prevalent. Although cardiovascular risk profile was low, there were signs of emerging risk of over-weight, hypertension and dyslipidaemia. These together with the high prevalence of smokeless tobacco use may have a serious effect on the cardiovascular disease susceptibility of the Shompen population in the future.

Vitamin D2 from light-exposed edible mushrooms is safe, bioavailable and effectively supports bone growth in rats

Widespread poor vitamin D status, a health risk for bone disease, increases the need for new food sources of vitamin D. Light-exposed edible mushrooms synthesize vitamin D(2). Bioavailability, safety, and efficacy of high levels of vitamin D(2) from mushrooms to support bone health was established in chronically fed growing rats.

INTRODUCTION

Poor vitamin D status from reduced sun exposure is made worse by limited access to vitamin D-containing foods. Exposing white button mushrooms to ultraviolet B (UVB) light markedly increases their vitamin D(2) content, creating a new food source of vitamin D. We used a growing rat model to determine safety, bioavailability, and efficacy in support of bone growth by vitamin D(2) from UVB-exposed mushrooms.

METHODS

We fed 150 weanling female rats one of five diets for 10 weeks, all formulated on AIN-93 G. Control diets contained no mushrooms either with or without vitamin D(3). Other diets contained 2.5% and 5.0% of UVB-exposed or -unexposed mushrooms. Safety of the high levels of vitamin D(2) from mushrooms was assessed by animal growth and by Von Kossa staining for soft tissue calcification. Bioavailability was determined from changes in circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] and parathyroid hormone (PTH). Efficacy in support of bone growth was determined from measures of femur bending properties, size, mineralization, and microarchitecture.

RESULTS

Diets containing 2.5% and 5.0% light-exposed mushrooms significantly raised 25(OH)D and suppressed PTH levels compared to control-fed rats or rats fed 5.0% mushroom unexposed to light. Microarchitecture and trabecular mineralization were only modestly higher in the light-treated mushroom-fed rats compared to the controls. Von Kossa staining revealed no soft tissue calcification despite very high plasma 25(OH)D.

CONCLUSIONS

Vitamin D(2) from UVB-exposed mushrooms is bioavailable, safe, and functional in supporting bone growth and mineralization in a growing rat model without evidence of toxicity.

Effects of direct-fed microbials on growth performance, gut morphometry, and immune characteristics in broiler chickens

This study was conducted to compare growth performance, gut morphometry, and parameters of local and systemic immunity in broiler chickens fed for 22 consecutive days with a diet supplemented with Bacillus spp. as direct-fed microbials (DFM), a commercial product incorporating 3 DFM, or a nonsupplemented diet. Direct-fed microbials did not significantly modify BW gain and most failed to affect serum antibody levels in response to immunization with a recombinant Eimeria protein. However, altered intestinal morphometric measurements were readily apparent in DFM-fed chickens as revealed by increased villus height and crypt depth compared with non-DFM-fed controls. In addition, serum levels of alpha-1-acid glycoprotein as an inflammatory marker were reduced in DFM-fed birds, whereas splenic lymphocyte proliferation, intestine intraepithelial lymphocyte subpopulations, and cytokine mRNA levels in intraepithelial lymphocytes were increased, decreased, or unchanged compared with controls depending on the DFM used. These results provide a rational scientific basis for future studies to investigate DFM as immunomodulating agents to enhance host protective immunity against enteric pathogens in broiler chickens.

Cell-mediated immune responses to a killed Salmonella enteritidis vaccine: lymphocyte proliferation, T-cell changes and interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-1, IL-2, and IFN-gamma production

Two experimental approaches were used to investigate the immunological responses of chickens to a commercial killed Salmonella enteritidis (SE) vaccine. In the first, the effects of host age on antigen-specific proliferative responses and cytokine production were examined. Compared with non-vaccinated controls, 4-wk-old vaccinated chickens showed higher proliferation to SE LPS and flagella. The lymphoproliferation responses to these antigens of 8-mo-old vaccinated chickens were not different compared to the non-vaccinated controls. Increased production of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-2 (IL-2) by antigen-stimulated splenocytes following vaccination were, in general, more often observed in 4-wk-old compared with 8-mo-old chickens, whereas serum levels of these cytokines were consistently higher in the vaccinated birds compared with controls regardless of age. The second set of experiments were designed to determine the effects of SE vaccination on mitogen- or antigen-induced splenocyte proliferation and serum nitric oxide (NO) and cytokine levels. Splenocytes from vaccinated chickens stimulated with SE flagella showed significantly increased numbers of TCRgammadelta+ cells at 7 days post-vaccination compared with non-vaccinated birds. In contrast, no differences were noted with CD4+, CD8+, or TCRalphabeta+ cells at any time points examined. Higher levels of NO production were observed following stimulation with SE flagella at 4, 7, 11, and 14 days after SE vaccination while serum levels of IFN-gamma, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8 were elevated only at day 7 post-vaccination. In conclusion, younger chickens mounted a more robust antigen-specific immune response to the SE vaccine compared with older birds and vaccination induced not only T-cell-mediated responses but also host innate and pro-inflammatory responses.

Flaxseed increased alpha-linolenic and eicosapentaenoic acid and decreased arachidonic acid in serum and tissues of rat dams and offspring

The effects of dietary flaxseed (FS), and defatted flaxseed meal (FLM) on serum and tissue fatty acid profiles were investigated. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were fed AIN-93 based diets balanced in calories, fat, nitrogen, and fiber. Diets contained 0, 20%, 40% FS or 13% or 26% FLM by weight. The control, FS and FLM diets differed in linoleic acid to alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) fatty acid ratio. These diets were fed continuously during gestation, suckling period and 8 weeks post-weaning (F(1)). FS fatty acids were bioavailable and metabolized by pregnant and F(1) rats. ALA and eicosapentaenoic acid increased; linoleic and arachidonic acid decreased; and docosahexaeonic acid was unchanged in serum, 'gastric milk' and liver of FS and FLM-fed pregnant and F(1) rats. FS more than FLM, changed fatty acids profiles, but FLM and 40% FS significantly reduced serum cholesterol. Dietary 40% FS may have increased oxidative stress as evidenced by a reduction in liver vitamin E.

Developmental effects of serum from flaxseed-fed rats on cultured rat embryos

Gestation day 9.5 rat embryos were cultured for 45 h in serum obtained from pregnant rats that had been fed throughout gestation with either a control diet (based on the AIN-93 formulation), a diet supplemented with flaxseed (20% or 40%, w/w), or a diet supplemented with de-fatted flaxseed ("flaxseed meal", 13 or 26%, w/w). The embryos were fixed in neutral formalin at the end of culture. Overall growth and development was assessed, and the presence of abnormalities was noted. A significant inhibition of growth (as determined by crown-rump length) relative to control was observed in embryos cultured in serum from rats fed the 20% flaxseed diet. The incidence of spontaneous heart inversions was increased significantly in the embryos cultured in serum from the 20% flaxseed and 26% flaxseed meal fed rats. The incidence of flexion defects was increased significantly in embryos cultured in serum from 20% flaxseed-fed rats. The lack of an apparent dose response in any of the statistically significant effects suggests that the observed anomalies were chance occurrences unrelated to the treatment group from which serum was obtained. It is therefore concluded that diets high in flaxseed or flaxseed meal do not result in serum factors that are directly embryotoxic to organogenesis-staged rat embryos. This finding is consistent with the findings of a parallel in vivo rat teratology study where no significant embryotoxicity attributable to flaxseed exposure was observed.

Impact of high flaxseed diet on mitogen-induced proliferation, IL-2 production, cell subsets and fatty acid composition of spleen cells from pregnant and F1 generation Sprague-Dawley rats

Flaxseed (FS) being rich in alpha-linolenic acid may alter the immune parameters. Therefore, we assessed the impact of FS and defatted flaxseed meal (FLM) on fatty acid composition, cell subsets, proliferation and IL-2 production by splenic lymphocytes. Pregnant female Sprague-Dawley rats were fed diets containing 0% FS and FLM, 20 or 40% FS, 13 or 26% FLM during gestation or gestation, lactation and 8 week post-weaning period. FS and FLM resulted in up to 8.3 fold and 4.6 fold increase in splenic ALA among pregnant rats, 4.5 fold and 1.2 fold increase in splenic ALA among F(1) generation rats. Splenic linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (AA) were 18 and 40% lower in 40% FS fed pregnant rats, and AA was 15% lower in all the other groups. Among F(1) rats, splenic LA and AA were 16 and 48% lower in 40% FS group, and AA was 18% lower in 20% FS and 26% FLM groups. Concanavalin A and phytohemagglutinin mediated proliferation of spleen cells were 60 and 52% lower in 40% FS fed pregnant and F(1) generation rats, respectively. No significant changes were observed in the cell subsets or IL-2 production by splenic cells from different groups.

Molecular, cellular, and functional characterization of chicken cytokines homologous to mammalian IL-15 and IL-2

DNA sequence analysis of a chicken interleukin (IL)-15 cDNA identified a 187 amino acid open reading frame encoding a protein with a predicted molecular weight of 21,964Da, two potential N-linked glycosylation sites, four highly conserved Cys residues, two out-of-frame AUG initiation codons in the 5' untranslated region, and an unusually long (66 amino acid) signal peptide such that the expected size of the mature protein is 14,462Da. Chicken IL-15 and IL-2 were compared with regard to their molecular, cellular, and functional characteristics. The predicted amino acid sequences of both chicken cytokines showed greater homologies with mammalian IL-15s compared with mammalian IL-2s. Northern hybridization and RT-PCR demonstrated chicken IL-15 gene transcripts in a wide variety of tissues and cell types while the chicken IL-2 gene was expressed only in concanavalin A (con A)-activated spleen cells. Both recombinant cytokines stimulated the growth of spleen T-cells and enhanced the activity of natural killer (NK) cells in vitro. Subcutaneous injection with an expression plasmid encoding IL-15 increased the percentage of CD3+ spleen T-lymphocytes whereas injection of an IL-2 cDNA augmented CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, T-cell receptor (TCR)1+, and TCR2+ T-cells. Collectively, these results indicate that chicken IL-15 and IL-2 are T-cell growth factors potentially capable of enhancing cell-mediated immunity in vivo.

Effect of long-chain fatty acids in the culture medium on fatty acid composition of WEHI-3 and J774A.1 cells

As a first step in determining the mechanism of action of specific fatty acids on immunological function of macrophages, a comparative study of the effect of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the medium was conducted in two macrophage cell lines, J774A.1 and WEHI-3. The baseline fatty-acid profiles of the two cell lines differed in the % distribution of saturated (SFA) and unsaturated fatty acids (UFA). J774A.1 cells had a higher % of SFA (primarily palmitic acid) than WEHI-3 cells. Conversely, WEHI-3 cells had a higher % of UFA (primarily oleic acid) than J774A.1 cells. Neither cell line had detectable amounts of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) or eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). The most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acid in both cells lines was arachidonic acid (AA). The efficiency of transport of fatty acids from the medium to the macrophages by two delivery vehicles (BSA complexes and ethanolic suspensions) was compared. Overall, fatty acids were transported satisfactorily by both delivery systems. Alpha-linolenic acid and doscosahexenoic acid (DHA) were transported more efficiently by the ethanolic suspension system. Linoleic acid (LA) was taken up more completely than ALA, and DHA was taken up more completely than EPA by both cell cultures and delivery systems. A dose-response effect was demonstrated for LA, ALA, EPA and DHA in both J774A.1 and WEHI-3 cells. Addition of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) to the cell cultures modified the total lipid fatty acid composition of the cells. The presence of ALA in the culture medium resulted in a significant decrease in AA in both cell lines. The omega-3/omega-6 fatty acid ratio (omega-3/omega-6), polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio (P/S), and unsaturation index (UI) increased directly with the amount of PUFA and omega-3 fatty acid provided in the medium. The results indicate that the macrophage cell lines have similar, but not identical, fatty acid profiles that may be the result of differences in fatty acid metabolism. These distinctions could in turn produce differences in immunological function. The ethanol fatty-acid delivery system, when compared with the fatty acid-BSA complex system, is preferable for measurement of dose-response effects, because the cellular fatty acid content increased in proportion to the amount of fatty acid provided in the medium. Similar dose-response results were observed in a previous in vivo study using flaxseed, rich in ALA, as a source of PUFA.

Testing the potential of flaxseed to affect spermatogenesis: morphometry

Quantitative information was collected on male reproductive effects of maternal and postnatal dietary exposure to flaxseed (20 or 40%), flaxmeal (13 or 26%) or standard NIH AIN-93 feed (0% flaxseed control). Measurements were made on the testes of F1 generation males rats (1) whose mothers were exposed to the diets designated above, and (2) who, after weaning, were placed on the same diet as their mothers for an additional 70 days. The seminiferous tubules comprised 86%, 84%, 84%, 84% and 85% of the total testis volume while the interstitial space comprised 12%, 14%, 14%, 14%, 13% of the total testis volume for the 0% flaxseed/flaxmeal, 20% flaxseed, 13% flaxmeal, 40% flaxseed and 26% flaxmeal groups, respectively. Statistically significant decreases in the absolute volume of the seminiferous tubules were observed in the 20% and 40% flaxseed-treated groups when these groups were compared to controls. Borderline statistically significant differences were also observed when Sertoli cell nucleolar number per tubular cross-section were compared in the 13% flaxmeal and 20% flaxseed treatment groups. These effects were not considered biologically significant because other parameters of male reproductive function appeared normal. Overall, the quantitative information obtained suggests that exposure to flaxseed/flaxmeal at the doses used in the present study does not adversely affect testis structure or spermatogenesis in the rat.

The effect of maternal exposure to flaxseed on spermatogenesis in F(1) generation rats

Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to a flaxseed (20 or 40%), flaxmeal (13 or 26%) or standard NIH AIN-93 (0% flaxseed control) diet throughout gestation and until their offspring were weaned. After weaning, F(1) generation males were placed in the same diet treatment groups as their mothers for 70 days. Statistically significant differences were not observed between either low-dose or high-dose flaxseed and flaxmeal-treated animals and the 0% flaxseed control animals for testis weights, homogenization resistant spermatid counts, daily sperm production rates, epididymal weights, seminal vesicle weights, seminiferous tubule fluid testosterone concentrations and the percentage of sperm abnormalities. The following statistically significant differences were observed when treated groups and the 0% flaxseed control groups were compared: (1) increases in serum LH in the 20% and 40% flaxseed treatment groups and in serum LH and testosterone in the 26% flaxmeal treatment group; (2) increases in the cauda epididymal weight from the 20% and 40% flaxseed groups; (3) increases in cauda epididymal sperm numbers/g epididymis from the 20% and 40% flaxseed and the 13% and 26% flaxmeal treatment groups; (4) a decrease in prostatic weight from the 20% flaxseed and 13% and 26% flaxmeal treatment groups. Prostate weight in the 40% flaxseed treatment group was lower but not statistically significantly different than the 0% flaxseed control group. Histological effects on spermatogenesis were not observed in either the control group, flaxmeal or the flaxseed treated groups.

Nutritional and hematological impact of dietary flaxseed and defatted flaxseed meal in rats

An 8-week study was conducted to determine the impact of dietary ground flaxseed (FS) or defatted flaxseed meal (FLM) on plasma lipids, minerals, hematological parameters and vitamin E status of weanling female Sprague-Dawley rats. These rats were fed isocaloric modified AIN-76 diets supplemented with 0.0, 5.0, 10.0% (w/w) FS or 6.2% (w/w) FLM for 56 days. Total and HDL cholesterol were not influenced by any of the dietary treatments. Plasma triglyceride was significantly increased by FLM, but not affected by FS. Total RBC counts and hematocrit were significantly higher in FS groups than in the control group; however, hemoglobin was not affected by FS. Dietary FLM had no effect on any of the above hematological parameters. Plasma alkaline phosphatase, an indicator of Zn status and a marker of bone formation, was significantly lower in the FS and FLM groups than in the control group. Plasma vitamin E content was not influenced by dietary treatment. Liver vitamin E was significantly higher in groups fed 10% FS and 6.2% FLM. In summary, moderate amounts of dietary FS may have the potential to increase liver vitamin E level and improve iron status. However, FS/FLM consumption may have a negative effect on zinc status, as indicated by decreased alkaline phosphatase levels.

Effect of dietary rosemary extract on cell-mediated immunity of young rats

The impact of rosemary extract on splenic mononuclear cell proliferation was determined. Weanling male Sprague-Dawley rats were fed diets containing 0, 100, 200 or 400 ppm rosemary extract or 400 ppm butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) in combination with 10 or 20% casein enriched diets for 8 weeks. Splenic mononuclear cells were isolated from these animals and mitogenic response to Concanavalin A (Con A), Phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and lipopolysaccharide was determined. Con A and PHA-stimulated proliferation of spleen cells from rats fed 10% casein and 200 ppm rosemary extract was significantly higher than that of cells from the corresponding control animals. However, other levels of rosemary at 10% dietary casein or rosemary at any concentration fed along with 20% dietary casein had no impact on the mitogenic stimulation of splenic mononuclear cells. Thus, these results suggest that the use of rosemary might not have a generalized immunoenhancing effect, and will probably be effective in some stressed conditions, such as protein or antioxidant deficiency.

Effect of dietary flaxseed on fatty acid composition, superoxide, nitric oxide generation and antilisterial activity of peritoneal macrophages from female Sprague-Dawley rats

The impact of ground flaxseed (FS) or flaxseed meal (FSM) diets on the fatty acid composition and functions of rat peritoneal exudate cells (PEC) was determined. Female weanling Sprague-Dawley rats (10/group) were fed isocaloric AIN-76 diets supplemented with 0.0, 10.0% (w/w) FS or 6.2% (w/w) FSM. At the end of 56-days, rat serum and thioglycollate-elicited PEC were analyzed for total lipid fatty acids. Production of nitric oxide (NO) and superoxide (O2-), Listeria monocytogenes (LM) phagocytic index and antilisterial activity of resident PEC were also assessed. A significant increase in alpha-linolenic (C18:3), eicosapentanoic (C20:5) and docosahexanoic (C22:6) acids, as well as a significant reduction in arachidonic acid (C20:4) was observed in the serum of rats fed 10% FS. Dietary FS caused a significant reduction in palmitic acid (C16:0) and an increase in stearic acid (C18:0) of PEC. Defatted FSM produced a significant increase in long chain fatty acids, which included eicosadienoic acid (C20:2) in PEC and C22:6 in serum. PEC from rats fed 10.0% FS produced significantly less (about 50%) O2- in response to phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), than did PEC from control animals; dietary treatment had no effect on O2- in response to LM. FSM had no impact on the O2- production by PEC in response to PMA or LM. Antilisterial activity of PEC was determined by comparing bacterial uptake after 1 hr with recovery 24 hrs later. Despite comparably equivalent bacterial uptake, few viable intracellular LM were recovered at T = 24 for all test samples, indicating that, regardless of the dietary treatment, PEC were able to handle the in vitro LM infection. This bacterial clearance was accompanied by equivalent NO generation by PEC from each dietary group in response to LM. Summarily, dietary FS produced significant changes in fatty acid composition of serum and PEC, inhibited O2- generation by PEC, and was ineffectual to both NO production by and antilisterial activity of PEC.